
(lass L) 2. b 



Book .( x5 



1886 




THE SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD. 

1— Lighthouse on the Island of Pharos, Alexandria. 4— The Temple of Diana at Ephesus. 

a— Statue of the Olympian Jupiter. 5— The Mausoleum of Artemisia. 

3— The Colossus at Rhodes. 6— The Pyramids of Egypt. 

7— The Walls and Hanging Gardens of Babylon. 



THE WORLD: 

HISTORICAL AND ACTUAL 

WHAT HAS BEEN AND WHAT IS. 

OUR GLOBE IN ITS RELATIONS TO OTHER WORLDS, AND BEFORE MAN. 

Ancient Nations in the Order of their Antiquity, 
the middle ages and their darkness. 



THE PRESENT PEOPLES OF THE EARTH IN THEIR GRADUAL EMERGENCE FROM BAR- 
BARISM INTO THE SUNLIGHT OF TO-DAY, AND AS THEY NOW STAND 
UPON THE PLANE OF CIVILIZATION. 

TOGETHER WITH 

USEFUL AND INSTRUCTIVE CHARTS, REFERENCE TABLES OF HISTORY, FINANCE. 
COMMERCE AND LITERATURE FROM B. C. 1500, TO THE PRESENT TIME. 



^ 



numerous Elegaut Jllustratious. 



NEW AND REVISED EDITION BY 

FRANK GILBERT, A. M. 

Late Assistant Treasurer XT. S. at Chicago and Associate Editor of the Chicago Tribune; 
Author of The Manual of American Literature. 



CHICAGO, ILL.: 
FAIRBANKS & PALMER PUBLISHING CO 




X 









"3 V 






COPYRIGHTED BY FAIRBANKS, PALMER & CO. 
1882. 



COPYRIGHTED BY FAIRBANKS & PALMER PUBLISHING CO. 



All Rights Reserved. 



.1. 






RESFIAiClE 








HIS age is at once busy 
and inquiring. The peo- 
ple have more thirst for 
knowledge than time to 
devote to its acquisition, 
and of that little, much 
must be given to the cur- 
rent topics of the clay as presented 
in the newspapers. The aim of 
The World is to meet the demand 
of this large class of the public 
for a volume which shall be ency- 
clopedic in its range of informa- 
tion, yet so written as to be an un- 
broken account of man's progress 
in the past and condition in the 
present. 

Each chapter forms an essay 
substantially complete in itself upon the subject an- 
nounced in the heading. It is also a link in a chain 
of intelligence which encircles the globe and binds 
in a grand unity all the known ages. This method, 
adopted with grave apprehension of its feasibility, 
was found to be natural and easy to follow. 

Preliminary to the history and introductory to 
the body of the work are presented such scientific 
facts in regard to the heavens above and the earth 
beneath as were deemed necessary to an intelligent 
understanding of man's environment. No attempt 
has been made to give instruction in the sciences, 
beyond the accomplishment of this object. Modern 
scholarship lias disclosed in dim outline the illimit- 
able field of prehistoric humanity, and a faint 
glimpse of that vast field is also afforded for the 
same introductory purpose. 



It will be observed that each country or people is 
presented in the order of its emergence from obscur- 
ity and followed in its development until the present 
time. Into the ocean of the Actual debouch the 
numberless streams of the Historical, from the Nile 
of Egypt to the Amazon of America. Care has 
been taken to give to each the relative prominence 
to which it is entitled by its real weight and influence 
in the scale of civilization. Separate facts, too, have 
been treated upon the same principle. There is wide 
latitude for honest and intelligent difference of opin- 
ion as to the importance of almost every event, and 
no two estimates would agree entirely upon details. 

Every subject which seemed to require pictorial 
representation to render it more intelligible and in- 
teresting has been illustrated. These illustrations 
are believed to add very materially to the intrinsic 
value, as well as the attractiveness of the volume. 
There are many subjects which cannot be fully pre- 
sented unless " the art preservative of art," as print- 
ing has been called, is supplemented and rounded 
out by the engraver's art. 

Of course in a volume covering a field so vast, 
many things which are in themselves highly import- 
ant must be passed over in silence or mentioned only 
briefly ; but the endeavor has been to avoid the 
omission of anything necessary to the general 
plan of the book, as set forth upon the title-page. 

In the verification of facts the author of a work 
which is telescopic rather than microscopic, cannot 
make original research, and often there is a wide di- 
vergence in the statements made by standard author- 
ities. In this book no statement will be found for 
which good authority could not be adduced, and in 
many cases (more especially in the statistical part) 



(iii) 



.\ 



IV 



PREFACE. 



oreat efEort has been made to determine the relative 
weight of testimony and conform thereto. 

In the preparation of this volume it has been 
assumed that the reader is far more interested in 
American history than in foreign history ; in mod- 
ern times than in antiquity. If the space devoted 
to art, for instance, in the United States is small, as 
compared with that given to the art of some other 
countries, while American industry is given especial 
prominence, the reason is that, much as might be 
said in praise of art in the United States, it is unde- 
niable that the typical American is an artisan rather 
than an artist, and his hands are more skillful in 
the use of tools and implements of industry than 
the brush and chisel of art. 

The earliest nation of which we know anything, 
Egypt, seems to have been mainly anxious to pre- 
serve the body after death ; the greatest of all 
nations in actual attainments, England, has devel- 
oped what might be called factory mechanism, — 
machinery which enabled the English to convert 
raw material into merchandise on terms to defy the 
competition of the world. America has wrought 
much in the English line, but the distinctive pecu- 
liarity of the United States is care for the number- 
less comforts and conveniences of life. In a 
word, it seems to be the mission of American 
industry and ingenuity to lighten the labors and 
enhance the happiness of the toiling masses of 
mankind. The truth of these observations is obvi- 
ous, and it only remains to say that throughout the 
volume the aim has been to bring out in due promi- 
• nence the distinctive characteristics of each people 
<>r period. 



It will be observed that the reading matter has 
been re-inforced by copious statistics, selected and 
arranged with reference to the general scope of 
The World, constituting • a compend of leading 
facts, relating to the past aud to the present nations 
of our globe. These tables, based on the latest 
attainable information, aim to make the book 
available for the purpose of reference, especially in 
connection with the index, and will meet, it is hoped, 
a want now felt by speakers, writers, professional 
and business men and others, whose limited time 
will not permit their consulting exhaustive treatises, 
but wlio demand that the salient points shall be so 
arranged as to be easily found just when desired. 
Bv the joint aid of the table of reference and the 
index, it is entirely feasible to almost instantaneously 
secure the information desired. The table of con- 
tents is designed to be a complete and ready guide 
to the reader in selecting topics about which to 
read, for the book is equally adapted to continuous 
and occasional reading. 

The author is under great obligations to " Gas- 
kell's Compendium of Forms," and such eminent 
statisticians as Mulhall, Nicliol and Walker, for 
tabular matter, also to L. T. Palmer, Prof. W. P. 
Jones and Hon. C. E. Jones, for aid in the chap- 
ters on China and Australia. Throughout, Hay- 
dn's Dictionary of Dates has been the authority 
on dates, and The Statesman's Manual on current 
statistics of foreign countries. 

It only remains to add that one more needed labor 
will have been performed if this book shall satisfac- 
torily fill the niche in the library and the place in 
the family-circle for which it was designed. 



■•■mm, &m&s 





THE CHILDREN OF THE SUN 

II. 

THE EARTH WITHOUT MAN 

III. 

PREHISTORIC MAN 

IV. 

THE MOST ANCIENT EGYPT 



EGYPT AT ITS BEST 



THE DECLINE OF EGYPT 



V. 
VI. 
VII. 



EGYPT AND THE GLORY OF ALEXANDRIA 



EGYPT AS IT IS 



VIII. 



IX. 



ETHIOPIA AND THE PHOENICIANS 

X. 

THE JEWS 

XI. 

HEBREW LITERATURE AND SECTS 

XII. 

ASSYRIA AND SYRIA 

XIII. 

PERSIA, PARTHIA AND THE ZEND AVI'STA 

XIV. 

GREECE AND HERO WORSHIP 

XV. 

HISTORIC WARS OF GREECE 

XVI. 

STATE CRAFT IN GREECE . 

XVII. 
GREEK CLASSIC LITERATURE 

XVIII. 
GREEK PHILOSOPHY' AND AET 

XIX. 

GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY 

XX. 

THE WORLD OF THE ANCIENTS . 



PAGK 

25 



86 



103 



XXI. 
MODERN GREECE AND THE GREEK CHURCH 

XXII. 

ANCIENT ITALY AND PRIMITIVE ROME 

XXIII. 

SEMI-HISTORIC ROME .... 



XXIV. 

HOME AND CARTHAGE .... 

XXV. 

LAST CENTURY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC . 

XXVI. 

OiESAR AND THE EMPIRE .... 

XXVII. 

LATIN* CLASSICS .... 

XXVIII 

THR EMPERORS FROM AUGUSTUS TO ALARIC 

XXIX. 

PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANITY .... 

XXX. 

THE PAPACY AND MODERN CHRISTL'iNITY" . 

XXXI. 
ITALY AND THE ITALIANS .... 

XXXII. 

THE DARK AGES ... 

XXXIII. 

THE SARACEN EMPIRE 

XXXIV 

THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE . . . . 

XXXV. 

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE (TURKEY) 

XXXVI. 

RUSSIA 

XXXVIL 

POLAND AND THE POLES . . . . 

XXXVIII. 

MEDIEVAL GERMANY . 

XXXIX. 

GERMANY AND THE REFORMATION 

XL. 
NEW GERMANY 



PAGE 
129 

•33 
■38 



I48 



T 



(v) 



VI 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



XLI. 
INTELLECTUAL GERMANY .... 

XLII. 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 

XLIII. 

BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS 

XLIV. 
OLD FRANCE 

XLV. 
TRIUMPH AND DECAY OP FRENCH MONARCHY 

XLVI. 

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION . 

xlvii. 

NAPOLEON AND HIS CAMPAIGNS . 

XLVII1. 
LATTER-DAY FRANCE .... 

XLIX. 
CELTIC, GOTHIC, AND MOORISH SPAIN . 

L. 
FERDINAND AND ISABELLA . 

LI. 

CATHOLIC SPAIN 

LIE. 

PORTUGAL AND THE PORTUGUESE 

LIU. 

THE SCANDINAVIANS .... 

LIV. 
SWITZERLAND AND LESSER EUROPE . 

LV. 
OLD ENGLAND ..... 

LVI. 
OLD ENGLAND AND THE PLANTAGENETS 

LVI I. 
MODERN ENGLAND AND THE PLANTAGENETS 



LANCASTER AND YORK 



LVIII. 



LIX. 



THE TUDORS 



LX. 



THE STUARTS AND THE COMMONWEALTH 
LXI. 

PRESENT ENGLAND .... 

LXI I. 

LITERATURE OF ENGLAND . 

LXII1, 

SCOTLAND AND THE SCOTCH 

LXIV. 
IRELAND AND THE IRISH 

LXV. 

THE DOMINION OF CANADA . 



PAGE 

242 



33 = 

339 



36: 
367 
375 
383 
387 



BRITISH INDIA 



LXVI. 

lxvii. 

AUSTRALASIA 

LXVIII. 

JAPAN AND THE JAPANESE 

LXIX. 

THE CHINESE EMPIRE .... 

LXX. 

THE CHINESE 

LXXI. 

MINOR ASIA AND AFRICA .... 

LXXII. 

MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS 

LXXIII. 

SOUTH AMERICA 

LXX IV. 

CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE ISLES OF THE SEA 

LXXV. 

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS 

LXXVI. 
EARLY COLONIAL UNITED STATES 

LXXVII. 

COLONIAL GROWTH AND OUTGROWTH 

LXXVIII. 
INDEPENDENCE AND UNION 

LXXIX. 

THE YOUNG REPUBLIC 

LXXX. 

THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE 

LXXXI. 

THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT . 

LXXXII. 

RISE AND FALL OF THE CONFEDERACY 

r, xxxiii. 

THE PRESENT UNITED STATES 

I.XXXIV. 

GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES 

LXXXV 

PRESIDENTS AND PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS 

I. XXXVI. 
STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES 

LXXXVII. 

AMERICAN INVENTIONS AND INVENTORS 

LXXXVIII. 

AMERICAN INDUSTRY AND ART .... 

LXXXIX. 
AMERICAN LITERATURE 

xc. 

TABLES OF REFERENCE 



PAGE 
4°0 



46. 



467 



485 



564 



5&O 



1^ 




624 



638 



65O 



- — 4t. 




VI 1 



PAGE. 1 

Abbas, Khedive of Egypt 60 | 

Abdul Hainid II 20$ 

Abelardand Heloise ...193. 2 °3 

Abica of Tyre 67 

Aborigines of Germany 242 

Abraham 6S 

Abu-Bekr Succeeds Mahommed 198 

The Saracen Empire under 198 

Re-arranges the Koran 197 

Abyssinia, or Modern Ethiopia 66 

Population and Area. 66 

Acadia and the Acadians 395 

Academies in France 270 

Achaean League, The 107 

Achilles 9 2 

Acropolis at Athens, The 117 

Actium, The Battle of 157 

Adams, John 51S, 5S0 

Adams, John Quincy <J2-S, 5S3 

Addison, Joseph 379 

Adelaide 417 

Adler on the Jews So 

Adolphus, Gustavus 233 

Adrian I, Pope 1S0 

Adrianople 202 

Adrianopolitan Period 206 

Adullum.The Cave of 135 

jEtolian League, The 107 

^Escbylus 1 10 

^Esop and his Fables no 

^Eneas of Virgil 161 

^Eneas in Latium 135 

^Eneid of Virgil, The ibi 

Afghanistan 455 

Africa, Minor Asia and 453 

Ancient Libya 456 

Explorations in 456 

Agamemnon and Iphigenia 02 

Agassiz Louis 644 

Age of Fable, the Golden 40 

Fables, Poland's 2 iS 

The Stone and Bronze 42 

of the Mammoth, The 40 

of the Mastodon, The 40 

The Augustan 159 

of the Antonines 16S 

of Poetry, the Silver and Golden 161 

The Apostolic 176 

of the Bishops 17S 

of the Popes 17S 

The Medieval 17S 

The Dark 1S9 

of Chivalry 190 



PAGE. 

Agnosticism of Alexandria 57 

Agincouit, Battle of 351 

Agrarian Laws 139 

Agrarianism, Primitive 136 

Agricola and Britain 333 

Agrippa, Menenius '39 

Agripina 166 

Ahaz 84 

A ix la Chapelle, Peace of. 310 

Alabama 59 2 

Alabama Claims 564 

Alaric. The Goth 171 

The Emperors from Augustus to 165 

Sacks Rome 17 1 

Alaska 593 

Alba Longa 135 

Albert I., Emperor of Germany 250 

Albert II., Emperor of Germany 250 

Albert V., of Austria 250 

becomes Albert II. of Germany 250 

Albert, Prince of Wales 368 

Albigenses, The, a Protestant Sect 1S1 

Alembert,D' 271 

Alexander The Great 53, 55, 101 

Alexander Severus 168 

Alexander 1 213, 227 

Alexander II ■ 215 

Alexander III ..216 

Alexandria, Glory of. 55 

Commerce of 56 

Museum at 56 

Public Library 57 

Theological Warfare at 58 

Alexandrian Philosophy 57 

Christianity ..58 

Alexis, Emperor of Byzantine 202 

Alfonso XII 313 

Alfonso V 315 

Alfonso 1 315 

Alfred The Great 33**375 

Algeria 457 

Algerine Piracy 521 

Alhambra of Granada 2yS 

Ali Mehemet, the Saracen 19S 

Allen, Ethan 505 

Alliance, The Holy 213 

Alps, The 326 

Alsace — Lorraine 240, 291 

Amadeus, Victor 1 S6 

Amadeus ■ ••3 I 3 

Amanothph II ... 49 

Amanothph III 50 

Amazons, Theseus battles with the 92 



PAGE. 

Amendments to the Constitution 569 

American Indians 4S5 

Literature 63S 

Inventions and Inventors 622 

Industries 629 

Ammon, The God 56 

Alexander's Sonship to 56 

Amphictvonic League, The 107 

Amru, The Saracen in Egypt 5S 

Amsterdam 356 

Amurath, The Sultan 202 

Anatomy — Born at Alexandria 57 

Anabaptists 232 

Anam, or Cochin China 453 

Anamese Literature 453 

Ancient Egypt, The Most 44 

Italy, and primitive Rome ..133 

Ancients, The World of the 125 

Andersen, Hans 322 

Anderson, Maj. Robert 530, 550 

Andersonville Prison 542 

Andorra 329 

Andre, Major 513 

Andrew of Hungary 192 

Andronicus ' 202 

Angevine Dynasty 359 

Anglo- Saxons in England 334 

Anne, Queen $66 

Animal Kingdom, The 39 

Antietam, Battle of. 537 

Antilles, The 479 

Antioch S5 

Antiochus Epiphanes 71, S5 

Antony, Mark 156 

in Egypt 157 

Antonius, T. Aurelius 16S 

Antonines, The Age of the .16S 

Apostolic Age, The... 176 

Appomattox, Surrender at 546 

Appius, Claudius 139 

and Virginia 140 

Apollo, The Colossus 125 

Arab Sliiek, an 6S 

Arabs and the Saracen 197 

Arabia and the Arabs 455 

Aradnus 66 

Aragon and Castile 299 

Arbela, Defeat of Darius 101 

Arcadian League, The 107 

Archaeological Discoveries S3 

Archimedes 126 

Architecture of the Greeks ilS 

of Corinth 13° 






INDEX. 



A 



PAGE. 

Architecture in China 449 

in Germany. . 2-7 

in France 269 

Area of Civilization 3 s 

of Egypt 59 

of Persia S9 

of Present Italy 1S4 

of the Byzantine Empire 201 

of Turkey 209 

of Siberia 216 

of Poland 217 

of Prussia 241 

of Germany 241 

of Austria 240 

of Hungary 250 

of Bosnia 254 

of Belgium 255 

of the Netherlands 256 

of Portugal 315 

of Norway 322 

of Sweden 323 

of Canada 394 

of Australasia 411 

of the United States 570 

Argentine Republic 468 

Aristides 99 

Aristophanes 1 1 1 

Aristotle 115 

Arius, The Presbyter 5S 

Arizona 594 

Arkansas 593 

Ark wright, Sir Richard 624 

Armada Destroyed, The Spanish 307 

Arnold, Benedict 56s, 513. 5M 

Arnold of Brescia 1S1 

Arpad Dynasty of Hungary, The 250 

Artemisia, Widow of Mansolus 12c, 

Art and Achievements, Titanic 48 

of Ethiopia 65 

of Phoenicia .67 

Greek Philosophy, and 114 

Etruscan 141 

Byzantine 205 

Flemish and Dutch 259 

in Spa n 313 

American 637 

Articles of Confederation 512 

Arthur, Chester A 569, 5S6 

Arya 127 

Aryan Race, The SS, 128, 400 

Ascanius 135 

Asia and Africa, Minor 45 \ 

Assassination of Lincoln 5^6 

of Garfield 569 

Assembly, National 275 

The Legislative 876 

Asser 375 

Asshur Si 

Assyria 81 

Assyrian Antiquity ^1 

Ninus and Semiramis 81 

Senacherib and Sardana pahs 82 

The City of Nineveh Sa 

Babylon and Its Hanging Gardens S3 

Babylonian History 83 

Alexander and Babylon S3 

Recent Archaeological Discoveries S3 

Assyrians, The 53 

Astronomy, The Science of 25, 32 

Astronomers 23, 25, 32, 35 



PAGE. 

Atcacer Quibir 31S 

Athanasius 58, 176 

Athenians, The 97 

Athens, The City of 97 

Athor 52 

Atlanta, Capture of 54^ 

Atossa 97 

Attorney General, The 579 

Audubon, J. J 640 

Auerstadt, The Battle of 237 

Augsburg, Council of.. 232 

Augustan Age, The .159 

Augustus, Frederick 219, 220 

Augustine, an Early Christian Writer 176 

Augustine Monks 230 

Augustus, Caesar ^ 57 

Defeats Antony 157 

to Alaric, The Emperors, from 165 

Aurelius, Marcus, Emperor of Rome 16S 

Aus terlitz, The Battle of. 237 

Austria -Hungary 249 

German and Semi -German . . 249 

The Dual Empire Formed 249 

The Hapsburg and Hohenzollern 249 

Rhodolph and Ottocar 249 

The Duchy and Arch Duchv 252 

Modern or Present 253 

Hungary and the Magyars 253 

The Hapsburgs in Hungary 253 

Present Government of the Empire.... 253 

Religion and Education 251 

Bosnia and Herzegovina 25). 

The Literature of Hungary 254 

The Cities of. 254 

Australia, Western . - 426 

Area, Debi, Exports v- ' 

Australasia, the Colonies of 411 

Australasian Independence , 426 

Ayesha 197 

Aztecs in Mexico, The. 461 

Azores Islands 317 

Azores and Portugal, The 4S4 

Baalbac, The City -»f 84 

Babel, The Tower of. ^9 

Babylon, Jewish Captivity in 69 

The Ci y of S2 

Babvlonians, Early history of the S3 

Bache, A. D 641 

Bach, a Composer 2^5 

Bacon, Roger 341, 36S 

Bacon, Francis 377 

Bacon's Rebellion 493 

Bagdad, the City of Sj 

Bahama I lands, The 179 

Bakumin, Michael 215 

['.dak lava, The Battle of 214 

Baldwin, Count, of Flanders 202 

Baliol 345 

Bancroft, George 644 

Bank of England 3OS 

The United States 51S 

Banking System, U. S 036 

Banks, N. P 536, 541 

Barbarossa 225 

Enters Italy 1S5 

Barneveldt, John, a Dutch Soldier 25S 

Barons War, The ... 341 

Barnet, The Battle of 353 

Bastile, Fall ofthe 275 

Bathsheba of Nineveh Si 



PAGE. 

Battles of the Franco Prussian War 241 

Bavarian Republic, The 259 

Baxter, Richard 194, 37S 

Bazil Ascends Byzantine Throne 202 

B azilian Dynasty, The 202 

Beaconsfield, Lord 373 

Beauregard, General 531, 561 

Becket, Thomas, a 339 

Beecher, Lyman 649 

Beecher, Henry Ward 649 

Before History 23 

Beirut, The City of 66 

Belfast 3SS, 390 

Belgium and the Netherlands 255 

Religion and Education 256 

Java — Dutch Government 256 

Typography and Resources 257 

The Dutch in History 257 

The Nation and Its Great War 25S 

The Throes of the Dutch Republic 258 

Period of Prosperity 25S 

Fall of the Republic 259 

Dutch Art 259 

Waterloo 260 

Belisarius, General 201 

Beloochistan 455 

Belshazzar, King of Babylon S3 

Belus, The Temple of 82 

Benares, The City of 40S 

Benedek, Marshal 239 

Bengal, the City of 404 

Benhadad, King of Syria S4 

Bennett, J. G 645 

Bennington, Battle of 511 

Berlin, The French Enter 2S5 

The University of. 235 

The Treaty of. 254 

Berenice's Hair, The Group 32 

Beethoven 245 

Bey, A Turkish 20S 

Bible, The Books ofthe 70 

The Persian 88 

Birney, James G 527 

Bishop of Rome, Pope 1 7S 

Bismark, Count Von 238 

Black Death, The 348 

Bladensburg, Batlle of 520 

Blaine, James G 566 

Blair, I-' rank P 554 

Blanchard, Thomas 625 

Blenheim The Battle of 269 

Blucher, Marshal 237, 369 

Boabdil, Moorish King 299 

Defeated by Ferdinand 299 

Boadkea, Queen 333 

Board of Trade and Plantations 500 

Bobadilla, Admiral 304 

Boccacio 193 

Boileau 270 

Bokhara 454 

Colleges of 454 

Boleslas I., of Poland 218 

Boleyn, Annie 356 

Bolingbroke of Lancaster 34S, 350 

Crowned Henry IV 350 

Bolivar, Simon.... 470 

Bolivia, Republic of. 474 

Bombay, The City of. 407 

Bonaparte, Napoleon 281 

Bonaparte, Louis 259 



7i 



s \ 



INDEX. 



PAGE. 

Bonaparte, Joseph. 285,310 

Borough Representation. .... 34.5 

Bosnia, The Province of 254 

Boston, "Tea Party," 503 

Evacuation of 5°^ 

Great Fire in 504 

Bosworth, Battle of 254 

Bossuet.. 269 

Botany Bay 4 11 

Botzaris, Marco 102,131 

Bourbons in France, The 271 

Boyne, Battle of the 365, 3SS 

Brabant, The Dukedom o£ 25S 

Bradstreet, Mrs. Ann 63S 

Bragg, General 53^ 

Brake, The Air 625 

Brandy wine, The Battle of 5 1 ' 

Brazil, The Empire of. 469, 31S 

Kingdom Established 31S 

Dom Pedro 470 

Breakspear, Adrian IV 340 

Breckenridge, John C 53°> S^ 1 

Brickmaking in Egypt 47 

Bright, John 373 

British India .400 

Britons, The Ancient ^^ 

Bronze and Stone Age 42 

Bronte", Charlotte 381 

Browne, C. F ,647 

Brown, General 519 

Brown, John $29 

Browning, Mrs 380 

Browning, Kobert 3S1 

Bruce, Robert 345, 384 

Brussa, City of 200 

Bryant, William Cullen 645 

Brussells, the City of. 255 

Uprising in 255 

Brutus, Junius.^ 13S 

Brutus, Marcus 157 

Bruyere, La 270 

Bubastis, Priests of 52 

Buchanan, James 52s, 5S5 

Buchner, Prof. 247 

Buckner, General 533 

Bucolics of Virgil 161 

Buddhism in Japan 430 

in China 45 1 

Buel, General.. , 534, 53S 

Buenos Ayres, The City of 46S 

Buffon 271 

Bulwer-Lytton 3S1 

Bull Run, Battles of. 53 1, 536 

Bull Fights of Spain 314 

Bundesrathand Reichstag 251 

Bunker, or Breed's Hill 505 

Bunyan, John 37S 

Burgoyne, General 512 

Burgundy, First King of 325 

Duke of 25S 

Burke, Edmund 379 

Burmah, or Farther India 454 

Burmuda Isles, The 4^4 

Burns, Robert . . 386 

Burnside, Ambrose E 534. 537 

Butler, Samuel 378 

Butler, Benjamin F 534, 550 

Byblus, City of 66 

Byron, Lord 130, 3S0 

Byzantine Empire, The 197, 200 



PAGE. 

Byzantine Empire, Area and Conserva- 
tism of 200 

Justinian and Belisarius 201 

The Civil Law 201 

Brazil Dynasty 202 

The Comnenians and Latin Crusaders . . .203 

Pala?ologi and the Turks arj 

Byzantium, City of 1C9, 200 

Cabinet, The English 373 

of the United States 575 

Cabot, John 394, 491 

Cabot, Sebastian 394, 468 

Cabral, Pedro Alvarez 31S 

Cade Rebellion, The Jack 351 

Caernarvon , The Castle of 344 

Cssar, Julius... 48, 151, 153, 155, 156, 157, 163,333 

Caesar, Tiberius 165 

Caisar, Caius or Caligula 165 

Ges irea, The City of. 71 

Cairo, Egypt.. . . 61 

Cuius, Marin- 150 

Caius, Ca?sar 165 

Calais, City of 262 

Calcutta, City of 40. > 

Calendar, The Gregorian ,35 

The Russian $<, 

The Egyptian 4 S 

Caldcron 3i( 

Calhoun, J. C 523 

California 594 

Caliphs of Damascus 59 

Caliph of Mahammed 107 

Caliphs, First Four. , iqS 

Caligula, Emperor 165 

Assassinated 166 

Calmar, Union of 321 

Calvin, John 265, 328 

Calvinists and Lutherans 23a 

Cambyses 53, 65 

Camden, Rattle of 513 

Camillus Captures Veii 111 

Camoens, Ttie Poet. 319 

Canada, Dominion of 394 

Census of 1SS1 394 

English Discovery of. 395 

Acadia and the Acadians 391; 

Champlain's Policy 390 

British Policy 396 

Old World Prejudices 396 

The Indians of , 396 

Manitoba and Hudson Bay ... .396 

Political system of 397 

VTrtinl Independence 397 

Reciprocity 397 

Cities, Education, Railroads 393 

Labrador, the Esquimaux 399 

Canaan, Land of 69 

Canal, The Suez 60 

The Cloaca Maxima 1S6 

Candace, Queen 65 

Candia, The Island of 126 

Cann;e, Battle of 14'i 

Cantebury, Bishopric of. 334 

Canute, the Dane 321 

Rules, England . . 336 

Cape of Good Hope 317, 45S 

Cape Verde Islands 317 

Capetian Line, The 262 

The Valois Branch 262 

Captivity of the Jews 69 



PAGE. 

Carlist War, The 312 

Carlos, Don 312 

Carlovingian Empire 257 

Dynasty 26a 

Carlyle, Thomas 38!, 386 

Carolina, North 613 

South 616 

Carolina, Colonial Historv 497 

French Huguenots 498 

Carnot, French Minister 278 

Carthage, Rome and 143 

Its Place in History 144 

First Punic War 144 

Hamilcar and Hannibal 145 

Second Punic War 145 

Hannibal Crosses the Alps 146 

Battle of Cans 1 46 

Fall of Carthage 147 

Carthaginians, The 143 

Cartier, Jacques 395 

Casimir, The Restorer 21S 

The Great 218 

Casimir IV 21S 

Castelar. 313 

Castile and Aragon United 299 

Castor and Pollux, Sudden Appearance of. 137 

Cataline, The Conspiracy of. 152 

Cataracts of the Nile. 62 

Catherine de Medici 265, 267 

Catherine u 

Catherine of Russia ..207, 213 

War with Turkey 207 

Petit : ons Poland 213, 220, 236 

Cato the Censor 147 

Destroys Carthage 1 47 

The Younger . . 149 

Cave Dwellers, The 4.87 

Cavour, Italian Statesman 1S6 

Cedar Mountain, Battle of. 537 

Cedars of Lebanon, The 67 

Celtic and Moorish Spain 294 

Celts of Great Britain $$$ 

Celts and Celtic Progress 40 

Census of Canada' , 394 

of the United States 51S, 570 

Central A:nerica 470 

The States of. 47S 

Champlain Founds Quebec 396 

Chancellon'Mle, Battle of 538 

Channing, Dr 643 

Chaldea S2 

Chaldean Bricks $2 

Charlemagne and Chivalry 190 

and the Dark Ages 192 

in Germany 22S 

at Aix la Chapelle 225 

Dynasty 262 

Charles XII 219 

Charles VI 235 

Charles VII 236 

Charles VII. 2*64 

Charles IX 26$, 267 

Charles, Martel. 225 

Defeats the Saracens 262, 225 

CharlesX 289 

Charles V 306 

Charles IL 309 

Charles XI ^23 

Charles XI 323 

Charles I., and Parliament 362, 363 



s\er 



=sr7 



INDEX. 



4. 



PAOE. 

Charles I., at Marston Moor 364 

Charles II 364 

Returns From Hoi land 365 

Charleston Attacked 506 

Chart, A Geological 3S 

Charta, The Magna 341 

Chants of Lindiis 125 

Chasidium Sect 80 

Chaucer, Geoffrey 347, 376 

Cheops, The Pyramid of 46 

Chicago Fire, The 564 

Chickamauga, Battle of 54 1 

Chilperic IV., King of the Franks 262 

Chili, The Republic of 474 

War with Peru 476 

Chinese Empire 434 

Its Territorial Extent 434 

China Proper .434 

The Shanghai Region 437 

The Valley of the Hwang- Ho. 437 

Interior China 437 

Products ot China 437 

Rivers, Climate, Forests, Flora 439 

Minerals, Petroleum, Animals 439 

Corea and Its Exclusiveness 440 

Manchura and the Modern Tartars 440 

Mongolia and the Mongols 441 

Thibet and the Grand Llama 441 

Chinese, The 442 

The China of Fable 442 

Trie Dynasties of China 443 

Confucius and the Great Wall 443 

The Most Civilized Land 443 

Kublai-Khan and Marco Polo 443 

International Commercial Intercourse. ..444 

Population and Government. 445 

Revenue and Taxation 446 

Peculiarities — Occupation 447 

Architecture and Art 449 

Education and Office -Hoi ding 450 

Hanlin University . .450 

Religion of China 451 

Eve of Great Reforms 452 

Chivalry, The Age of 190 

Chloroform Discovered 627 

Chrisna, of India 174 

Christ, Jesus the 173 

Rome and 173 

Four Biographies of 173 

Paul Preaches 1 74 

Christian Commission, The 549 

Christian IV 232 

Christian 1 321 

Christian X 32 1 

Christiana, Citv of 322 

Christian Church, The 175 

Churches, The Eight 174 

Christians, Persecutions of by Pagans. . . .174 

Christianity in Egypt 5S 

Constantine Embraces 169 

Early Days of 174 

Paul's Preaching .174 

Catacombs of Rome 175 

The Apostolic Age 1 76 

Papacy and Modern 177 

In Britain 334 

In Scotland 3S2 

Chrysostom 176 

CWusan Archipelago 434 

Church, The Greek 132 



PAGE. 

Eight Christian 174 

Its Primitive Simplicity 174 

of the Catacombs 175 

Apostolic Age 1 76 

of Rome 177 

The Russian 217 

Churches, Strength of the i$3 

Cicero 153, 157, 163 

CIncinnatus 140 

Cities of Ireland 390 

of Japan 427 

of China 444 

of Italy.. 1S4 

Civil Service of the U. S 571 

Civil War in Portugal 31S 

In the United States.. 529 

Civilization, The Area of. 38 

Classics, The Latin 160 

Clay, Henry 523 

Claudius. 166 

In Britain 333 

Clement V., Pope 263 

Clemens, Samuel L 647 

Clisthenes of Greece 106 

Cleopatra and Antony 157 

Cliff" House Indians 486 

Climate and Resources of Egypt 41 

Clinton, General 509 

Clinton, DeWitt 612 

Cloaca Maxima 13^ 

Clothing of the Egyptians 54 

Clovis, Meroveg 262 

Clovis, Merovingian Dynasty 224 

Accepts Christianity 261 

Cnaeus Pompeius 151 

Code Napoleon, The 27S 

Colbert, M 269 

Coleridge, The Poet 3ST 

Colfax, Schuyler 554 

Coligny, Admiral 266 

Collins, Wilkie. 381 

Colonial Policy, Roman 137 

History of the U. S 491 

Colonies of F ranee 293 

of the Netherlands 256 

of Spain 306, 314 

of Portugal 317 

of Sweden , 323 

of England 373 

Colorado 596 

Colossus of Rhodes, The 125 

Colt, Samuel . 625 

Columbia, The United States of 47 1 

Columbus, Christopher 302 

Sails for the New World 303 

Death and Disgraced 304 

Comets 32, 35 

Commerce of Europe 264 

of Alexandria 57 

of the Phoenicians 67 

Commentaries, Blackstone's 370 

Commons, House of 34 1 

Commonwealth, The English 361, 364 

Comnenus, Isaac 202 

Compromise, The Period of. 542 

The Missouri 522 

Conception, The Immaculate 1S2 

Confederacy, Rise and Fall of the 555 

Confederation, The Swiss , ...32^ 

Confederate States, The 530 



PAGE. 

Confession of Faith 386 

St. Patrick's 38S 

Confucius, The Age of 443 

Congress, First Continental 503 

Second Continental 504 

Under the Constitution 516 

The Confederate 557 

Conservative Leaders, English 372 

Consini, Leonora 268 

Conspiracy of Cataline 152 

Constantine the Great 58 

Succeeds Constantius 169 

Declared Emperor 169 

Embraces Christianity 169 

Decree of Milan 169 

Defeats Lucenius 169 

Removes to Constantinople 169 

Constantine IX 202 

Constantine XIII 202 

Constantine II 3S4 

Constantinople Founded 169,200 

Resists Repeated Sieges 198 

Constantius and Galerius inq 

Constantius, Son of Constantine 170 

Constellations of the Zodiac 32 

Constitution, Canadian 397 

of France 276 

of the U.S 5i<;>569 

Conti, Prince of France 210 

Continental Army 505 

Money 517 

Consuls of Rome, First. 138 

Continents and Population.. 3S 

Convention, The National 276 

Cooper, J. Fennimore 641 

Cooper, Peter 625 

Copenhagen, City of 32 1 

Copernicus 35, 24 -• 

Copts and Coptic Races 54, 63 

Coptic Justice. 54 

Copley, John S 637 

Copperheads at the North g S 

Corday, Charlotte 27$ 

Cordova and Moorish Spain 296 

and Its Literature 297 

The Fall of.. 298 

Corea, Island of. 440 

Corfu, Island of. 126 

Corinth, City of 1 29 

Corinthian Architecture 130 

Coriolanus 141 

Cornelia 149 

Corpus yitri" Civilis 20 1 

Corn Laws in England .371 

Cornwall, Duke of 226 

Cornwallis, General 514 

Corsica, Conquered . 145 

Cortez and Mexico 462 

Costa Rica, States of 47S 

Cotton Gin, The 523, 624 

Cotton Industry, The 6$2 

Cow pens, Battle of. 514 

Cowper, William 3S0 

Council, The Xicene 170 

The Vatican 12S 

of Constance 228 

Courts of the U. S., The 579 

Cracow, City of. .218 

Cracus 21s 

Cranmer, Thomas 356 



5K * 



INDEX. 



f . 



PAGE. 

Crater, The Tycho 3t 

Creation, The Theories of. 37 

Creed, The Nicene 17^ 

Crescent, Success of the 207 

Cressy, Battle of 3-0 

Crete, Island of 126 

Crcesus of Lydia 9° 

Cromwell, Oliver 363 

Dissolves Parliament 3' 5 

Becomes Lord Protector 365 

Cromwell. Richard 365 

Crusade, The First 191 , 263 

The Second 191 

The Third 192 

The Fourth 192 

The Fifth 192 

The Ei^ hth 192 

The Latin 202 

Cuba, The Island of. 4S0 

Curtis, General 533 

Curtis, George W 64S 

Cushites Dynasty, The 5 2 »°5 

Customs of the Egyptians 54 

Cuvier 39 

Cynics, The 116 

Cyprus, The Island of. 126 

Cyrus the Great. 53, 96 

Dagobert 224 

Daixmos of Japan 4.32 

Dakota Territory 598 

Damascus, City of S4 

Siege of. 192 

and the Saracens 19S 

Dana, Richard H 641 

Dana, James D 644 

Danes in History 321 

Dante 1S7, 193 

Danton 276, 278 

Darius Hystaspes S6, 97 

Dark Ages, The. . . 1S9 

Medieval Chaos 1S9 

Feudalism and Feudal Tenures 190 

Guizot on Feudalism iqo 

The Crusaders 190 

Charlemagne 193 

The Minnesingers 193 

Witchcraft, Wesley 194 

The Saracen Empire 1S9 

Darwin, Charles 3S1 

David, Kin;.; of Israel 70 

David 1 3S4 

David II 3S4 

Davis, Jefferson 530, 555, 561 

Daza 169 

Deborah 70 

Debt of Egypt ..60 

of the Colonies 502 

Decatur, Commodore 521 

Declaration of Independence 506 

Decline of Egypt 52 

Decree of Milan 171 

Decretals, Forged Documents 1S0 

Defoe, Daniel 179 

De Grasse, Count 514 

De Kalb, Baron 51a 

De'Launay, Gov 275 

Delaware 59S 

Delphi, Oracle of. 108 

Delta of the Nile 62 

Deluge, The .09 



P*GE. 

Demosthenes 113 

Denmark 321 

Dennison A. L 624 

Dentatus 140 

D'Estaing, Count 512 

Destruction of Jerusalem 7 1 

Detroit, Surrender of 5 '9 

Developments, Gradations of. 41 

Developments, Geological 39 

Diana of Ephesus 126 

Dickens, Charles 3S1 

Diderot 271 

Diocletian 169 

Directory of France, The 277 

Fall of the 2S0 

Discovery of the New World 303 

Disraeli, Benjamin 373 

as a Novelist 3 s 1 

Dollinger 234 

Domhrowka, Princess 21S 

Domesday, Book of England - 338 

Dominion of Canada 394 

Domitian 167 

Donation, a Forged Document. ... - 1S0 

Donelson, Capture of Fort 533 

Douglas, Stephen A 527, 600 

Dowiah, Surajah 404 

Drake, Sir Francis 359 

Drake, Joseph R 640 

Draper, Dr.J.W 644 

Dresden, Battle of. 2S5 

Dryden, John 378 

Druzbacka, Elizabeth .222 

Dublin, The City of 390 

The University of 391 

Dufferin, Lord 397 

Duncan and Macbeth 384 

Durer, Albrecht. 259 

Dustan 336 

Dutch Republic, The 25S 

Commerce 258 

in History, The 257 

The Medieval 25S 

Acknowledged by Phillip II 30S 

Art 259 

Dwellings of the Egyptians, The 54 

Dynasty, First Egyptian 46 

The Cushite 52, 65 

of Fatimn, The 59 

The Ptolcmic 55 

The Ommiad 19S 

The Bazilian 202 

The Palieologi 202 

The Merovingian 224, 262 

The Hohenstaufels 236 

of Hungary, Arpad 250 

The Hapsburg 250 

Dynasties of China, The 443 

Eads.John B 62S 

Earth Without Man, The 37 

Its Surface in Square Miles 37 

The Planet , .2$, 26 

Earth's Strata, The 38 

East India Company, Dutch 403 

The English 404 

Ecologues of Virgil, The 161 

Ecuador, Republic of 471 

Ecumenical Council of Constance 22S 

Edda, The Elder 324 

Edict of Nantes 26S 



PAGE. 

Edinburgh, Founded - 334 

Edmund 1 336 

Edmunds, George F 566 

Education in Turkey 209 

in Germany 241 247 

in Austria 253 

in Belgium 256 

in the Netherlands 257 

in France 293 

in Denmark 321 

in China 450 

Edward the Elder 336 

Edward the Confessor 336 

Edward I. of England 343 

Annexes Wales 344 

Scotland, a Dependency 345 

Rebellion of the Scotts 345 

Edward II 346 

Defeated and Captured 346 

Edward III 346 

Lavs Claim to France 346 

Defeats the French 346 

Edward IV 352 

Victory at Tewksbury 352 

Defeated by Warwick 353 

Edward V., murdered by Richard III 354 

Edward the Black Prince 346 

Edward V r I 35S 

Abolishes Mass 358 

Lady Jane Grey His Successor 25S 

Edwardian Age of England, The 347 

Edwards, Jonathan 639 

Edwin of Northumbria 334, 3S3 

Egbert, King of Wesscx 335 

Egypt, The most Ancient 44 

The Geography of. 44 

Its Climate and Resources 44 

The Rosetta Stone 45 

First Egyptian Dynasty 46 

Cheops, Pyramid and Sphinx 46 

The Shepherd Kings 47 

The Dawn of Thebes 47 

The Memphian Kingdom 47 

At Its Best 4 3 

From Memphis to Thebes 4S 

Karnak and its Toinhs. 4S 

Cataracts of the Nile 4S 

Reform in the Calendar 48 

Amanothph and the Exodus 49 

A Glimpse of Greece 50 

Rameses the Great. 50 

Home Development and Conquest 51 



Gold and its Influence. 



■Si 



Decline of. ^2 

Shishank and Bubastis 

The Cushite Period 

Commerce and Discovery 

Assyrian and Persian Wars 

Cambyses Work of Destruction 

and Greece 

University at Heliopolis 53 

Coptic Justice 54 

Clothing and Dwellings 54 

Domestic Life in 54 

Political Divisions in 54 

Survey by an Eminent Writer. . . 54 

and Glory of Alexandria 55 

Alexander and Alexandria 55 

Papyrus Making 55 

The First of the Ptolemies 56 



^kz 



INDEX. 



t£. 



PAGE. 

Egypt, Alexandrian Commerce 56 

Its Public Buildings S 6 

The Museum, The Library 56 

The Ptolemies and Science 57 

Alexandrian Philosophy 57 

Material Decline of Alexandria 57 

Alexandrian Christianity 5§ 

Theological Warfare 5S 

Zenobia in Egypt - 5^ 

The Saracen Invasion 58 

Present 59 

Turkish Subjugation 59 

The Present Dynasty 59 

Debt and Political Consequences 60 

Railroads and the Suez Canal 60 

Cairo and Alexandria 61 

The Nile's Natural Recources 62 

Slave Trade and Education 62 

The Present Population 6j 

The Fellahs, Copts and Turks 63 

Elder Edda, The 3*4 

Elgin Marbles 1 19 

Eliot, John 63S 

Eliot, George 3S1 

Elizabeth, Queen of England 35S 

Declines the Suit of Philip II 35S 

Defeats the Spanish Amada 35S 

Mary, Queen of Scots 359 

Favorites of the Queen 359 

Raleigh— Drake 359 

English Literature 360 

Elizabethan Age of Literature 360 

Emancipation, The Proclamation of 538 

Emanuel, Victor 186 

Emerson, Ralph Waldo 645 

Emigrants of France 276 

Emigration of the Irish 390 

Empire, The Roman 155 

The Saracen 1S9, 195 

The Byzantine 200 

The Ottoman 205 

The British 332 

Emmet, Robert 393 

Emperors from Augustus to Alaric 165 

Encyclopedia of France 271 

England, Old 33 3 

Early Britons 333 

Cxsar in Britain 333 

The Druids 333 

Roman Conquest 333 

Advent of the Anglo-Saxon 334 

Christian Evangelization 334 

Irish and Roman Church 335 

The Synod of Whitley 335 

The Danish Incursion 335 

From Alfred to Edward 335* 337 

The Norman Invasion 337 

Harold and William 337 

Domesday Book and Realty 338 

Henry I.. Long Reign 338 

and thePIantagenets, Old 339 

Thomas a Becket 339 

Strongbow and Irish Subjugation 339 

Henry II., Sorrows 340 

Richard Crjeur de Leon. 340 

John and the Magna Charta 341 

Henry HI- and Parliament 34' 

Edward and the B irons 341 

Roger Bacon, Scientist 34 2 

Architecture and Free Masonry 34a 



England, Retrospect of Old 34 3 

and the Plantagenets, Modern 343 

Edwardl.and his Ambition 343 

Llewellen, Welsh Policy 34-4 

Arthurian Legends 345 

Wallace, Bruce, Subjection of Scotland ..345 

Edward and Scotch Independence 345 

Edward II.— Edward III 346 

France and the Black Prince 346 

Chaucer— Wycliffe 347 

Richard If., and Wat. Tyler 34^ 

Houses of Lancaster and York 349 

Period of the Roses 349 

Henry IV. and Wycliffe 350 

Henry V. in France 351 

Henry VI.— One Hundred Years' War. .351 

Jack Cade's Insurrection 351 

The War of the Roses 352 

Edward IV 35* 

Warwick, the King Maker 352 

Edward V.— Richard III 354 

Bosworth Field 351 

The House of theTudors 355 

Henry VII. and his Times 355 

Henry VIIL, his Character and Times.. 356 

Edward VI. and Jane Grey . 35S 

Bloody Mary 35 1 

Accession of Elizabeth 35S 

Philip of Spain 358 

Mary, Queen of Scots 358 

The Elizabethan Age 35S 

Under the Tudors. 360 

Ireland under the Tudors 360 

The Stuarts and Commonwealth 361 

The Gunpowder Plot 361 

Sir Walter Raleigh 361 

Tob acco and Potatoes 1^2 

King James Version 362 

Virginia and New England 362 

Charles I. and Royalty ..362 

Cromwell, The Long Parliament 363 

The Commonwealth 364 

Charles II., James II 364 

William and Mary- Anne 365 

Close of Stuart Dynasty 366 

At the Present Time 367 

The Georges— William IV 36S 

Victoria and Prince Albert 368 

Colonian Intervention t 371 

Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars 371 

The Corn Laws 37' 

Political Parties and Leaders 372 

Royalty, its Palaces and Revenues 373 

Parliament, The Ministry 373 

The United Kingdom and British Empire. 373 
Colonial Possessions 373 

England, The Literature of 375 

Chaucer and his Times 37 6 

Shakespeare and his Contemporaries ...376 

Milton and his Contemporaries 37S 

Literature of the Restoration 378 

Addison and the Spectator 379 

Byron and his Peers 3S0 

The Great Novelists 381 

Contemporary Men of Letters 3S1 

Latest Type of Literature in 3S1 

English, William H 569 

Ephesus, The City of 126 

Temple of Diana 126 

Epicurean and Stoic Philosophy 1 16 



PAGE. 

Epictetus ... 161,163 

Erfurt, The University of 230 

Ergamenes 65 

Eric of Denmark 321 

Ericsson, John 533. 627 

Erin, as Known to the Celts 3S7 

Erostratus 126 

Escurial, Palaces of the 30S 

Espartero, Regent 312 

Esquimaux of Labrador 399 

Essenes sect 74 

Ethelbert, Earl of Kent 334 

Ether, Discovery of 637 

Ethiopia Subjugated by Egypt 51 

Secession of 5 2 

and the Phoenicians 64 

and Egypt 65 

Elective Monarchy 65 

The Arts and Sciences of 65 

Present Ethiopia or Abyssinia 65 

Etrusci and the Etruscans 134 

Romans Capture 141 

Etruscan Art 140 

Euripides no 

E11 taw Springs, The Battle of. 514 

Evilmerodach 83 

Executive Department, The 572 

Exodus from Egypt, The 49 

Exposition, The Centennial 565 

Ezra the Scribe 7° 

Fabian Policy* The ...146 

Fabius, Consul of Rome 146 

Fable, The Golden Age of .40 

Poland and Its 218 

The China of. 442 

Factory Svstem, The 624 

Fairbanks, Thaddeus 626 

American Scales 626 

Fair Oaks, Battle of. 535 

Karragut, Admiral 549 

Farmer, From Shepherd to 42 

F;i tima, The Dynasty of 59 

Federalists of the U. S., The 517 

Fellahs of Egypt, The 62 

Fenelon 269 

Fenian Brotherhood, The 393 

Ferdinand of Germany 232 

Ferdinand IV 250 

Ferdinand and Isabella 300 

Capture of Malaga 299 

Ferdinand VII., of Spain 310 

Fergus, The Celt 3S2 

Ferrend, Extract From 220 

Feudalism and Feudal Tenures 189 

Defined by Guizot 190 

in Poland «8 

in the Netherlands 25S 

in Scotland 3*4 

Fichte 246 

Fifteenth Amendment 553 

Fiji Islands, The 4§4 

Fillmore, Millard 526, 5S4 

Finances of the Confederacy 560 

Fire Arms, The Manufactory of. 625 

Fisher, Capture of Fort 559 

Fisheries, Canadian 595 

of the United States 629 

Flanders, The Count of. 258 

Flavii, a Roman Family 167 

Flemish and Dutch Art 269 



Tie- 



t 



INDEX. 



Xlll. 



Flodden Heights, Battle of. 3S5 

Florence, The City of 1S6 

Florida 49 s . 59 s 

Florida Purchased 3 ' ' 

Fontiine, La -27° 

Foote, Commodore S3 2 

Forrest, General 545, 554 

Forum at Rome, The 160 

Fourteenth Amendment 553 

France, Old ....201 

Ancient Gaul 261 

Clovis and the Franks 261 

The Merovingian Line 262 

Charles Martel and Saracens 262 

Carlovingian and Capetian Dynasties — 26a 

The House of Valois 263 

Abelard and Heloise 263 

St. Louis, Molay, Serfs 203 

Battle of Agincourt and Joan of Arc 26+ 

The Renaissance and Rabelais 264 

The Vaudois and John Calvin 265 

Massacre of St. Bartholomew's 265 

Protestantism Organized in 266 

Triumph and Decay of Monarchy 267 

Henry of Navarre 267 

Recantation and Toleration 268 

Louis XIII., Richelieu 26S 

Louis XV 26S 

Intellectual Progress 26S 

Persecution and Oppression 269 

Literati of that Period 269 

Louis XV. aid John Law 270 

Finance and Colonization 270 

American Revolution 271 

Great Revolutionary Writers 271 

Colonies in America 271 

Colony in India 270 

The Revolution in. 272 

States General — National Assembly 272 

The Bastile —The Emigrants . . 275 

Flight of the Royal Party 276 

Legislative Assembly 270 

Change of the Calendar 276 

The Jacobins * 270 

The Girondists and Paine 276 

The Reign of Terror 277 

The Directory 277 

Napoleon and the Revolution 277 

Notable Characters 27S 

The Code Napoleon 27S 

NapoleoD and His Campaigns 2S1 

Latter Day 3S9 

A Recall of the Bourbons 280 

Louis Phillipe, King 2S0 

Louis Napoleon 290 

The Siege of Paris 291 

Centralization in 292 

Importance of Paris 292 

Land and Rents 293 

Religion and Education 293 

Colonial Possessions 293 

Contemporary French Literature. . 393 

The Rise of the Republic 292 

Jules Grevy, President .... 292 

The Cities of 292 

Franks Invade Gaul. 26 1 

Franklin, Benj 507, 623, 639 

Franklin, Battle of 546 

Fredericksburg, Battle of . 537 

Free Masonry in England 342 



PAGE. 

Free Trade in England 371 

Fremont, John C 52S, 532 

French of Canada, The 395 

Settlements in the Miss. Valley 409 

French Revolution, The .272 

France Declares War Against Germany 239 

Francis, Joseph I., of Austria 251 

Franks Allies of Rome, The 1S4 

Under Charlemagne 1S4 

Invade Gaul 261 

Frederick I., called Barbarossa 225 

and the Lombards 226 

and the Crusades 226 

Frederick II., and the Crusades 192, 220 

Wears the Crown of Jerusalem 226 

Drives Pope Gregory IX. From Rome.. 226 

Establishes Court at Palermo. 22'i 

Frederick I., King of Prussia 235 

Frederick William L, King of Prussia. ...235 
Frederick William IV., King of Prussia.... 338 

Frederick William, Crown Prince 240 

Frederick II., Called Frederick the Great. . .236 

War with Austria 236 

The Seven Years' War 236 

Division of Poland 236 

Sympathy Tor America 237 

Frederick III. of Austria 250 

Fuller, Margaret 642 

Fuller, Thomas 378 

Fulton, Robert 623 

Fushimi, Battle of 432 

Gaelic Language, The 3S8 

Gaines Farm, Battle of. 536 

Galba, a Roman Imperator 166 

Galerius, a Roman Imperator 16S 

Galileo 35 

Galveston, Capture of 53S 

Gama, Vasco da . ...317 

Gambetta 29 1 

Games, The Four Greek 107 

Garibaldi, of Italy ... is , 

Garfield, James A 532, 569, 5S5 

Gates, General 512 

Gaul, Conquered by Rome 261 

Invaded by Germans 261 

Invaded by Franks 261 

Gauls Invude Rome, The 142 

Genghis Khan, a Tartar Chief. 212 

Genoa and Pisa, The Cities of. 1^4 

Gfojrrap/iia, bv Ptolemy, of Alexandria 12S 

Geography of Egypt, The 44 

Geological Periods 37 

Chart 38 

Developments 39 

George I., Elector and King 367 

South Sea Bubble 367 

George II 368 

George III 368 

The Revolutionary War $'$ 

George IV }6S 

George, Prince of Denmark 131 

Georgia 49S, 599 

Georgics of Virgil, The 161 

German Thought and Intelligence 242 

Music and Literature 243 

Universities and Libraries 247 

Philosophy 245 

Order in the North 227 

Germans, The Medieval 223 

Germany, Medieval 223 



PAGE 

Germany, The Ancient Teutons 223 

Introduction of Christianity 224 

The Merovingian Kings 224 

Charles the Hammer 225 

Reign of the Stewards . 225 

Charlemagne, Ludwig 225 

Barbarossa, Otto 225 

Inquisition and Frederick II 22f> 

Decline of the Empire ..226 

The Hanseatic League 227 

Conversion of Prussia 227 

and the Reformation 22S 

John Huss at Prague 22S 

Byzantine Empire Falls ... 229 

Invention of Printing and Paper 230 

Martin Luther, Diet of Worms 2^1 

Translation of the Bible 231 

The Augsburg Confession ...2^2 

The Thirty Years' War 232 

Adolphus and Wallenstein 233 

The Peace of Westphalia.. 233 

The Lutheran Church 234 

New 235 

Military Beginning of New 235 

Rise of Prussia, Frederick William 235 

Frederick and Maria Theresa 236 ■ 

The Division of Poland 236 

The French Revolution and 237 

Napoleon in Germany - >7 

Jena Blucher and Waterloo . . 237 

The Uprising in 1S4S 23S 

William I. and Bismarck 23S 

Schleswig and Holstein 238 

The Seven Weeks' War 239 

The Hohenzollerns 239 

The Franco-Prussian War 239 

The Seven Months' War 2jo 

Paris, its Resistance and Capitulation . . 240 

Alsace-Lorraine - 240 

Present States and Reconstruction 241 

Compulsory Education and Army 241 

Area and Population 241 

Intellectual 242 

Development of German Thought z\2 

An Intellectual Quadrangle 2\2 

Attainment- in Music .242, 244 

Philosophers of 245 

Universities and Libraries of 247 

Scholarship of. 24S 

Gettysburg, Battle of 53S 

Gibraltar .The Straits of 53, 309, 369 

Gideon and His Band ..70 

Gilbert of Ravenna, Pope 18b 

Gilbert, Sir Humphrey 49- 

Girondists of France 276 

Gladstone, William E .372 

Gloucester, The Earl of 351 

I Gluck 245 

j God Ammon, The 56 

Thoth.The 49 

1 Godfrey of Bouillon 191, 263 

Gods of Mythology 120 

Godwin, Earl of Wessex 337 

Goethe 243 

Golden Age of Fable 40 

of Poetry 101 

Golden Horde of Tartars 212 

Goldsmith, Oliver 3S0 

Goodyear, Charles 627 

Gorilla, The 39 



XIV. 



INDEX. 






Gothic Alphabet, The 223 

Spain 294 

Goths of Germany, The 22S 

Gondar, City of 66 

Government of the United States 57 1 

of Italy 1S6 

of Turkey 20S 

Gracchus, Tiberius 149 

Gracchus, Caius '49 

Gradations of Development 41 

Granada and the Alhambra 29S 

Grand Vizier, The ■zoS 

Grand Llama 44 1 

Grant, U. S... 532. 534 539, 54°, 553. 554, 564, 5*5 

Gratian, Emperor 17 1 

Gravelotte, Battle of 240 

Gray, Asa. 644 

Gray, Thomas 3$o 

Great Britain, Territory of 33 2 

Greece and Hero Worship 9° 

Its Pre-eminence 9° 

Grecian Peculiarity 9° 

Age of Fable and Poetry yo 

Its Political Divisions 91 

Grote and Schliemann 9 1 

H>*-oic Age and Hercules 91 

Theseus and the Amazons 92 

The Trojan Heroes. 9 2 

Homers and the Heroic Age 9 2 

The Siege of Troy 93 

The Wanderings of Ulysses g\ 

Historic Wars 95 

The Spartans and Messenians 05 

The Four Great Wars of 9° 

Asia Minor and CrcL-sus 96 

The Pet si. ins and Ionians 96 

Persian Invasion 97 

The Glories of Marathon 97 

Thermopylae and Its Defense. 98 

The Battle of Salamis... ....98 

Themistocles and Greece's Ingratitude. ..99 

The Peloponnesian War. 99 

The Genius of Pericles oq 

Philip nt" Macedon 100 

Alexander thj Great too 

Roman Conquest 102 

Modern Greek Heroism 102 

State Craft in 103 

Lycurgus and His Laws 103 

The Spartan Monarchy 10^ 

The Laws of Draco 105 

Solon and Athens 105 

The Constitution and Its Features 105 

Solon and Lycurgus 106 

Clisthenes and Democracy 106 

Pericles the Statesman 106 

The Four Leagues and Games 107 

The Delphi Oracle 10S 

Classic Literature of 109 

Homer in Literature 109 

Hesiod, ./Esop, and other Poets no 

Sappho, Pindar, and the Lyrists no 

The Dramatists and Attica no 

Comedy and Aristophanes in 

Herodotus Xenophon and Plato m 

Aristotle and Philosophy 1 1 2 

Demosthenes and Oratory 113 

Philosophy and Art 114 

Socrates and His Philosophy 115 

Epicureans, Stoics and Cynics 116 



PAGE. 

Greece, Painting and Sculpture 117 

Orders of Grecian Architecture 11S 

The Elgin Marbles 119 

and Rome, Mythology of. 120 

Jupiter and Celestial Heredity .120 

The Amours of the Gods 121 

Olympus 122 

Phaeton and His Presumption 124 

Pegasus and Poetry 123 

Centaurs and Other Monsters 123 

The Riddle of the Sphinx 124 

Orpheus and Eurydice 144 

and the Greek Church 129 

Corinth, Ancient and Modern 129 

Byzantine and Moslem Rule 130 

The Venetians and the Parthenon 130 

The Greek Revolution 13 1 

Intervention of the Great Powers 131 

The Monarchy Established 131 

Present Government of. . . 13 1 

Condition of the Country 132 

Greek Church and 132 

Greek Church Elsewhere 133 

Its Characteristics 13 2 

Outer Greece 125 

Greek Church, The 171 

Poets and Philosophers 90 

Greeley, Horace ...... . 564,644 

Green, General 514 

Greenland Discovered 324 

Gregorian Calendar, The 35 

Gregory XIII., Pope 35 

Gregory The Great 179 

Gregory II., Pope 1S0 

Gregory VII., (Hildebrand) 1S0 

War of the Investitures 1S0 

Gregory 1X. ( Pope 226 

Grevy, Jules 292 

Grey, Lady Jane 35$ 

Guatemala . 478 

Guiana, French, English and Dutch 470 

Guinea, a Tract of Country in Africa 457 

Guilford Court House, The Battle of 514 

Guise, House of 266 

Gunpowder, First Used 22S 

Gunpowder Plot of Guy Fawkes 361 

Gustavus, Wasa 322 

Gustavus, Adolphus. ... 323 

Gutenberg, John 230 

Hadrian, Emperor 16S 

Haeckel, Ernest *47 

Hague, The City of the 256 

Hale, John P.... 5 2 7 

Halicarnassus, City of 125 

I lalifax, Canada, The City of 39$ 

Hallam and the Dark Ages . . . 193 

Halle School of Philosophy 247 

Halleck, Gen. H. W 55° 

Halleck, Fitz Greene 641 

Hamilcar '45 

Hamilton, Sir William 3 s6 

Hamilton, Alexander 517, 51S, 636, 640 

Hamlet, Prince of Denmark 322 

Hampden, John 3°3 

Hampton, Wade 5 6 3 

Hancock, General W. S 535,55°. 5°9 

Hancock, John 5°° 

Handel 245 

Hannibal M5» J 46 

Hanno '45 



PAGE. 

Hanseatic League 327 

Hapsburg, The Dynasty of 25° 

in the Netherlands »5S 

Hardee, General 5^3 

Harper's Ferrv, Brown at 529 

Harrison, William H 521;, 5S4 

Harte, Bret 649 

Hastings, Battle of. 337 

Haydn, Joseph 245 

Hayti, The Island of 4S1 

Havana, The City of 4S0 

Hawthorne, Nathaniel 648 

Hawthorne, Julian 64S 

Hawaiian Islands, The 484 

Hayes, Rutherford B 565, 585 

HeadleyJ. T 64S 

Headley, P. C 643 

Heb-rt 277 

Hebrew Nation, The 68 

Bible, The 73 

Literature an d Sects 73 

Hegel 246 

Heine, Heinrich... , 244 

Heison II 126 

Heidelberg, The University of. 24S 

Helen, Wife of Menelaus 93 

Heliopolis, The City of 29 

University of 53 

Helenic University, The 57 

Helveti and Switzerland 325 

Hendricks, Thomas A 566 

Henry III. of Germany 1S0 

Henry II. of France 266 

Henry III. of France 267 

Henry IV. <f France 266, 267, 268 

Henry, Count of Portugal 315 

Henry I. of England 339 

Henry II. of England 33S, 339, 340 

Henry III. of England 34 1 

Parliament Established 341 

Henry IV. of England 350 

Henry V., King of England 351 

Henry VI. of England and France 351 

Henry Tudor Defeats Richard III 354 

Crowned Henry VII 355 

Henry VIII., King of England 356 

Henry, Patrick 503 

Henry, Capture of Fort 533 

Herbert, George 378 

Hercules 9 1 

Herder 243 

Hero Worship, Greek 90 

Heroic Age, The 90 

He-rods of Jewish History 71 

Herodotus ill 

Herring, S. C 627 

Herschel, Sir William 35 

Herzegovina, Province of 254 

Hesiod 103 

Hibemia, as Known to the Romans 3S7 

Hildebrand, Pope 180 

Highlanders of Scotland 383 

Highways of Rome, The 137 

Hildrelh, Richard 644 

Hill, General A. P 536, 563 

Hill, General D. H 563 

Hiram of Phoenicia 67 

Historic Wars of Greece 95 

History, Before 23 

Hitchcock, Edward 644 






INDEX. 



XV. 



i£* 



PAGE. 

Hohenlinden, Battle of 237 

Hohenstau-fels, Dynasty 226 

Hohenzollerns, House of. 235 

Holland, J. G 64S 

Holland, Kingdom of 156, 259 

Holly Springs, The Battle of 53S 

Holmes, O. W ....646 

Holy Alliance, The 213 

Humboldt, Von 23, 24S 

Hornemnes 50 

Homer 90, 103, 109 

Honduras, The State of. 47S 

British . 479 

Honor ins 171 

Hood , /General. 545, 546 

Hood, Thomas 380 

Hooker, General 535, 53S, 541, 550 

Hopkins, Ezekiel 515 

Hopkins, Samuel 623 

Horace 163 

Hottentot, The.. 39 

House of Representatives, The 572 

Houston, General Sain 525 

Hi 1 ward. General O. 553 

Howe, Elias. 626 

Howells, J. D 649 

Howe, Lord 509 

Howe, General 



509 

Hudson's Bay Company 396 

Huguenots of France 265 

Hull, General 519 

Hume, David 379, 3S6 

Hungarians and Maria Theresa 236 

History 250 

Literature and Language ..254 

Hungary- Austria 249 

The Hapsburg and 2<;< • 

The Dual Government 250 

and Maria Theresa 236, 250 

Area of 250 

Hunter to Shepherd, From 41 

Huss, John, at Prague 228 

Opposition to the Romish Church 22S 

Hussite War, The 22S 

Huxley -. 3S1 

Hyades, The 332 

Ibrahim 6o, 131 

Ibrahim, The Devil 219 

Iberia, or Celtic Spain 294 

Iceland and its Government 320 

Iconoclasts, Reign of the 201 

Ida, Mount 126 

Idaho Territory 599 

Ignatius, Bishop 176 

Iliad, Homer's 92 

Illinois -599 

Imitation of Christ # iSr 

Immaculate Conception Proclaimed iS? 

Impeachment Trial of Johnson. 5^4 

Inauguration of Washington 519 

India of the Ancients 127 

India, the French in 270 

India, British 400 

Victoria, Empress of 400 

The Aryan Race 400 

Alexander the Great 403 

Portuguese and Dutch 403 

British Expulsion of the Dutch.. 404 

Lord Clive and Surajah Dowlah 404 

Hasting's-'Cornwallis 404 



PAGE. 

India, The Sepoy Mutiny 407 

Viceroys of the Crown 407 

Owen Meredeth— Lord Ripon 407 

The Mogul Empire 40S 

Benares the Holv City 40S 

Sanskrit and its Possibilities 408 

Railways— Population — Religion 40S 

Indian Territory 601, 4S9 

Indian Wars in the West 516 

War in Florida 520 

Indiana.... 601 

Indians, The American 485 

Origin of the Race 4S5 

Mounds and Mound Builders 4S6 

Cliff Houses 4S6 

Cave Dwellers 487 

Native Tribes of the Atlantic 4SS 

Reservations of the United States 4S9 

The Indian Bureau. 4S9 

The Indian Territory 489 

Opportunity and Prospects 490 

Their Relation to U. S. History 490 

Indians of Canada, The 396 

Industries ofth_- U. S 629 

Infallibility, Papal 1S2 

Inkermann, Battle of 214 

Innocent HI 1S1, 192, 226 

Inquisition Established, The 1S1 

of Spain, The 301 

Insurance 634 

Intellectual Germany 242 

Interior, The Secretary of the 577 

Investitures, War of 1S0 

lonians, The 97 

Isles, The 1 26 

Iowa 602 

Iphegenia 92 

Irenajus of Lyons 176 

Ireland, England, In 340 

Subjugated by the Tudors 360 

and the Irish 387 

Its Situation and Area 3S7 

Roads and Products of 3S7 

Conversion under St. Patrick 3S7 

Its Language and Literature 3SS 

Counties and Provinces 3SS 

English Rule 3SS 

Daniel O'Connell and Parnell 3S9 

Revolution and Reform 3S9 

Emigrations to America 390 

Irish Land Law — Its Cities 390 

Emmet and the United Irishmen 393 

The Fenian Brotherhood 393 

The Land League 393 

Irish Missionaries in England 335 

Policy of the Tudors. 360 

Church, The 3S7 

Land Bill, The 390 

Iron Industry, The.. .633 

Irving, Washington 642 

Isaac to Moses, From 69 

Isabella, Ferdinand and 300, 305 

Isabella II 312 

Islam, see Saracen, also Mohammed 

The University of. 61 

The Followers of 19S 

and Constantinople 207 

Islands, The Ionian 126 

Isles of the Sea 479 

Ismail, Khedive of Egypt .60 



PAGE. 

Isocrates 113 

Ispahan, Capital of Persia 89 

Israel and the Hebrews 63 

Isthmian Games, The 107 

Italians— Italy and the 1S4 

Italy and Primitive Rome 133 

The Peninsular of Ancient 134 

and the Italians 184 

The Youngest Nation 1S4 

The Lombards - 184 

in the IJark Ages 1S5 

The Free Cities 1S5 

The Chief Glory of Medieval 1S5 

Emanuel and Italian Unity 1S6 

Pope Pio Nino 1S6 

The Present Government 187 

Condition of the Country 187 

Literature and Art of 1S7 

The Italian Renaissance 188 

Tuka, Battle of. 538 

Ivan, Grand Prince of Moscow 212 

Expels the Golden Horde 313 

Monarch of the Russias 213 

Ivan, The Terrible 213 

Ivry, The Battle of 267 

Iyeyas, Emperor 43 x 

Jackson, Andrew. 520, 524, 5S3 

Jackson, Gen. Stonewall 515, 562 

Jacobin Egypt... 69 

Jacobins of France, The .. ..276 

Jagellos Familv, The 219 

James I. of England 361 

The Gunpowder Plot 361 

Translation of the Bible 362 

James I. of Scotland 384 

The Baronial Power 384 

James II. of England 365 

Establishes the Bloody Assizes 365 

Defeated at Boyne 365 

James II. of Scotland 3S4 

Civil and Border Warfare 384 

James V. of Scotland 3S4 

Navy Built and Fisheries Established. . .385 

Defeated at Flodden.. 385 

James VI. of Scotland 386 

James, Jr., Henry 649 

Janizaries, The 206 

Japan and the Japanese 427 

Description of the Country 427 

Its Cities, Products and Population 428 

Mines and Minerals 42S 

Its Early History 43S 

Its Greatest Queen Kogu 429 

Letters and Philosophy 429 

Buddhism Introduced 430 

First Contact with Europeans 430 

Jesuit Missions, The Dutch 431 

Tycoon Iyeyas 431 

America and Commodore Perry 431 

Fall of the Daimios 432 

Christian Calendar Adopted 433 

as it is, or New Japan 433 

Idolatry and Sintuism 433 

Methods of Transportation 433 

Modern Missions 433 

Japanese Literature 433 

Java 256 

Jay, John 640 

Jefferson, Thomas 51S, 5S0, 640 

Jena, Battle of 237, 2S5 






J IS 



*hSs2 



INDEX. 



PAOE. 

Jephthah 70 

Jerome 176 

Jerome, Chauncy 628 

Jerusalem 70 

and the Jews. 72 

Submits to Alexander 70 

Captured by Ptolemy Soter 70 

Destroyed by Titus 70, 166 

Godfrey, King of , 191 

Christians Driven out by Saladin 192 

Jesus the Christ - 173 

The Society of 1S1 

Jesuitism and the Inquisition 1S1 

The Boast of 1S2 

Jesuit Missions injapan, China and India.. .431 

in America 82 

Jesuits, The Society of the iSr 

Dissolution by Papal Bull 1S2 

Jewish Literature and Sects 73 

History— The Intangible in 73 

Persecutions in England 346 

Jews, The 6S 

A Peculiar People 6S 

The Fatherhood of Abraham 68 

From Isaac to Moses 69 

The Period of the Judges 69 

Saul and David 70 

Solomon King, Poet and Philosopher 70 

Disunion and Subjugation 70 

The Restoration and the Maccabees 71 

Under the Roman Rod 71 

Destruction of Jerusalem 71 

Persecution in Dispersion 72 

Improved Condition of the 72 

Jerusalem and the 7 2 

In Poland 222 

Persecution in Spain 301 

Joan of Arc 204 

John the Evangelist 176 

John of Saxony 131 

John of England 340 

Signs the Magna Charta 341 

John III. of Portug il 31S 

Establishes Kingdom of Brazil 31S 

John. Maria Joseph 31S 

John of Gaunt 349 

Johnson, Dr. Samuel, Lexicographer 367 

Johnson, Andrew 545, 553, 5S5 

Johnston, Albert Sydney 534. 5& 2 

Johnston, Joseph E 535, 545. 54". S'" 2 

Jones, John Paul 5'5 

Joseph, Son of Jacob 49, 69 

Joseph II 236 

Josephus 74 

Joshua 70 

Jovian 171 

Juana 3°5 

Juarez, President of Mexico 465 

Judah, The Tribe of 70 

Judea or Palestine 70 

Judges, The Period of the 6y 

Judiciary of England Under Edward 1 345 

Julian 170 

Jupiter, The Planet 25, 26 

The Mythological God 121 

Jurisprudence, Roman 164 

Justin, Martyr 176 

Justin II 197, 201 

Justinian, Emperor 201 

Corpus Juris Civtlis 201 



PAGE. 

Juvenal 162 

Kaani, Persian S9 

Kansas 602 

Kansas- Nebraska Bill, The 527 

Kant, Immanuel 246 

Karaites So 

Katzbach, The Battle of 237 

Kearny, General 535 

Keats, John, English Poet 3S0 

Keiser 244 

Kempis, a Thomas 181 

Kenneth, King of the Lowlands 383 

Kent, Chancellor 643 

Kentucky .603 

Kepler, The Astronomer 35 

Key, Francis S 640 

Khedive of Egypt, The 59 

Kiah-tsing, Chinese Emperor 444 

Kingdom, The Animal 39 

Kings, The Legendary 133, 13S 

Kings, The Shepherd 47 

Kirk of Scotland 3S6 

Klopstock 243 

Knights of St. John, The 193 

Knox, John, and Presbyterianism 386 

KonxsM, Stanislas 222 

Koran of Mohammed, The 197 

Kosciusko, Thaddeus, Defends Poland 220 

in America 512 

Koshroes II., King of Persia 197 

Kossuth 250 

Krasicki, Archbishop 222 

Kremlin at Moscow, The 214 

Kublai-Khan 443 

Ku Klux Klan, The 554 

Labrador and the Esquimaux 399 

Lafayette de Marquis 271, 272, 511 

Lake Regillus, Battle of. 137 

Trasimenus, Battle of 146 

Lamartine 27S 

Lancaster, The House of 349 

Land Bill, The Irish 390 

Land League of Ireland 393 

Language of Ireland, Original 3S7 

Laoco&n, The 93, 119 

LaPlata of South America 46S 

Lathe, The 625 

Latin Classics 160 

Macaulay and Primitive L.nin 160 

The Golden Age 161 

The Silver Age. 163 

The Historians of Rome 164 

Latium, The Ancient Nation of. 134 

Law, John, " Mississippi Bubble." 270 

Law, The Coptic 54 

The Jewish 69 

The Licinian 149 

The Salic 312 

Lawrence, Commodore 519 

Laws, Lycurgusand His 103 

of Draco 104 

of Solcn 105 

of Napoleon, or Code Napoleon 27S 

League, The Hanseatic 227 

Leagues, The Four Greek 107 

Lebanon, The Cedars of 67 

Lebrun, a French Artist 270 

Lech L, King of Poland 21S 

Lee, General Robert E 536, 546 

Legendary Kings of Rome 133 



PAGE. 

Legislative Assembly of France 276 

Legends, The Arthurian 345 

Leicester, Earl of ^41 

Leipzig, The University of 22S 

The Battle of 237 

Leo The Great, Pope 1 79 

Leo X. and Luther 179, iSi, 231 

Leo III., Pope 1S0 

Crowns Charlemagne 192 

Leo III. of Byzantine 201 

The Reign of the Iconoclasts 201 

Leo IV. of the Byzantine 202 

Leo XIII., Pope 1S3 

Leonidas at Thermopylae 98 

Leopold of Saxe Coburg, Prince 131, 255 

Leopold II. of Saxe Coburg 255 

Lepidus, Antony, Caesar's Master of Horse. 157 

Lesseps, M. de 60 

Lessing, a German Dramatist 243 

Lexington, Battle of $04 

Liberal Leaders of England 372 

Liberia, The Republic of 457 

Liberius, The Thirty-Sixth Pope 179 

Libraries and Universities of Germany 247 

Lichtenstein, The Province of 254 

Limbourg, The Dukedom of. 25S 

Lincoln, Abraham 530, 546, 5S5 

Lisbon Taken from the Moors 315 

Great Earthquake in 316 

Literature of the Jews 73 

The Hebrew Bible 73 

The Septuagint. The Talmud 73 

Sadduces and Pharisees. Essenes 74 

Testimony of Pliny 74 

Philo on the Essenes 74 

Josephus on Jewish Sects 74 

The Chasidim So 

Felix Adler on the Jews So 

of Persia 89 

Greek Classics 109 

The Latin and Pre-classic 160 

Italian 187 

In the Dark Ages 193 

of the Saracen Empire 199 

Turkish 20S 

of Poland 22 1 

of Germany 242 

of Hungary 254 

Under Louis XIV 269 

of Cordova and Moorish Spain 297 

of Spain 313 

of Portugal 319 

of the Scandinavians 325 

in England 347, 360, 375 

in Scotland 386 

in Ireland... 3SS 

of the Japanese 42S 

in America 63S, 649 

I. ivy, a Roman Historian 164 

Llewellyn, of Wales 344 

Locke, John 37S 

Locomotive, The 623, 625 

Lombards in Italy, The 1S4 

London Captured by Boadicea 333 

Longfellow, Henry W 6415 

Long Island, Battle of 509 

Longstreet, General James 542, 562 

Lookout Mountain, Battle of 542 

Lorraine, Alsace and 240 

Lome, Marquis of. 397 



-4H 



jj?r 



INDEX. 



xvn. 



PAGE. 

Lost Stars, The 3 2 

Louis of Bavaria 13 ' 

Louis IX. of France 192, 263 

Convokes a Parliament 263 

Louis X. of France 263 

Louis XL of France 264 

Louis XIII. of France 268 

Louis XIV., the Grand 26S 

Louis XV. of France 27° 

and John Law 27° 

and New France 270 

Louis XVI. of France 271 

Marie Antoinette 271 

and the United States 271 

Louis XVIII * 2S9 

Louis Philippe, of France sSo 

Louis I. of Portugal ?i5 

Louisiana 499. 5'^» ^03 

Low Lands, or the Netherlands 25S 

Lowell, James R 646 

Loyola Founds the Society of Jesus 1S1 

Lubbock, Sir John 43 

Lucenius, Defeat of 169 

Lucius, King- of Rome 136 

Lucretia, Tragedy of 137 

Lucretius 162 

Ludwig the Pious 225 

Lundy's Lane, Battle of 519 

Lutherans, Numerical Strength of 234 

Lutherism and Anabaptists 232 

Luther, Martin, and the Reformation 230 

Lutzen.The Battle of 233 

Luxemburg Dynasty of Germany 229 

The Dukedom of 25S 

Lycurgus and His Laws 103 

Lydia, The Kingdom of 9° 

Lyon, Gen. Nathaniel S3 2 

Macaulay, Lord 3S1, 160 

Macbeth 3 S 4 

Maccabees, Rule of the 7 1 

M'Clellan, General G. B 53'. 537 

Macdonough, Commodore 520 

Macedonia, Philip of 100 

MacKenzie on the Turk 209 

MacMahon, Marshal 292 

Macomb, General 5 20 

MacPherson, General 245, 553 

Macpherson, James 3S0 

McCormick, C}tus 627 

McDowell, General 531 

Madagascar, The Island of 456 

Madeira, Discovery of 316 

Madison, James 51S, 5S3, 640 

Magi of the East, The 87 

Magna Charta, The 34 1 

Magna Grsecia 134 

Magruder, General 535 

Maine 604 

Magyars of Austria- Hungary 250 

Malaga, City and Capture of 299 

Malbone, Edward G 637 

Malcolm I., of Scotland 3S4 

Malta, The Island of 192 

Malvern Hills, Battle of 535 

Mamelukes Subjugate Egypt 59 

Mammoth, The Age of the 40 

Man, The Earth Without 37 

and Nature 3S 

From Sponge to 39 

Pre-historic 4° 



PAGE. 

Manitoba, Canada 396 

Manchuria, Country of 440 

Manlius Torquatus 142 

Mansard, The Architect 270 

Marat, Jean Paul 278 

Marathon, Battle of 97 

Marbles, The Elgin 1 19 

Marcellus, General 145 

Marcus Aurelius 163 

Mardonius, General 97 

Marengo, Battle of 237 

Margall, President 3*3 

Margaret, Queen of the Danes 3 2 ' 

Margaret of Scotland 3^5 

Maria Christina 3 12 

Marie Antoinette 27S 

Marion, General 5'3 

Marius, Caius 1 5° 

Mark Twain on the Sphinx 46 

Marlborough, Duke of. 366 

Mars, The Planet 25. 26 

Marshall, Humphrey 533 

Marston Moor, Battle of 364 

Martius, The Campus 134 

Martyr, Justin "7 6 

Mary, Queen of England 35S, 306 

Marries Philip II., of Spain 35® 

Persecutes the Protestants 35$ 

Mary and William of Orange 365 

Mary, Queen of Scots 3^5 

Maryland 493. 604 

Masonry of Old England, Free 34 2 

Massachusetts 604 

Mastodon, The Age of 4° 

Mather, Cotton 63S 

Matter and Motion 37 

Matthias of Germany 2 3 2 

Maurice of Nassau 25S 

Maury, Commodore 644 

Mausolus, The Tomb of. 125 

Maximian l6 9 

Maximilian, The Emperor 4°4 

Maximus of Thrace 16S 

Mazarin, Cardinal 26S 

Meade, General George G 53S, 550 

Mecklenburg Resolutions, The 505 

Medes and Persians, The 53 

Medici, Catherine de 265, 267 

Medici, Mary de 26S 

Medieval Germany 223 

Mehemet, Ali 60 

Mehemit, Tewfik 59 

Melancthon, Philip 231 

Melbourne, The City of 4 2 ° 

Memphis, The Glory of 4 6 

Mendelssohn 246 

Menelaus of Sparta 9 2 

Menes of Egypt 46 

Mercury, The Planet 25, 26 

Mercia, Kingdom of. 334 

Merovingian Dynasty 224 

Atrocities of the - 2 4 

Messenia, Kingdom of 95 

Messenian Wars, The Three 95 

Metamorphoses, By Ovid l6i 

Methodism, The Founders of 3°9 

Metz, Battle of 2 4° 

Mexico and the Mexicans - . .461 

Discovered bv Cortez 462 

The Aztecs and Their Civilization 461 



PAGE. 

Mexico, The Conquest of 452 

Mexican Independence 463 

Civil War and Mexicanization 463 

Political Fortunes of Santa Anna 03 

The Mexican War 463 

Disestablishment of the Church 464 

Maximilian and the Monroe Doctrine.. .4^4 

The French in Mexico 464 

Juarez and Political Stability 465 

Subsequent Presidents 465 

The City of Mexico 465 

Resources of the Country 466 

Agriculture and Transportation 466 

Banco Nacional Mexicano 466 

Mexican War, The 5 2 5 

Michigan 606 

Michael VIII 202 

Mickiewicz, Adam 222 

Miecislas I., of Poland 21S 

Miecislas II. of Poland 21S 

Mignard 270 

Mikado, Rebellion Against the 43 2 

Milan, The Decree of 169 

The City of 186 

Military Duty in Germany 241 

Milky Way, The 3 2 

Mill, James Stuart 3 Sl 

Miller, Joaquin t>49 

Miltiades Defeats Darius 97 

Milton, John, and His Writings 37S 

Minerals in the U. S '633 

Ministry, The English 373 

Minnesota 605 

Minor Asia and Africa 45? 

Minute Men of the Revolution 504 

Mirabeau 37 2 

Missions, Modern 1S3 

Missouri 60S 

Mitchell, S. A 35 

Mississippi 605 

Mississippi Valley, French Settlements in.. 499 

Mithridates of Parthia S7 

Mithridates Defeated by Sulla 151 

Mockern, The Battle 237 

Modern Egypt 59 

Persia 89 

Ethiopia 65 

Greece 102 

Greece and the Greek Church 129 

Christianity, The Papacy and 177 

Missions ^83 

Mogul Empire, The 40S 

Mohammed, The Prophet 195 

Names Kadijah 195 

Begins Preaching 196 

Seeks Safety in Flight 196 

Builds a Mosque at Medina 196 

War Upon the Christians 196 

Captures Mecca 196 

Death 106 

The Koran of 197 

Mohammed II., at Stamboul 207 

Mohammedan Era Dates From 106 

Mohammedanism, The Strength of. 197 

Moliere, a French Writer 270 

Molay, Jacques 263 

Moltke, Von, a General 239 

Monaco, Republic of 330 

Mongolia and the Monguls 44 1 

Monitor and Merrimack 533 



■^* ~sK 



XV111. 



INDEX. 



PAGE. 

Monmouth, Battle of ■. 5 12 

Monroe, James 5 22 

Monroe Doctrine, The 5 ' 7» 5^3 

Montana Territory 609 

Montenegro, The Principality of 331 

Montpensier.The Duke of 3 12 

Mont eal, The City of --39S 

Mons-Sacer, The Hill of 134 

Moon, The Earth's 25 

Neptune*s 25 

Moons of Saturn, The 25 

of Jupiter, The 25 

of Uranus, The 25 

Moors in Spain, The 295 

Persecutions of the 301 

Moore, Sir Thomas 357, 376 

Moreau, Marshal 337 

Morgan, General 539 

Morgarten, Battle of 32S 

Moriscoes of Spain 301,30s 

Moroe, or Ethiopia 65 

Morocco 457 

Morris, George P ....64.1 

Morris, Robert 5'3, 5'7 

Morse, S. F. B 626 

Moscow, The City of 213, 285 

Moses, The Lawgiver 49, 69 

Moslem, The Believer in 197 

Mosque of St. Sophia 201 

Moswijah 10S 

Motley, John L 644 

Mound- Builders of America 4S6 

Mount Cenis Tunnel — 327 

Mowing Machine, The 627 

Mozart 245 

Muhlenberg and the Lutherans 234 

Multiple Stars, The 32 

Munda, Battle of 156 

Murad V., of Turkey 20S 

Murfreesboro, Battle of 53$ 

Museum at Alexandria 5b 

Myloe, Naval Battle of 145 

Mystics, The Sect of the 1S1 

M y thology, Greek and Roman 1 20 

of the Scandinavians 324. 

Nabonassor, King of Babylon 83 

Nabopolassar, King of Babylon 83 

Nantes, The Edict of a6S 

Napata, Temple of 5 2 

Napier, Sir Robert 66 

Napoleon Bonaparte and his Campaign 2S1 

Appointed First Consul 277 

Italian and Egyptian Campaign .77, 2S2 

Elected Emperor 277 

The Code Napoleon 27S 

At Austerlitz 237, 2S2 

At Marengo 237,282, 277 

At Jena 237, 2S5 

Dissolves the Assembly 2S0 

At Dresden 2S6 

Victory for the Allies 2S6 

Imprisoned at Elba 2S6 

The 100 Days Campaign 286 

Battle of Waterloo 2S6 

Death at Helena 2S6 

Napoleon III.— President 290 

and the Coup d'etat 290 

and the Crimean War 290 

The Siege of Paris 291 

Declares War with Germany 239,291 



PAGE. 

Napoleon III.— Surrender at Sedan 240,291 

Naseby, The Battle of .364 

Nashville, The Battle of 546 

Nassr-ed-Din 89 

Natal, The Colony of 458 

National Guard of France 272 

Assembly of France 275 

Convention of France 27^ 

Nature and Man 38 

Naval Battles of the Civil War 549 

Navy Founded by Henry V., The British. . ..351 

Navy of the American Revolution, The 515 

of the War of 1S12 519 

Navy, the Secretary of the 57° 

Nebo, Temple of S3 

Nebuchadnezzar S2 

Nebula;, or Star Clusters V- 

Nebraska 609 

NechoII 53 

Nemean Games of Greece 107 

Neoplatonism of Alexandria 57 

Nepos, Cornelius 103 

N eptune, The Planet 25, 26 

Neriglossar. 83 

Nero — The Emperor 166 

Nerva, Roman Senator 167 

Netherlands, Belgium and the 255 

Typography and Resources ?57 

The Dutch in History 257 

Dutch Commerce 258 

The Dutch Republic 2 5 s 

Nevada 6l ° 

New England, Early Colonial History of... 403 

Landing of the Pilgrims 493 

Plymouth Colony 494 

Colony of Massachusetts Bay 494 

Harvard College Founded 494 

Settlements in Connecticut 495 

The Charter Oak 495 

Persecution of Roger Williams 495 

KingPhil'p's War 495 

The Illustrious Names of Early 4°6 

The Salem Witchcraft 49° 

New Hampshire 610 

New Jersey 610 

New Mexico Territory 6'i 

New Netherlands Discovered 496 

New Orleans, The Battle of 5'9 

The Capture of 534 

New-Stars 3* 

New South Wales, The Colony of 413 

Area, Population, Government 413 

The Mineral Productions of 414 

Newspapers in U. S 636 

Newton, Sir Isaac 35> 3°S 

New York, Early Colonial 49^ 

Henry Hudson Discovers 496 

Trading Post Established by the Dutch. .496 

The " Patroon 1 ' System Introduced 496 

The Dutch Governors of 497 

History 611 

New Zealand, The Colony of 423 

Nibelungenlied, Medieval German Poetry.. .242 

Nicsea, The City of 202 

Nicaragua 478 

Nicene Creed, The 176 

Nicene Council, The 179 

Nicholas I., Czar of Russia 214 

Nicomedia, The City of 202 

Nightingale, Florence 214 



PAGE 

Nihilism in Russia , 215 

Nimrod, of Assyria 81 

Nineveh, The City of. Si 

Ninus, King of Assyria Si 

Niphon, The Island of 427 

Nitocris, Queen of Assyria 83 

Normans, The 262 

Normandy and Brittany 262 

And the Norwegians 322 

North Carolina 613 

North, Lord 370 

Norway, Consolidated with Denmark 321 

An Independent Kingdom 322 

And her Merchant Marine 322 

and its Literature 322 

Its Revenue and Resources 322 

Nosks of the Zend Avesta 87 

Novgorod, The Republic of 210 

Nubian Kingdom, The 49, 64 

Mines 45, 52 

Valley, The 64 

Numa Pompilius — King of Rome 136 

Nuinidian Jugurtha 150 

Obelisks of Egypt, The 49 

O'Connell, Daniel 3S9 

O'Conor, Charles 565 

Octavius, Afterward Augustus Cajsar 157 

Odyssey, Homer's 92 

Ohio 613 

Oimemepthah, King ot Egypt 50 

Oimemepthah II 51 

Olga, Regent of Russia 211 

Olenburg, The Danish House of 321 

Olympic Games of Greece, The 107 

Omar, The Caliphat of 58 

Omnibus Bill, The 526 

Ommiad Dynasty, The 198 

Opinion of Astronomers 25 

Oporto ana its Wine 319 

Oracle, The Del phic 108 

Orange-Nassau Family, The 25S 

Orange River, The Teritory of 45S 

Orbit, Position in the 30 

The Moon and Her 36 

Orcban, The Sublime Port 206 

Ordinance, The Northwest 522 

Oregon 613 

Origen of Alexandria. 176 

Orleans, The Siege of Raised 264 

The Duke of 270 

Osci, Early Races of Italy, The 134 

Osinta, King of Egypt 51 

Othman Founds the Ottoman Empire 20S 

Olho of Bavaria 131 

Otho, Imperator of Rome 166 

Otho, the Great King of Germany 225 

Restores Peace in Italy 184 

Otis, James 507 

Ottawa, Canada .- 39S 

Ottocar 249 

Ottoman Empire, The 206 

Ourique, The Battle of 315 

Ovid, Roman Poet 162 

Oxford, University of 342 

Packenham, General 520 

Padisha, or Sublime Porte 206 

Paine, Thomas 276, 277,640 

Painters, Celebrated Italian 187 

Palaces of Egypt, The 54 

of England, Royal 373 



^7^ 



INDEX. 



PAGE. 

Palicologi Dynasty, The 202 

Palatinates, Poland Divided into 218 

Palfrey, John G 642 

Palermo, The City of. 1 So 

Palestine in the Time of Christ 172 

Palmyra, Zenobia Queen of 5S 

The City of S4 

Panama, Isthmus nnd State of 470 

Pan- Slavonic Nation, A 221 

Papacy and Modern Christianity 177 

Its Slow Growth 17S 

Papal Infallibility, The Dogma 1S2 

Paper, First Made 230 

Papyrus, When First Used 55 

Paraguay Republic, The 468 

Paris, Siege of 240, 291 

The importance of. 292 

Paris of Troy and Helen of Sparta 92 

Parker, Theodore 643 

Parkman, Francis 644 

Parliament Established in England 341 

and Cromwell, The Long 364 

Under Cromwell, The Rump 365 

of Present England 373 

Abolished, The Irish 3S9 

The Canadian 397 

The Australian 423 

Parnassus, Mount 1 oS 

Parnell and the Irish 3S9 

Parsees of Persia, The SS 

Parthenon of Athens, The 117 

Parthia and the Zend Avesta S6 

and Rome, Darius S6 

Pascal 270 

Pasha of Turkey, The 20S 

Patagonia and the Patagnnians 468 

Patents and Patentees 622 

Paul Preaches Christ 174 

Paul, Cz-ir of Russia 213 

Paulus, Consul of Rome 146 

Pavia, The City of 1S6 

Pea Ridge, The Rattle of 533 

Pedro, Dom, Emperor 31S 

Pelasgi, The 134 

Peloponnesian War, The 09 

Pemberton, General 541 

Penal Colonies of Austral. isia 411 

Pendleton, George H 545 

Penn, William 497 

Pennsylvania 497, 615 

People, A Peculiar 6S 

Pepin of Germany 225 

Pepin, The Short 225, 262 

Periander m 

Pericles and Aspasia 106 

Period, The Cushite 52 

of the Judges 69 

of Com promise 522 

of Conflict, The 5 29 

Periods, The Geological 37 

Perrault 270 

Perry, Commodore M. C 43 1 

Perry, Commodore O. H 510 

Persia, Parthia and the Zend Avesta S6 

its Early History and Wars S6 

Physical Aspects and Conditions S6 

Darius, Parthia and Rome S7 

Zoroaster and the Magi S7 

The Parsees and the Zend Avesta SS 

Summary of the Persian Bible S9 



Persia, Comparative Antiquity S9 

Present $9 

Persian Invasion of Egypt ■ • ■ 55 

Isolation 86 

Literature S6 

War with Greece 97 

Persius, a Rorr_a.n Poet 162 

Persecution of the Jews 72 

of Christians 174 

Persepolis, The City of. S7 

Peru, Republic of 172 

Francisco, Pizarro Invades 473 

Mines and Guano Beds of 474 

Peter The Great, Czar of Russia 212 

Peter at Rome, Saint 17S 

Peter The Hermit 190, 203 

Petersburg, Capture of 546 

Petition of Rights, The y'-$ 

Phxdrus, Fables of 102 

Pharaohs of Egypt, The 19 

Pharisees, a Jewish Sect 74 

Pharsalia,The Battle of. 152 

Pharos, Lighthouse on the 5(1 

Phidias the Sculptor 117 

Philce, The City of '2 

Philip of Macedonia 100, 102 

Philip II. of Spain 258,306 

Marries Bloody Mary 306 

and Queen Elizabeth 307 

Philip The Handsome 263 

Philip VI., First Valois King 264 

Philip III., King of Spain 30S 

Philip IV., King of Spain 309 

Philippi, The Battle of 137 

Philo and the Essenes 57» 74» l '7 

Philosophy, Alexandrian School of 57 

and Art, Greek 114 

Phoenicia and the Phoenicians 64 

The Cities of 66 

Tyre and Sidon 66 

Commerce and Enterprise. 17 

The Colonies of 67 

The Arts and Industries 67 

Disappearance of the Phoenicians 67 

Pickens, General 513 

Picts of Scotland, The 3S2 

of England, The 333 

Pierce, Franklin 527, 5S4 

Pillow, Massacre of Fort 542 

Pindar no 

Pisa, The City of 1S5 

Pittsburg Landing, Battle of 534 

Pius Antonius .49 

Pius IX., Pope (86 

Dogma of Immaculate Conception 1S6 

Dogma of Infallibility 1S6 

Planets, The 25, 20, 36 

Plates, Explanation of the Astronomical.... 36 

Plato 112, 115 

Plattsburg, Battle of. 519 

Plautus 161 

Pleiades, The 32 

Plhehmen, Meiothph 51 

Pliny 74, 164 

Plow, The 624 

Plutarch 103 

Pocahontas and Capt Smith 492 

Poe, EdgaT Allen 040 

Poictiers, The Battle of 225 

Poland and the Poles 217 



PAGE. 

Poles, Their First Appearance 217 

The Casimirs Feudalism 21S 

A Monarchical Republic 219 

John Sobieski 219 

Anarchy and Intervention 220 

Stanislas and Neighboring Powe s.... 220 

St. Petersburg and Warsaw 220 

Fall of the Republic 220 

Kosciusko 220 

Polish Characteristics 221 

Russian Policy, Pan Slavonic Dream.. . .221 

Literature, Paul Soboleski 221 

Polish Jews, Religious Persecutions 2.2 

Polani or Poles, The 217 

Pole Star, The 32 

Poles, Poland and the . .■ 17 

Policy, Roman Colonial 137 

Polish Characteristics 221 

Literature 22 1 

Jews 222 

Political System of Canada 397 

Polk, James K 525, 5S4 

Poll Tax Rebellion of England .347 

Polybius, a Greek . . [44, 146 

Polyc.irp, a Christian Martyr 176 

Pompey the Graat 71, 152 

Pompadour, Madam 270 

Pompilius, Numa 136 

Pontius Pilate 71 

Pope, General 530, 550 

Pope, Alexander 379 

Popes of Rome, The 17S 

Population of Ireland, Increase of. 3S9 

of the Japanese Empire 427 

Porsena of Clusium 137 

Porte, The Sublime 206 

Porter, Commodore 549 

Porter, Fitzjohn 537 

Port Hudson, Capture of 541 

Porto Rico, The Island of 4S0 

Port Said, The Town of 61 

Portugal, The First Appearance of 29S 

and the Portuguese 315 

Alfonso of Leon and Castile 315 

Maratime Supremacy 316 

Zarga, daGama 317 

and Colonial Possessions 317 

Don Sebastian and Sebastianism 31S 

and Brazil 31S 

Civil War and England 319 

Exportation of Wine 319 

Portuguese Literature 319 

Absorbed by Spain 31S 

Revolt Against Spain 318 

Possessions of the Netherlands 250 

Postmaster General, The 57S 

Potter, Paul 259 

Powers, Hiram 637 

Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VI 236 

Prague, The University of ; . . 22S 

Great Riot at 232 

Praxitiles, The Attic 117 

Prebble, Commodore 521 

Pre-historic Man. 40 

Prescott, W. H 644 

President, The Duties of the 572 

Presidents and Presidential Elections 572 

Presidential Electors 570 

Prevost, Sir George 520 

Priesthood, The Roman 177 



\ 



^ — - 



INDEX. 



PAGE. 

Primitive Savage, The 4 ! 

Agrarianism 136 

Christianity 173, 177 

Fathers, The 17' 1 

Princeton, The Battle of 510 

Printing Invented 22b 

Press, The 625 

Proctor, Richard A 35 

Products and Roads of Ireland 3S7 

Protectorate of England Established 365 

Protestant Reformation, The iS 1 

War, The 22S 

Church in France 266 

Protestants, The Early 1S1 

The Persecutions of the 1S1 

Protestantism in Germany 22S 

in France 266 

and Wycliffe 35° 

Prussia, The Rise of 235 

The House of Hohenzollerns 235 

Declares War Against France 237 

Defe ,ted at Anerstadt and Jena 237 

Victories at Katzbach and Mockern 237 

Blucher Defeated at Leipzig 2.17 

Blucher at Waterloo 237 

William I., King of Prussia 23S 

The Seven Weeks' War 239 

Schleswig-Holstein War 23S 

North German Confederation 239 

War With France 239 

Battles Around and Surrender of Met?. . . 230 

Sedan and Capture of Napoleon III 239 

Siege and Capture of Paris 239 

1 1 raw French Indemnity Required 240 

A Part of the German Empire 241 

Psammeticus I ■ • 53» °5 

Ptolemaeus, Claudius 12S 

Ptoli maic System, The 128 

Ptolemic Dynasty, The .55 

Ptolemies, The First of the 56 

and Science, The 57 

Ptolemy, Epiphanes 45 

Ptolemy, Philopater 45 

Ptolemy of Alexandria 128 

Public Domain of the United States. . 570 

Pulaski, Count 512 

Punic War, The First 144 

The Second 1 45 

The Third 146 

Pyramid and Sphinx, Cheops 46 

Pyramids of Egypt 45 

Pyrrho, The Father of Skeptics i"3 

Pyrrhus of Epirus 143 

Pythia of Delphi 10S 

Pythian Games of Greece 107 

Pythias 22S 

Quarles, Francis, English Poet 37S 

Quebec, The City of. 397 

Captured by Wolfe 501 

Montgomery before 5°5 

Queens and, The Colony of 425 

Area 425 

Quiritary Land of Rome 139 

Rabellais, Francois 265 

Racine 270 

Railroad, The Pacific 5^4 

Railroad Strikes of 1S77 566 

Railroad Industry U. S 633 

Railroads of Canada, The 307 

of British India 40S 



PAGE. 

Railroads of the Japanese Empire 433 

Raleigh, Sir Walter, an English Statesman . . 359 

Introduces Tobacco into England 362 

Arrested by King James 301 

Introduces the Potato into England 362 

and Early Colonial History 491 

Rameses I., of Egypt 50 

Rameses The Great 50 

Rape of the Sabines 136 

Rassam's Discoveries in Assyria S3 

Ravenna, Italy 171 

Reconstruction Art, The 553 

Reconstruction of the German Empire zt, 1 

Reference Tables, See Tables of Reference.. 

Reformation, The Protestant 1S1 

Under the Hussites, The 22S 

Regillus, Battle of Lake 137 

Regnard, The Painter ..270 

Regulus and the Punic War 145 

Rei. hstag and Bundesrath, of Germany 241 

Reid, The Philosopher 3S6 

Reign of Terror in France 277 

Religion in France 293 

In Scandinavia 321, 325 

in China 45' 

Religions of History, The Ten 175 

Religions Toleration in Austria 253 

Toleration in Belgium 256 

Toleration in the Netherlands 257 

Toleration in Spain 313 

Rembrandt, Painter 250 

Remus and Romulus 13 

R( nftissance in France, The 264 

in Japan 432 

R< public, The Dutch 25S 

The Fall of the Dutch 250 

The Bavarian 259 

The French 276, 292 

of Spain, The 312 

The Swiss 325 

of Andorra 329 

of San Marino 330 

The Roman -138 

of Novgorod, The 210 

of Poland 219 

Republican Party Under Burr and Jefferson. 517 

or Anti Slavery Party 527 

Reservations of the U. S. Indian 489 

Resources of Egypt, The 44 

Restoration of the Jews, The 7'. 74 

Revolution in Paris 240, 272 

in Portugal Against Spain 31S 

Reynolds, General J. F =541 

Rhacotis, Village of 55 

Rhine, The Confederation of the 237 

Rhode Island 616 

Rhodes, The City and Colossus of. 12c; 

The Island of 193 

Rhodolph, Count of Hapsburg 249 

Emperor of Germany zi,Q 

Richard Cceur de Leon 3jo 

Richard II., of England 34S 

Richard III , of Englan 35+ 

Richelieu, Cardinal 232, 26S 

Richter 244 

Riot, The Canadian 39S 

in New York, The Draft 542 

Robert of Normandy iSq 

Robespierre and the French Revolution 276 

Rochambeau, Count 514 



PAGE. 

Roman Mythology, Greek and 121 

Republic, The Last Century 14S 

See, The 1 79 

Romanofs, The House of the 213 

Rome, Ancient Italy and Primitive 133 

The Peninsula of Italy 134 

The Races and Cities 134 

Latium and Alba Longa Compared 134 

.Eneas and the Famous Twins ... '35 

The Founding of 135 

The Rape of the Sabines 136 

The Reign of Numa Pompilius 136 

The Tarquins, Lucius and Tullia 136 

Primitive Agrarianism ..136 

Roman Colonial Policy 137 

The Public Highways •■'37 

Tarquin the Proud 137 

The Last of the Legendary Kings 137 

Semi-Historic 13S 

Republicanism and First Consuls of 13S 

The Rivalry of Classes 138 

Establishment of Tribunate 139 

Agrarianism and the Plebs 139 

Cincinnatus and Dentatus 140 

Virginius and Virginia 140 

Coriolanus and His Pride 141 

Greek and Roman Ideals Compared 141 

Invasion of the Gauls 141 

The Gauls and Latins 142 

and Carthage 143 

Pyrrhus and His Elephants 143 

Carthage and Its Place in History 144 

The First Punic War .144 

Hamilcar and Hannibal 145 

The Second Punic War 145 

Hannibal Crosses the Alps 146 

The Battle of Cannae 146 

The Fabian Policy 146 

Scipio and the War in Africa 146 

The Further Conquests of 147 

Third Punic War, Fail of Carthage 147 

Last Century of the Roman Republic. . . . 14S 

The March of Conquest 14S 

Area of the Republic I48 

The Censor and Younger C ato 149 

The Gracchi 149 

Sulla and Marius 150 

The Unification of Italy 150 

Burning of 151 

Sulla Dictator 151 

Pompey the Great 152 

Judea and Spain Taken 152 

Cicero and the Conspiracy of Cataline. . 152 

Julius Cassar, His First Consulate 1 53 

Cxsar and the Empire 155 

Ca;sar and the Calendar 155 

Testimony of Froude ■ 56 

The Age of Skepticism 156 

The Assassination of Caesar 156 

The Triumvirate 157 

Cleopatra of Egypt 157 

Augustus and His Policy.. 157 

The Empire and the Senate 1 5S 

Popularity of the Emperor Augustus,. ..159 

The Augustan Age 159 

Latin Classics 160 

The Emperors from Augustus to Alaric, 165 
Tiberius Caesar and Caligula 165 

Rome in the Days of Nero 166 

The Siege of Jerusalem 166 



■f 6- 



\ 



INDEX. 



PAGE. 

Rome, From Vespasian to Trajan. ..■ 167 

Hadrian to Marcus Aurelius 168 

The Forum 168 

The Age of the Antonines 16S 

Ulpian the Lawyer 168 

Diocletian and Constantine 169 

Julian the Apostate 170 

Weakness and Dissension 171 

Theodosius, the Permanent Division ot 

Empire 171 

The Greek, and Roman Churches 171 

The Last Days of Imperial 171 

and Christ 173 

and Primitive Christianity 173 

The Papacy and Modern Christianity 177 

The Early Popes 178 

Popes Leo and Gregory 179 

Papal Corruption and the Reformation.. 1S0 

Protestantism in Italy 181 

The Mystics and Inquisition i Si 

The Jesuits and Jesuitism iS( 

Philip SchafI on the Church of Rome.. . 182 

Present Pope and the Vatican 183 

Spiritual Divisions of Christendom 183 

Modern Missions 1S3 

Present Italy 1S4 

Romerer, King of Egypt ^ 51 

Romulus, The Founder of Rome 134 

Rosecrans, General 541, 550 

Roses, The War of the 352 

Rosetta Stone, The 45 

Rotterdam, The City of 256 

Roumania 331 

Rousseau, Jean Jaques 271 

Rubens J $9 

Rubber, Vulcanized 627 

Rudaki, Persian Poet S9 

Rurik, Grand Prince and Founder of Russia, 210 

Russia, The Dawn of 210 

Novgorod, The Great Republic 210 

Grand Princes, From Rurik to Igoe 211 

Olga's Revenge and Piety 211 

Vladimir and Christianity 211 

Genghis Khan and the Golden Horde.. .212 

Ivan, Peter and Catherine 21a 

Moscow and Napoleon 313 

Alexander I. and the Holy Alliance 214 

Nicholas and the Crimean War 214 

Alexander II. and the Serfs --215 

Nihilism, Siberia 215; 

Present Condition of... 216 

Greek Church in 216 

Russian Calendar, The 3$ 

Saarbrucken, Rattle of 240 

Sabbakon of Ethiopia 65 

Sabelli Race, The 134 

Sabines, Rape of the 136 

Sadducees 74 

Sadowa, Battle of. 230 

Safes, American 626 

Sahara, The Desert of. 457 

Saida, City of 67 

Sais, The Town of 50,53 

St Albans, The Battle of 352 

St. Augustine, in England 334 

St. Bernard, Abbott of 191 

St. Bartholomew, Massacre of 265 

St. Clair, General 516 

St. Columba, an Irish Saint •■$$$ 

St. Helena, The Island of. 460 



PAGE. 

St. Johns, N. F., The City of. 39S 

St. John, The Knights of 193 

St, Patrick and Ireland's Conversion 3S7 

Confession of Faith 3SS 

St. Pelersburgh, City of 214, 220 

St. Sophia, The Mosque of 201 

Salad in Captures Jerusalem 192 

Salamis, Naval Battle of. 99 

Sallust 163 

Salic Law of Spain, The 312 

Samnite Race, The 142 

Samson, the Israelite i. 70 

Sandys, George 63S 

San Domingo. 4S1 

Sandwich Islands, The 4S4 

Sanitary Commission, The 549 

San Marino, The Republic of. 330 

Sanskrit of India, The 40S 

San Salvador 478 

Santa Anna, President of Mexico 463 

Sanskrit Language 87 

Sappho no 

Saracen Empire, The - . 195 

Mohammed 195 

Mecca and Medina 196 

The Strength of Islam 197 

The Great Empires 197 

Mohammed Morals, The Koran 197 

The Caliphate and the Ommiad Dynasty. 19S 

Division and Fall of the Empire 19S 

The Saracens and Modern Civilization. . 199 

Saracenic Glory and its Eclipse 199 

Saratoga, Ba ttle of .512 

Sardanapalus, King of Assyria S2 

Sardinia Captured by the Romans 145 

The Kingdom of iS6 

Sardis, Capital of Lydia 97 

Satsuma Rebellion in Japan, The 4^2 

Saturn, The Planet 35, 36 

Saul, King of Israel 70 

Savage, The Primitive. .. 41 

Savage Station, The Battle of 530 

Savonarola, an Early And papist iSr 

Savoy, The House of 1S0 

Saxe-Coburg, the Kingdom of 255 

Saxe, John G 647 

Scales, American 626 

Scandinavia and the Scandinavians 320 

Iceland and its Literature 320 

The Danes in Historv 321 

Norway and the Norwegians 322 

Sweden and the Swedes 323 

Mythology of 324 

Greenland and the Norsemenin America.324 

Schaffon the Roman Church 1S2 

SchefTer 2^0 

Schelling 246 

Schiller, Von 240 

Schleswig and Holstein Question 329, 321 

Schliemann's Explorations at Troy 90 

Science in England, Society for Promotion of.368 

Scio, The Massacre of 131 

Scipio in Spain 146 

Captures Carthage 147 

Scotland and the Scotch 3S2 

Scotia and Nova Scotia 382 

The Picts— The Anglo Saxon 3S2 

Conversion to Christianity 3S2 

Fergus the Scotch -Irish man 3S2 

Edwin and Edinburgh 3S3 



PAGE. 

Scotland, Constantine II. and England 3S4 

Duncan and Macbeth 3S4 

James I. — Feudalism 384 

Bruce and Independence 3S4 

Robert and the House of Stuart 384 

David II., James V 3S4 

Henry VIII. and the Scotch Crown. 385 

Mary, Queen of Scots 385 

James VI. Becomes James I. of England. 3S5 

John Knox and Presbyterianism 3S6 

Union with England 3S6 

Scotch Literature and Writers 3S0 

Scott, Sir Walter 386 

Scott, General Winfield 519, 525, 531 

Sculptors, Noted Italian 187 

Scythia of The Ancients, The 1S7 

Sebastian, Dora '. 318 

Secession, Southern 530 

Ordinance Repealed 553 

Sects, Hebrew Literature and 73 

Sedan, Battle of 240 

Sedgwick, General John 545 

Seleucidre, The Victory of *.. .. .S5 

Seiim, Sultan of Turkey 85 

Semiramis, Queen of Assyria Si 

Semmes Raphael 558 

Sennacherib Sa 

Senate of the United States, The 572 

Seneca 163 

Senegambia, The Country of 457 

Sepharvaim, The City of 84 

Sepoy Mutiny of India, The 407 

Septuagint, Hebrew Bible 73 

Sepulcher, The Holy. . 192 

Serfs, Liberation of Russian 215 

of France Liberated 263 

Serrano, President 31a 

Servetus Burned by Calvin.. 265 

Servia, The Kingdom ot 330 

Servilius, Consul of Rome 139 

Servius, Tarquin ... 137 

Servius, Flavius 169 

Sevastopol Bombarded by the Allies 214 

Sevechus of Ethiopia 65 

Seven Years' War, The z$$ 

Severus, Alexander 16S 

Seward, William H 527 

Sewer, The Cloaca Maxima 136 

Sewing Machine 626 

Sextus and Lucretia 137 

Seymour, Horatio 55»4 

Shakespeare, William 376 

Sheba, The Queen of. 65 

Shepherd, From Hunter to ... 41 

to Farmer, From 42 

Kings of Egypt . 47, 49 

Sheik-uMslam 20S 

Shems-ed-Dim Mohammed S9 

Sheridan, General Philip H 542, 553 

Sherman, General W. T ..542,545, 550 

Shillaber, B. P .647 

Shishank and Bubastis 52 

Siam, 1 he Kingdom of 453 

Siberia, or Russia in Asia ..217 

The Rivers and Mountains of 217 

Area and Population 217 

Sicily and the First Punic War 144 

Sickles, General D. E 541 

Sidney, Sir Philip 376 

Sidon, The Cities of Tyre and 66 



i 0) '- 



iK* 



± 



XX11. 



INDEX. 



f 



PAGE. 

Sierra. Leone 457 

Sigismund I., King- of Poland 219 

Sig-ismund IE., the Last of thejagelloe 219 

Sigismund, King- of Sweden 3^3 

Signs of the Zodiac 3' 

Silesia, The Providence of 235 

Silk Culture in the United States 632 

Si] iman, Benjamin 644 

Sintuism Worship 4»33 

Siphara, The City of. 84 

Slavs, The Polish 222 

Slavonic Republic, The Dream of a . . .221 

Slowacki, Julius 222 

Smith, Adam 379 

Smith, General Kirby 54 rt 

Smith, Captain John 49a 

Smugglers of Rhode Island and the Gospee.503 

Sobieski, John, A Polish Ruler aiQ 

Defeats Ibrahim, The Devil 219 

Defeats the Turks Under Mustapha 219 

Sobieski, James, of Poland 219 

Sobieski, Paul 221 

Socrates .115 

Solar System, The 26 

Solomon, King 7° 

Solon and his Laws 105 

Sol ymon The Magnificent 192, 207 

Sons of Liberty, Organized 503 

Soudan, Africa. 457 

Smith America, The Countries of 467 

South Carolina 616 

South Mountain, The Battle of 537 

Southey, Robert. 381 

South Sua Company, The 367 

Spain, Celtic, Gothic and Moorish 291 

Iberia and the First Age of Spain 294 

The Gothic Period 294 

Theological Animosity. 294 

Invasion of the Moors 295 

The Moorish Kingdom Established.... 295 

Averroes and Religious Reaction 297 

Fall of Cordova and Rise of Granada. .298 

The Alhainbra 29S 

The Fall of Malaga 299 

The Conquest of Granada 209 

Ferdinand and Isabella 300 

and Portugal.. . 300 

The Moors and Moriscoes 301 

Persecution of the Jews 301 

The Inquisition and Auto-da-fe 301 

Christopher Columbus and his Career.. .302 

Indian and African Slavery 304 

The last Days of Ferdinand and Isabella. 304 

Catholic, Chapter LI 305 

Philip and Juana 305 

The Escurial 307 

Portuguese and Spanish Crowns 30S 

Decline and Loss of Territory 306 

Napoleon and Spain 310 

The Rulers from Charles V. to Isabella II.3 11 

A Republic 313 

Alfonzo and the Present Government., .31 j 

Art and Literature of 313 

Sparks, Jared 642 

Sparta, The Kingdom of... 95, 9S, 104 

Spartans, The 95. T °4 

Spencer, Herbert 3S1 

Spenser, Edmund 37 n 

Sphinx, The Great Pyramid and 46 

Sponge to Man, From the.. 39 



PAGE. 

Spots on the Sun, View of 31 

Spottsylvania, Battle of 545 

Spurius Cassius 139 

Stamboul, or Constantinople 204 

Stamp Act, The 5°- 

Stanislas of Poland 220 

Stanton, Edwin M 576 

Star of Bethlehem, The 32 

Stark, Col. John 512 

Stars, The 25, 32 

State, The Secretary of 573 

State Sovereignty, The Doctrine of 556 

States of the German Empire 241 

of the United States 592 

of Colombia, The United States 47 1 

Steamboat, The 623 

Stephen of Vendome 192 

Stephen, King of England 33S 

Stephen I. of Hnngarv 250 

Stephens, Alexander H 530, 555, 561 

Sterne, Lawrence 3S0 

Steuben, Baron 512 

Stevens, Thaddens 553 

Stewards, or Major Domi 225 

Stewart, Commodore 5'9 

Stilicho 171 

Stockholm, The City of , 323 

Stone and Bronze Age, l"he 42 

The Rosetta 45 

Stoneinan, General 535 

Story, W. \V 637 

Story, Judge .... .643 

Stowe, Harriet B 64S 

Strasburg, The Siege of 240 

Stratherne, Ancient 3S3 

Strongbow, Earl of Pembroke 340 

Stuart, General J. E. B 536 

Stuart, Gilbert C 637 

Stuart, Prof. Moses 643 

Stuarts of Germany, The 225 

of England, The 361 

Subjugation of the Jews 70 

Suetonius 164 

Suez Canal and Town 60 

Suffrage in the United States 579 

Suffolk, The Duke of 351 

Sulla, Cornelius 150 

Sullivan, General 509 

Sumner, Charles 527 

Sumner, General E. V 536 

Sun, The Children of the 25 

The Paternity of the 25 

Spots on the 31 

Supreme Court, The 579 

Sumter, Fort, Bombardment of 530 

Swedes in America, The: 497 

Swedenborg, Emanuel.. 323 

Sweden, First Founded .322 

and Protestantism 323 

Gustavus Adolphus 323 

The Literature of 324 

Scandinavian Mythology 324 

Swedenborg and the Church of the New 

Jerusalem 323 

Swift, Jonathan 379 

Swing, David 649 

Switzerland and Lesser Europe 321; 

The Helveti and Medieval Switzerland. .325 

The Story of William Tell 326 

The Mountains of 326 



PAGE. 

Switzerland, The Mt. Cenis Tunne. 327 

and the Reformation 32S 

The Swiss as Soldiers ... 3^ 

Swiss Literature and Universities 329 

Sydney, The City of i-l 

Sylvester 179 

Syracuse, The City of 1 26 

Syria, Antiochus, Epiphanes of 71 

in its First Period Sr 

Under the Selucida: 84 

Modern, and Syriac 85 

Tables of Reference, Astronomical 30 

of Ancient History and Literature, From 

B. C. 1500 to A. D 200 651-662 

of American and European History and 

Literature A. D. 200 to A . D. 18S2 . . .663-6S4 
The Principal Countries of the World. ..685 

The Commerce of the World 6S5 

The Legislatures of the World 686 

Congressional Apportionment, Based on 

Census of 1SS0 6S6 

The Industries of All Nations 6S7 

Monev of All Nations, Compared With 

Population 6S7 

Armaments of All Nations, or the Art of 

War 6SS 

The Capital or Wealth of AH Nations . .6SS 
The Earnings or Income of AH Nations, 688 
The Increase of Railroads iince 1S70.. . .6SS 

The Food Supply of All Nations ^> 

The Food of All Nations 6S9 

Agricultural and Pastoral Industries of 

the World 690 

Increase of Population since 1S70 600 

Consumption of Cotton, Wool, Flax, 

Etc 690 

Manufacturers of All Nations. 690 

Gold and Silver Production of All Na- 
tions 691 

The Gold Coinage of the World 691 

The Mint Coinage of the United States, 691 
Increase of Commerce and Balance of 

Trade 692 

Gold and Silver Coins of the U. S 092 

Coin Minted and Production of Precious 

Metals 692 

Production of Iron and Steel Works in 

U. S 692 

U. S. Financial History ^93 

U. S. Political History 694 

U.S. Mi.itary History ^•r f ^ 

U. S. Naval History 700 

Paper Money and Fractional Currency in 

U. S 701 

Pension Statistics of the U. S . . 701 

The Presidents and Their Cabinets, 702, 703 

Right of Suffrage in States 704 

New Testament Canon 704 

The Chinese Empire 704 

Foreign Exchange 710 

Pay Roll of the Leading Civil officers 

U. S 710 

Pay Roll U. S. Army, Navy and Marine 

Corps 710 

Distances and Standards of Time 705 

History of the Several States and Terri- 
tories 706 

Population of the Several States 707 

Population of the Leading Cities of the 
U. S 70S 



INDEX. 



PAOE. 

Tables, Population of the Cities of the World. 70S 
Religious and Educational Statistics of 

U. S 709 

The Metric and Standard System of 

Measure ....711 

Tacitus.. 164 

Talmage.T. DeWitt 619 

Talmud, The 74 

Tamerlane 206 

Tarakus of Ethiopia 65 

Tarlton, General. ...... , 514 

Tarquin, Lucius, King of Rome 136 

Tarquin The Proud 137 

Tarquin Servius 137 

Tarquinius Collatinus 13S 

Tartar Invasion of Russia, The 212 

Tasmania, 414 

Tasso 1S7 

Taylor, Bayard .645 

Taylor, Jeremy 37S 

Taylor, Gen. Richard 546, 563 

Taylor, Zachery 526, 5S4 

Telegraph, The ...626 

Tell, William, and Swiss History 326 

Temples of Egypt, The 52, 5* 

Ten Tribes of Israel... 70 

Tennessee 616 

Tennyson, Alfred 3S1 

Terence 161 

Territory and Tribes, The Indian 489 

Territorial Governments, The 579 

Terror, The Reign of 277 

Terry, General 559 

Tertullion of Carthage 176 

Tenure of Office Bill 553 

Tetzel 231 

Tewnk, Khedive of Egypt 59 

Tewkesbury, Battle of 352 

Texas, Republic of 525 

Annexed to the United States 525, 617 

Thackerav 3S1 

Thales ol Miletus ...114 

Thebes in Egypt 4S 

in Greece 91 

Themistocles 99, 106 

Theodora, Queen 201 

Theories of Creation 37 

Theodore II., of Abvssinia 65 

Theodosius of Constantinople 171 

Theseus the Pride of Athens *. 92 

Theresa, Maria 336 

Thermopyl.T', The Glory of 98 

Th ses of Martin Luther 231 

Thibet and the Grand Llama. . 441 

Thiers, M., President of France 292 

Thirteenth Amendment 553 

Thirty Years' War 232 

Thomas, Gen. Geo. H 539, 546, 550 

Thoth, the Egyptian God 49 

Thothmosis, King 49 

Thothmosis IV 50 

Thucydides 112 

Thurman, Allen G 566 

Tiber, The River 134 

Tiberius Caesar 165 

Ticinus, Battle of 146 

Ti^l.tthpileser $4 

Tilden, Samuel J 5^5 

Tirhakus 65 

Titus 71 , 166 



PAGE. 

Tokio, Japan , 427 

Toronto, The City of 39S 

The University of 39S 

Torquemada. 302 

Tory Party Leaders of England m 372 

Tower of Babel, The 69 

Trafalgar, The Battle of 2S2, 31s 



Traja 



■"7 



Traslmenus, Battle of Lake 146 

Trebia, The Battle of...... 146 

Trent Affair, The 532 

Trenton, The B ittleof 510 

Treasury, The Secretary of the 574 

Treaty of Berlin, The 253 

Tribunatus Established in Rome 139 

Tribes, The Ten 70 

Tribes of the Atlantic Coast, The Indian 48S 

Tribune, The N. V 565 

Trinity College, Dublin 393 

Tripoli, a Country in Africa 457 

Tripolis, The City of 66 

Trojan War, The 92, 95 

Trollope, Anthony 38 1 

Trowbridge, J. T .64S 

Troy Captured by the Greeks 93 

Troyes, The Treaty of 35 1 

Trumbull, John 637 

Tudors, The House of the 355 

Tullia, Wife of Lucius 136 

Tullius, Hostilius 136 

Tullius, Servius 136 

Tunis, Africa 457 

Turkestan and Ancient Scythia 455 

Turkey, or the Ottoman Empire ao6 

Adrianople and Tamerlane 206 

The Fall of Constantinople 207 

Solyman the Magnificent 207 

The Decline of the Empire 207 

Religion and Intelligence in 20S 

Present Condition of 20S 

Area, Population, Government 208 

Education, Railroads, Debt 209 

Tycho, The Crater 31 

Tycoon of Japan Established 432 

Tyler, John 525, 5S4 

Tyler, Wat, and the Poll Tax 34S 

Tyndall 3S1 

Tyre and Sidon, The Cities of 66 

Ulemaand the Koran 20S 

Ulfila 224 

Ulpian 16S 

Ulrica Eleonora, Queen of Sweden 323 

Ulysses of Ithaca 92 

The Wanderings of . 94 

Umbri, A Race of Ancient Italy.... 134 

Unhistoric Man 43 

Union of Sweden and Norway 323 

United Kingdom, The 373 

United States of Colombia, The 47 1 

United States, Early Colonial History of the.4Qi 

England and English America 491 

The Dutch and New Netherlands 496 

The Spanish and French Settlements 49S 

Colonial Growth and Outgrowth 500 

Board of Trade and Plantations 500 

Intercolonial Wars ....500 

French, Spanish and English Posses- 
sions 501 

Capture of Quebec. 501 

Colonial Delfts and Money 502 



United States, The Stamp Act 503 

Smuggling and the Gaspee 503 

The Boston Tea Party 503 

First Continental Congress 503 

Minute Men and Paul Revere 504 

Battles of Lexington and Concord 504 

Continental Army Organized 505 

The Battle of Bunker Hill 505 

Evacuation of Boston 506 

Charleston and Moultrie 506 

Declaration of Independence .-S ' 1 

Eminent Men ot the Period 506 

Independence and Union 509 

The Hessians and Indians 509 

The Two British General Howes 509 

The Battle of Long Island 509 

The Defeat of Burgovne 510, 512 

La Fayette and French Reinforcements. .53 1 

The Battle of the Brandy wine 511 

Battle of Gerrrantown and Evacuation of 

Philadelphia 511 

The Battle of Bennington 511 

Valley Forge and the Hour of Gloom....5ia 

Articles of Confederation Submitted 512 

France Recognizes American Indepen- 
dence 512 

The Battle at Monmouth 512 

The Campaigns in the Scuth 513 

The Treason of Arnold 513 

The Surrender of Cornwallis 514 

The Navy of the Revolution 515 

The Adoption of the Constitution 515 

The Young Republic 516 

Election of Washington as President... 516 

Hamilton and the U. S. Bank 51S 

The Period of Compromise 522 

The Period of Conflict 529 

The Rise and Fall of the Confederacy.. ^55 

The Present 564 

The Government ot the 571 

The Presidents of the 5S0 

The States of the 592 

Inventions and Inventors of the 622 

The Industries of the 629 

American Literature 63S 

Universe, The Conception of the 23 

University of Alexandria, The Hellenic 57 

of Islam, Cairo 63 

of Prague 22S 

at Leipzig- 22S 

Erfurt 230 

Wittenburg 230 

of Berlin 235, 247 

of Jena 247 

of Halle 247 

of Heidleberg 24S 

of Copenhagen 321 

of Toronto 39S 

of Hanlin, China 450 

Universities of Germany, The 242 

of Belgium, The 256 

of the Netherlands.. 257 

of Switzerland 329 

of Ireland 391 

Upsala, Sweden, The Library of 224 

Uranus, The Planet 25, 26 

Urban II., Pope 263 

Uruguay, The Republic of 46S 

Utah Territory 617 

Valentinian 171 



-K. 



XXIV. 



INDEX. 



PAGE* 

Valentinian II.... 171 

Valerius Corvu 1 1- 

Valerius, a Roman General 137 

Van Buren, Martin $25, 5^3 

Van Dieman's Land 411 

Van Dorn, General 533 

Van Dyck 259 

Van Eyck, Hubert 259 

Van Evck, Jan 259 

Valencia, The Treaty of ...311 

Valois Branchofthc Capetian Dynasty 263 

Vatican Council, The rS2 

at Rome, The 1S3 

Vaudois, The, a Religious Sect 265 

Massacre of the 265 

Venezuela, The Republic of 470 

Venice, The City of 1S4 

Venus, The Planet 25, 26 

Verdun, The Treaty of 262 

Vermont 61S 

Versailles, Louis XVI Retires to 275 

Vespasian 106 

In Britain 333 

Vestal Virgin 135 

Vice President, The Duties of the 572 

Vicksburg Captured. 541 

Victoria, Queen of England 419 

Marriage with Prince Albert 36S 

Victoria, The Colony of. 479 

Vienna, The City of . . - 237, 249 

Napoleon at 237 

Vionville, The Battle of. 240 

Virgil, a Poet of Rome 162 

Virgin Islands, The 479 

Virginia, First Settlement in 492 

Captainjohn Smith and Pocahontas 492 

Slavery Introduced into 492 

First Indian War 49a 

The Colonial Governors of 4^3 

Bacon's Rebellion in 493 

History of 619 

Virginia, The Death of 140 

Virginius, a Roman Tribune 140 

Volcanoes 24 

Volcanic Eruptions 24 

Voltaire 271 

Von Humboldt 23 

Vladimir of Novgorod 211 

Embraces Christianity 211 

Wagner 246 

Wakefield, The Battle of 352 

Waldo, of Lyons, Peter 1S1 

Waldenes, The 1S1 

Wales Absorbed by England 344 

Wales, Llewellyn, Prince of J44 

Wales, The First English Prince of 344 

Wall of China, The Great 143 

Wallace, William 345, 3S4 

Wallenstein and the Reformation 33 

Walpole, Sir Horace. ... 367 

Walter, The Penniless 191 

Walton, Izaak 37S 

War for Grecian Independence [30 

The First Punic . , 144 

The Second Punic 1 1 5 

The Third Punic 147 

of the Investitures i So 

The Crimean .. .214 

The Hussite 22S 

The Thirty Years' 232 



PAGE 

War, The Seven Years' 235 

The Seven Weeks' 239 

The Dutch . . 258 

The Peninsula 311 

of the Roses, The 352 

The Mexican 463 

of America, The Colonial 503 

The Revolutionary 509 

with England, The Second .5iS 

War, The Secretary of 576 

Wares, Henry and William 643 

Warren at Bunker Hill, General 505, 5o3 

"Warren, Seth 512 

Warsaw, The City of 220 

Wartburg, The Castle of 231 

Warwick, The Earl of 352 

Washington Territory 620 

Washington Selected as the Capital 510 

Burnt by the British 521 

Washington, George, and Virginia Militia, 501 

Present at Braddock's Defeat 501 

Takes Command at Boston 505 

and the War of the Revolution 509 

Inaugurated as President 517, 5S0 

Watch -making in America 624 

Waterloo, The Plain and Town of 260 

The Battle 2S6 

Watts, Isaac 470 

Way, The Flarainian 145 

The Appian 145 

Wayne, General Anthony 516 

Wea pons, Bronze and Stone .43 

Webster, Daniel 523 

Webster, Noah 045 

Weimer, The Court of 243 

Weisenberg, The Battle of 240 

Wellington, Lord 311, 2S0 

Welsh Chiefs at Caerna rvon 344 

Wenda, Queen 21S 

Wesley, John and Charles.-. 3C39 

West, Benjamin 637 

West Indies, The 479 

Westminster Abbey 337, 342 

West Virginia 620 

Westphalia, The Peace of 233, 323 

Wieland 243 

Wheeler, William A 566 

Whig Parties of England 372 

Party of the United States. 590 

Whipple, E. P 646 

Whisky Insurrection in Pennsylvania gir> 

Whitby, The Synod of 335 

Whitfield, George, and Methodism. 369 

White Plains, The Battle of. 509 

Whitman, Walt 64S 

Whitney, Eli .624, 523 

Whittier, John G 645 

Wilberforce, William 370 

Wilderness, Battle of the 545 

Wilkes, Captain Charles S3 2 

W illiam, Duke of Normandy ,263 

Invades England 263 

Claims English Crown 317 

Defeats Harold at Hastings 337 

Crowned at Westminster Abbey 337 

The Domes- Day Book 33S 

William and Mary. . . 365 

Victory of the Bovne 365 

Act of Settlement Passed 365 

William IV., of England 368 



PAGE. 

William I., First King of the Netherlands . . .257 

William II., of the Netherlands 257 

William III., of the Netherlands 257 

William of Nassau 2«;S 

William L, King of Prussia 23S 

Crowned Emperor of Germany 239 

Receives the Surrender of Napoleon.. ..240 

Williamsburg, The Battle of 535 

Willis, N. P 641 

Wilson, Alexander 640 

Wilson, Henry 565 

Wilson's Creek, Battle of. 532 

Winchell, Alexander 644 

Winchester, The Battle of 542 

Wirt, William .5S9 

Wirz, Henry 542 

Wisconsin 620 

Witchcraft of the Dark Ages 193 

and King James' Version 104 

Innocent VIII., Bull Against 194 

Richard Baxter and John Wesley on. . . . 194 

Salem, Massachusetts 194 

Wittenberg, The University of. 230 

Wolfe Captures Quebec . . 501 

Wolsey, Cardinal 356 

Wood, Jethro 624 

Wood worth, Samuel 640 

Wool Industry 633 

Woolman, John 639 

Worcester, J. E 643 

Wordsworth, William 3S1 

World of the Ancients, The 125 

Outer Greece 125 

Rhodes and its Colossus 125 

Halicamassus and its Mausoleum 125 

Diana of Ephesus 126 

Syracuse and Archimedes 126 

The Ionian Islands 126 

Crete and Cyprus 126 

Sc.mdia, Sarmatia, Dacia, and Thrace . . . 127 

Scythia and India, Arya 127 

Ptolemy and His Geography 128 

The Ptolemic System 12S 

The Great Periods of the 24 

Worms, The Diet of. 231 

Worship, Greek Hero 90 

Worth, The Battle of 240 

Wycliffe, John 347 

Wyoming Territory - 621 

Massacre of 512 

Xenophon 112 

Xerxes the Great. ... 53 , 9S 

Ximenes, Cardinal of Spain 302, 306 

Yaroslaf, Prince of Russia 211 

Yesso, an Island of Japan 427 

Yokohama, a Seaport Citv of Japan 427 

York, Richard Duke of. 352 

York, Edward Duke of 352 

Crowned Edward IV 352 

Yorktown, Cornwallis' Surrender at 514 

Ypsilantis, Alexander, and Demetrius 102 

Zahringen of Switzerland 325 

Zama, The Battle of 147 

Zend Avesta, Persia, Parthia and the S6 

Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra 5S 

Zerubbabel, The Jews Under 70 

Ziska,John 229 

Zoroaster and the Zend Avesta S7 

Zulu land and the Zulus 45S 

Z wingle and the Reformation 32S 



s\\ 



#nniiic:^iiagiis^ 



N ^*-^^X;S^^«'«=H->^ V 



PAGE. 

The Principal Countries of the World. A Tabulated History. 687 

The Commerce of the World by Countries 687 

The Legislatures of the World 716 

Congressional Apportionments of the United States 716 

The Industries of all Nations 6SS 

The Money of all Nations Compared with Population and Trade.. 6SS 

The Armaments of Nations 689 

The Capital and Wealth of Nations 6S0 

The Earnings or Income of Nations 689 

The Increase of Railroads. Total Cost and Traffic 690 

The Food Supply of all Nations 690 

The Food of all Nations too 

The Agricultural and Pastoral Industries of Nations 691 

The Increase of Population 69 1 

The Cousumption of Cotton, Wool, Flax, Jute, Etc 691 

The Manufactures of all Nations 691 

Available Water Power of Nations for Industries 692 

The Number of Operatives employed by Nations 692 

The World's Production of Coal, Iron and Steel 692 

The Occupations of the World 602 

The Mining of the World 692 

The World's Production of Metallic Lead 692 

The Steel Manufacture of the World 092 

The Production and Consumption of Iron 693 

The Production and Consumption of Beer 693 

The Public Libraries of all Countries 693 

The Universities of the World 693 

Comparative Retail Prices of the Necessaries of Life 693 

The Linen Manufacture of the World '"t 

Comparative Rates of Wages in Europe and the United States. . . oof 

Remarkable Iron Bridges of the World 64 

The Cost of Living. Expenditure among Nations 694 

The Cattle of all Nations 694 

Percentage of Population to Age in all Nations 694 

Sixteen Full Page Colored Diagrams .. 695-710 

Elementary Education of all Nations 711 

Expenditures for Public Schools in the United States 711 

Ratio to Population of the Sexes 7 1 1 

The Letters Employed in Languages 711 

The Drink of all Nations 7' 2 

The Growth of Newspapers of the World .. 712 

The Principal Languages of the World 7 ' 2 

Hogs, Number and Slaughtered of all Nations 712 

The Religions of the Principal Nations 712 

The Savings Banks of all Nations 712 

The Leading Agricultural Crops of the World 713 

The Land of the Principal Nations 7H 

The Houses and their Value, of Nations 7 '3 

Sheep, Number and Slaughtered of all Nations 713 

Production of Precious Metals all Nations 7*3 

The Artillery of the World 7>4 

The Public Works of Nations 7'4 

The Postal Statistics of Nations 714 

Vital Statistics of Nations 7'4 

The Copper Production of the World 714 

The Increase of Commerce and Balance of Trade 715 

Gold and Silver Coins of the United States, Etc 7'5 

TheCoin Minted since 1S70 7"5 

Production of Precious Metals 7 ! 5 



PAGE. 

Production of Iron and Steel Works in the United States 715 

The Pyramid, Cathedrals and Arches of all A-es 716 

The Great Assembly Rooms in the Old and New World 716 

The Longest Rivers of the World 7'7 

The Highest Mountains of the World 7 '7 

The Largest Lakes of the World 7'7 

Foreign Moneys and their English Equivalents 71S 

Value of Foreign Coins in United States Money JlS 

The Financial Hi-tory of the United States 71 > 

The Political History of the United States 720 

The Principal Battles of the Revolution 721 

The Chief Commanders of the United Slates Army 721 

The Principal Battles of the War of 1S12 722 

The Principal Battles of the Mexican War 722 

The Length and Cost of American Wars 722 

The Number of Federal Prisoners received at Andersonville 722 

The Indian Wars of the United States 722 

The Principal Battles of the Civil War 7 2 3-7 3 4 

Total Number of Troops called into Service 724 

The Total Cost of the Civil War 7*5 

The Total Expenditures in the District of Columbia 725 

The Federal Army during the Civil War 725 

The Losses of the Government for every Administration 7 2 S 

The Navy of the Revolution 726 

The Naval Battles of the War of 1S12 7 2 6 

The Principal Naval Battles of the Civil War 726 

The Federal Vessels Captured by Confederate Cruisers 726 

The Vessels Captured or Destroyed for Violation of the Blockade 726 

Paper Money and Fractional Currency of the United States 727 

Pension Statistics of the Uuited States 7 2 7 

The Presidents and their Cabinets 7 2S ~7 2 9 

The Right of Suffrage in the United States 730 

The New Testament Canon 73° 

The Area and Population of the Chinese Empire 73° 

No. of Electoral Votes of each State at each Presidential Election 731 

Ratio of Representation in the Ho seof Representatives 731 

Pay Table of the Leading Civil Officers of the United States 731 

Population of the United States at each Census 732 

Population of the United States in 1SS0 733 

Population of the Principal Cities of the United States ... 734 

Population of the Cities of the World 734 

Immigration into the United States each year, 1S20— 1SS4 735 

Immigration to the United States by Countries during 60 Calender 

Years 735 

Nativities of the Foreign Born Population 735 

Chinese Immigration into the United States, 1S55 to 1S84 inclusive 735 

Total Native White Population of the United States 735 

Total Number of Aliens Coming to the United States prior to 1S20 735 

Tabulated History of the Several States and Territories 736 

Distances and Standards of Time 737 

Distances by Water from New York to various parts of the World 737 
Air-line Distances from Washington to various partsof the World 737 

Distances from London to various parts of the World 737 

Standards of Time in the Principal Cities of the World 737 

Rates of Mortality 73^ 

Table of Expectation of Life 73 s 

A Perpetual Calendar 73 s 

Metric and Standard Systems of Weights and Measures 737-739 



71 



Charts q f flN c i en t Uytebrtuke, ^l s t q e^ 



«-sS-£ 



Chart I. 
II. 
III. 
IV. 
V. 
VI. 
VII. 
VIII. 
IX. 
X. 
XI. 
XII. 
XIII. 
XIV. 
XV. 
XVI. 
XVII. 
XVIII 



The World before Rome, by Centuries 651 

From the Foundation of Rome to Beginning of Roman Republic 653 

From the Roman Republic to Death of Alexander 655 

From the Death of Alexander to end of third Punic War.. . 657 

From the Destruction of Carthage to the Christian Era 659 

From the Christian Era to A. D. 200 661 

From A. D. 200 to the Norman Conquest 663 

From Conquest to Middle of Fourteenth Century , 665 

From Middle of Fourteenth Century to end of Fifteenth Century 667 

The Sixteenth Century 669 

The Seventeenth Century 671 

The Eighteenth Century to the American Revolution 673 

From the War of the Revolution to 1S00 675 

From A. D. iSooto A. D. 1S2S \ 677 

From A. D. 1S25 to A. D. 1S45 679 

From A. D. 1845 to end of the Civil War , 6S1 

From End of Civil War to 1SS0 6S3 

From A. D. 1880 to 1SS5 nS5 



^^^^>S^^7<^ 



■ — »-<3e>-° — 

-TfT 

National Debts of the World 095 

Wealth and Income of all Nations 695 

Debts of Each State of the United States 696 

Debts of the Principal Cities of the United States 696 

State, County and Municipal Debts — 697 

The Money of the World 698 

Food Supply of the World 699 

Population by Occupation "00 

Manufactures of the World "01 

Population of the United States by States "02 

The Public Land— Where Located 703 

Productions of Pig Iron in the World "04 

Coal Productions of the United States TO6 

Cotton Productions of the United States 706 

Tobacco Productions of the United States 706 

Consumption of Cotton in the World 707 

Consumption of Wool and Flax in the World 707 

The Religious Creeds of the World 70S 

Religious Denominations 709 

Standard Time 710 




V 



J- 






, M M W Wi M 1? - . * 

{ $m mi jgsi m j^ 





^CIENCE has dispelled the old 
delusion that all things were 
created for man, that he is the 
diamond of creation, all else 
being mere setting; but it is 
none the less true, that no 
conception can be formed of 
e universe, except in its human 
lations. It is equally true, that in 
der to follow the path of human 
progress intelligently, it is necessary 
to first glance at the vast field of 
knowledge, outside the domain of 
history, antedating all human rec- 
ords. Such a preliminary survey 
will serve as a fitting introduction to 
the specific inquiry in hand, and, 
indeed, forms an integral part of it. The great 
Von Humboldt may be said to have finished the 
demonstration of the fact that "the universe is 
governed by law," by which it is meant that all 
things proceed in an orderly and rational manner, 
as Great Britain or the United States may be said 
to be governed by law. It is the part of science to 
discover and disclose those laws, in their manifold 
relations. It is but yesterday that man began to 
unravel the mysteries of creation. For thousands 
of years the eye of genius was dimmed by the 
mists of absurd conceits and immemorial blunders. 
Albeit the ancient folly that the universe was 
made for man has been cast into the limbo of ex- 
ploded heresies, it is undeniable that the prepara- 
tions made for man were elaborate beyond all pre- 
conception. Whether one glance over the celestial 



field, and pause to ponder upon the wonders of the 
heavens, or delve deep into the earth to ascertain 
the marvels of geology and paleontology, one is 
alike impressed with the magnitude and minuteness 
of the preparations which rendered this earth habit- 
able by human beings. From the remotest star in 
the Milky Way to the tiniest spear of grass, all 
forms a part, necessary and correlative, in the 
mighty system of being over which man sways the 
scepter of superior intelligence. 

The antiquity of the human race is a problem 
thus far defiant of solution. Biblical chronology 
has been somewhat variously interpreted by differ- 
ent scholars, but science and scripture agree that 
man was the last and crowning result of creation. 
Vast eijochs intervened between the beginning and 
the end of the journey which began in the dim 
chambers of mere conceptive potency, and ended 
in humanity. It would be foreign to the object of 
this volume to discuss the polemics of science. 
The field of positive and definite information is far 
more inviting and profitable. It is wiser to calmly 
glean and garner the wheat of knowledge than to 
frantically thresh the tares of controversy. It may 
be, and doubtless is. a grander flight of genius to 
skim along the azure of philosophic thought than 
to wearily plod along the road of events; but as a 
preparation for the intelligent perusal of history, 
a few general facts of nature are vastly more help- 
ful than the sublimest disquisitions ujjon the ab- 
stract and the abstruse. 

The development of existing cosmos out of pri- 
mordial chaos, produced continents, oceans and 
mountains in the place of a vast globe of liquid 



(23) 



" 



Il'i 



f 



24 



I'.EFORE HISTORY. 



fire. The great mass of the earth is still in a fluid 
and fiery state, covered by a comparatively thin 
crust of cold and solid substance. In tracing the 
necessary course of this change from a molten to 
a solid condition, a scientific writer of our day re- 
marks: " As the exterior became hard and concrete 
by cooling, furrows, corrugations and depressions 
in the external crust of the globe would occur, 
causing great inequalities in its surface." Volcanic 
eruptions are simply the escape of the central fire, 
and liability to such eruptions would be propor- 
tionate to the thinness of the crust. Once this 
globe must have been little else than one universal 
volcano, belching fire and lava at every point. In 
the earlier stages of creation, volcanic action played 
the chief part, even after its general subsidence. 
As volcanoes were the great agencies of the geo- 
logical dawn, so glaciers came in the cool of the 



evening. The transition from more than tropical 
heat, the world over, to universal winter is sup- 
posed to have been sudden, and no satisfactory 
hyjrothesis has yet been devised for its explanation. 
Agassiz says of this era of frost: "A vast mantle 
of ice and snow covered the plains, the valleys and 
the seas. All the springs were dried up; the rivers 
ceased to How. To the movements of a numerous 
and animated creation succeeded the silence of 
death." It was in the period immediately follow- 
ing the general thaw, or springtime of that 
supreme winter, that the present civilization was 
begun. Nature having, as it were, frozen out, 
and gotten rid of her experiments, zoological and 
botanical, was ready to begin anew with "the 
remnant." 

In point of time, then, the great period of the 
world was before man, as well as before history. 





THE CHILDREN OF THE SUN. 



^>Tf 







CHAPTER I 



The Paternity op the Sun— Chief Members of the Solar Family— Peculiarities of the Sevehal Planets— The Properties 
of Matter— Density, Velocity and Diameter of Planets— The Moon— Sun-spots— Precession and Multiple Stars 
The Common Law of Planets— The Milky Way and Star-Clusters— Comets— Gravitation— Time— Noted Astronomers. 




'IIOU hast set the solitary 
in families, was spoken of 
man, but it is quite as ap- 
plicable to worlds. Then' 
are, it is true, wandering 
stars which seem defiant 
of the law of association, 
as there arc human beings who 
shoot off on tangents of solitude, 
forming exceptions to the general 
rule of society. The rule itself is, 
however, none the less forcible. 
In the opinion of some astron- 
omers, there exists somewhere in 
the limitless and illimitable vast- 
ness of space a luminary which 
is the center and source of life, 
light and existence. But no eye 
has caught a glimpse of it, nor is there any likeli- 
hood of such discovery. The utmost stretch of 
astronomical intelligence goes to the ascertain- 
ment of suns which arc. each in its sphere, the 
head of a planetary system or family. Every 
fixed star that shines in the firmament is the 
father of a family of worlds, and the same is 
true of countless others which lie beyond human 
ken, however assisted the eye may be by the teles- 
cope. 

The chief body, the light and life of our system 
of worlds, is the Sun. The planets and satellites 
which belong to this system are absolutely depend- 



ent upon the father-sun for the necessaries of life, 
no less than for all the luxuries of planetary exist- 
ence. They can never reach " majority," but ever 
remain "infants." Children arc they of a parent 
whose patriarchal authority must lie respected for- 
ever. Without the heat of the Sun. every planet 
would become little else than a vast iceberg. There 
are many members of this family too small for 
observation from an earthly stand-point, and many 
which can be discerned by the telescope can not be 
explored by it. and are hardly worth mention. The 
recognized and important children of the Sun are 
Neptune, Uranus, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Earth, 
Venus and Mercury, eight in all. Some of these 
have satellites of their own, or. as they might be 
designated, children. These grandchildren of the 
Sun. so far as discovered, are twenty. The Moon 
is the satellite of Earth. Venus and Mercury 
have none; Mars two; Saturn has eight moons or 
satellites, Jupiter four, Uranus four, and Neptune 
one. From observation by the naked eye, the Moon 
occupies a prominence out of all proportion to its 
real importance in the solar household. This planet 
of ours is somewhat below par in magnitude. It 
is, however, one of the more favored children of 
the Sun in point of relative position. Some of the 
planets are so far removed from the Sun as to 
suffer perpetual winter, while others endure a con- 
tinuous furnace heat. 

It would hardly be of interest to "go a-sailing 
all among the little stars," but some members of 



(25) 



_ s 
TDK* 



26 



THE CHILDREN OF THE SUN. 



the family deserve special attention, besides the 
Earth. Mercury, the smallest of the noteworthy 
planets, is the nearest to the Sun. "I am blinded 





The Earth. 

by my own light." says the Ormuzd of the Persian 
mythology, and Mercury might well say the same. 
This planet receives seven times as much light and 
heat as the earth does: making it uninhabitable by 
any class of beings that exist on our globe, unless 
the atmospheric conditions be such as to compen- 
sate for greater nearness to the sun. Venus receives 
twice as much heat as the earth does, and has a 
more dense atmosphere than ours. Some astron- 
omers have thought they saw mountains and 
numerous islands on her surface; but it is not cer- 
tain that telescopic ken 
has yet pierced the 
serial envelope of either 
of these two planets. 
Venus has "phases" 
like the moon, which 
Telescopic views of Venus. proves that her bright- 
ness is but reflected sunlight. The inference of 
the astronomers is that Venus is a very lovely 
world. Although destitute of moons, she has the 
benefit of reflections from Mercury and Earth. 

Mars is near the Earth, 
and presents close analo- 
gies to our planet, espe- 
cially in atmospheric 
phenomena and polar 
cold. It is believed to 
have a very light air. 
Continents and seas are 
distinguishable upon it. 

A fair idea of its topog- 
Telescopic View of Mats. raphy may be formed 

from a study of the map of North America, 
with this transposition: that the continent of one 





Telescopic View of Jupiter. 




stands for the water of the other. Science shows 
it to be a very old planet. The other planets, 
Neptune, Saturn. Ura- 
nus, and Jupiter, are so 
very far off that their pe- 
culiarities are less known 
than those of the other 
members of the family of 
the Sun. The rings of 
Saturn, however, deserve 
mention. The most plaus- 
ible theory is that each 
ring consists of an accumulation of satellites, 
completely tilling its orbit. These satellites, 
however, defy anything like definite observa- 
tion. 

In this connection, it may be well to give some 
facts general to 
the solar sys- 
tem. The prop- 
erties of matter 
are fourteen, 
viz.: Divisibil- 
ity, indestructi- Telescopic View of Saturn. 

bility, impenetrability (or the occupancy of space), 
variability (i.e., gas, liquid or solid), inertia, 
motion, force, gravitation, magnetism, electricity, 
heat, reflection, refraction, polarizing and absorb- 
ing, cohesion and repulsion. Taking water as a 
standard of unity, the density of the planets is as 
follows: Neptune, 1*35; Uranus, 1-28: Saturn, 
•75; Jupiter, 1-38; Mars, 4-17; Earth, 5-66; 
Venus, 4-81; Mercury, 6-S5. The velocity of 
planets, stated in miles per second, is as follows: 
Neptune, 3 '3G; Uranus, 4 - 20; Saturn, 5 "95; Jupiter, 
8-06; Mars, 14-99; Earth, 18-38; Venus, 21-61; 
Mercury, 29 - 55. The average diameters of the 
planets, expressed in miles, are as follows: 
Neptune, 34.500; Uranus, 31,700; Saturn, 70,- 
500; Jupiter, 80,000; Mars, 4,510; Earth, 
7,918; Venus, 7,660; Mercury, 3,000; the Sun, 
860,000. 

The Moon is too prominent a factor in the celes- 
tial problem which astronomy has been solving for 
thousands of years (but can never fully solve), to 
be overlooked. It is insignificant from the stand- 
point of the universe, or even from that of the 
Sun; but the Earth has special interest in it. 
Everybody has heard of "the man in the Moon," 



PLATE I. 




PLATE II. 




PLATE III. 




PLATE IV. 




THE CHILDREN OF THE SUN. 



31 






Wnt the wisdom of the telescope pronounces him a 
myth, or, if lie ever existed, it was ages ago. The 
Mi ion is set down as a vast charnel-house. It has 
neither air, water, nor life of any kind. Its awful 
crags are absolutely? desolate. The supposition is 
that it is an exhausted, burnt-out, and used-up 
world. If there is life at all, it must be utterly 
unlike any known to man. It is the Sahara of the 
skies. Distant from the earth only 240,000 miles, 
it is attracted and largely controlled by this planet. 
The term satellite is appropriate. It is not ex- 
haustive, however, for it, too, is a planet of the 
Sun. Although distant 93,000,000 miles from the 
head of the family, it is more influenced by it 
titan by the Earth. The action of the Moon ujjon 
this planet is chiefly in the ebb and flow of the 

tides. Its huge 
^raters are, some 
if them, one 
ittndred miles 
in diameter, and 
part of the sur- 
face of the moon 
appears to be 
honey- combed 
by extinct vol- 
canoes. The 
Moon has its 
phases from full 
to crescent. 

The Crater Tycho, as seen by Telescope. >phev are tile dif- 
ferent portions of her illuminated surface, which 
she presents to the Earth in revolving around it- 
When the dark side is turned toward us the Moon 
is said to be new; then it is half-full and horned, 
and by these phases the revolutions of the Moon 
are ascertained. The time between full moons is 
29£ days; a synodical mouth, or lunation. 

Sun-spots were first carefully studied by Fabri- 
cius in the seventeenth century. They have been 
observed very closely ever since. Those of to-day 
are not those of two centuries ago. Perpetual change 
goes on. They are the result of some kind of tre- 
mendous storms or cyclones. That vast furnace 
seems to be subject to inconceivable perturbations, 
by the side of which Vesuvius in action would be 
cold calm. The flames are supposed to rise to a 
height of 100,000 miles sometimes. The rents and 
chasms in that ocean of flame are measureless in 




width and c 
one chasm or 
spot that was 
found to be 
large enough 
to hold one 
h u n d r e d 
Earths. A 
still larger 
spot was 
measured in 
1839, and 
found to be 
186,000 miles 
in diameter. 
The speed or 
movement 
perceived in 

spots ex- Telescopic view of a Sun-spot. 

ceeded that of the most violent hurricanes, three 
to one. 

The term precession applies to the gradual fall- 
ing back of the equinoctial points from east to 
west. In his apparent annual revolution around 
the Earth, the Sun does not cross the equinoctial 



epth. 


Astronomers have measured 


.:.;:;--..-;';. . -^ , ; - ;..-'5S 


^gl^ 


''■'■'': 


~?* 4&u ■mH^s 


| 


:-, _-^j 


BSP; : • -f?|. 




y 


sSs**w -::^S 


" - j 


--^1 






mk > S^- J^ll 


.V-lPW^il BSPSpF^:-'-'.- 1 -'! 


S^^B*& *<*^ 






Libra. 



Scorpio. 



Sagittarius. 




Capricornus. Aquarius. Pisces. 

The Twelve Signs of the Zodiac. 

at the same points one year that it does the next, 
but drops to the west about 50 seconds a year. The 



32 



THE CHILDREN OF THE SUN. 



entire precession of the equinoxes requires a period 
of nearly 26,000 years. Consequently the apparent 
positions of the stars constantly undergo change, 
and the Pole-star, even, is not the same in all eons. 

For the convenience of astronomical study, the 
heavens are divided into distinct spaces, represented 
on the map by the figures of animals or other 
objects. These spaces, with the stars they contain, 
are called constellations. They are distinguished 
as northern, zodiacal, and southern, according to 
their positions in respect to the ecliptic. There are 
twenty-five prominent constellations in the north, 
twelve in the zodiac and eighteen in the south. 

Multiple stars are those which seem to the ordi- 
nary observer to be single, but which, when viewed 
through a telescope, appear to be two or more stars. 
If two revolve around each other, they are called 
binary stars. Variable stars exhibit periodical 
changes of brightness. Temporary stars are tbe 
celestials which make their appearance suddenly 
in the heavens, often very brilliant, but after a 
while fading away, or nearly so. If they do not dis- 
appear entirely they are called new stars. Astron- 
omers can arrive at no satisfactory solution of this 
mystery. Some stars known to the ancients are 
not to be found. They are called lost stars. 

There are certain well-established astronomical 
facts, common to all planets. Hind enumerates 
them thus: 1. They move in the same invariable 
direction around the Sun: their course, as viewed 
from the north side of the ecliptic, being contrary 
to the motions of the hands of a watch. 2. They 
describe oval or elliptical paths round the Sun, not, 
however, differing greatly from circles. 3. Their 
orbits are more or less inclined to the ecliptic and 
intercept it at two points, which are the nodes; 
one-half of the orbit lying north and the other half 
south of the Earth's path. 4. They are opaque 
bodies like the Earth, and shine by reflecting the 
light which they receive from the Sun. 5. They 
revolve upon their axes the same as the Earth. 
Hence, they have the alternations of day and 
night like the inhabitants of the Earth, but their 
days are of different length to ours. G. Agree- 
able to the principles of gravitation, their velocity 
is greatest at those parts of their orbits which lie 
nearest to the Sun, and least at the opposite parts, 
which are most distant from it. The planets move 
in ellipses, having the Sun as one of the foci. The 



squares of the periodic times of the planets are 
proportional to the cubes of their mean distances 
from the Sun. 

Beside the planets which belong to our system, 
and the suns of other systems, which are, for the 
most part, the countless stars of our firmament, is 
the Milky Way. That is too sharply defined in its 
individuality, as seen by the naked eye, to be passed 
over, although, in jioint of fact, no part of the 
solar system. It comprises luminous matter; aggre- 
gations of stars. As one writer expresses it, "The 
Milky Way presents patches of diffuse, luminous 
matter, and many millions of stars, some isolated, 
others formed in groups, and forming, in its total- 
ity, a kind of zone or ring, the diameter of which 
would be about six times greater than its thickness, 
and of which our sun would form a part. It has 
I icen estimated that light would not traverse the 
distance between those nebula? and the earth in less 
than sixty millions of years, while a cannon-ball 
wiiu Id require 37,000 millions of years to traverse 
the same distance; yet the limits of the universe 
would still be untouched. As Buchner and others 
contend, it is highly probable that the universe, 
like the earth, is a sphere, with no " jumping-off 
place " anywhere. Star-clusters are near of kin to 
the Milky Way. Some of these groups have been 
ascertained to contain no less than 25,000 stars, 
such as the Pleiades, the 
Hyades, and the group known 
as Berenice's Hair. These glob- 
ular clusters, or galaxies, are 
supposed to be held together 
by their motions and mutual 
attractions. Nebula is a word 
now used to designate a mass 

D Nebule viewed through 

of gas, instead ot Star Clusters, the Telescope. 

as formerly. The separate stars cannot be dis- 
tinguished. They form the extreme verge of 
celestial discovery, and serve to suggest the infinite 
spaces beyond the reach of scientific inquiry. 

By all ignorant people, great consequence is 
attached to comets. As a matter of fact, they are 
trifles, and literally lighter than air. They are 
small, irregular nebulae, which travel in space, and 
which, being within the sphere of the sun's attrac- 
tion, approach that body at an ever-increasing veloc- 
ity, revolving around it, at a varying distance from 
its surface, and again moving off toward other 




T 



PLATE,. V. 



it V k 






-qvxOS 






n% /v y^- 




*m 






V V/ I' 



<? 7*o-\ 






*a y 



ym*. 



fffyr— is 






-h^-— -r 



ites&^v 



/ SCALE OF 

MAGNI T U DE 
12 3 



THE CHILDREN OF THE SIN. 



35 




regions of the sky, losing their velocity as they 
recede. They vary in their nature and move- 
ments, and really possess very little actual signifi- 
cance in the solar 
economy. They 
are to the solar 
system about what 
a light morning 
fog is to a day 
in June. Comets 
are infrequent, 
but shooting stars 
are very common, 
and deserve brief 
consideration. 
They are some- 
Comet of 1819. times called bol- 

ides, aerolites, or meteorites. This branch of 
science has not reached basis of demonstration in 
its details. Enough is known to warrant the pos- 
itive assertion that these seeming eccentricities are 
not freaks of nature, but results of established laws 
of the universe, especially that great fundamental 
law, gravitation. This law of gravitation is so very 
fundamental, in fact, as almost to deserve the appel- 
lation of "First Cause," or, as a German would 
put it. ••the cause of the cause of the thing caused." 
One extract from Eambosson's lectures on this sub- 
ject will serve as a fitting bridge between this sub- 
ject and its immediate successor. He says : 

•• It has been found that the earth revolves upon 
its rapid course like a vast cannon-ball amidst 
moving clusters of rings of bullets, circulating ever- 
lastingly in fixed ellipses. These rings are regular 
rivers, without beginning or end, which pour along 
their beds in celestial projectiles, intersecting at 
several points the invisible route which the earth 
follows around the sun. The earth, in passing 
through them, is struck by thousands of the small 
planets, which drop to its surface, and its attractive 
force drags a great number more of them into its 
train, causing them to revolve around it for some 
time, like so many imperceptible moons, until they, 
too, fall to its surface in the shape of shooting stars. " 
Whenever and wherever there has been anything 
approaching a correct computation of time, astron- 
omy lias been the base of reckoning. The Egyp- 
tians, Greeks and Eomans, not only, but the Hin- 
doos and Chinese, all adopted the same general 



plan. The moon is the convenient stand-point for 
computing months, as the sun is for computing 
days and years. The present system, sometimes 
called the new style, was introduced by Pope Greg- 
ory XIII. in 1582, as the result of careful study 
and observation, and so accurate is it that the vari- 
ation between the computed and the actual year is 
not over one day in 5,000 years. The Gregorian 
calendar was at once adopted in Catholic countries, 
but it gained general credence in Protestant coun- 
tries only about the beginning of the eighteenth 
century. Eussia has not even yet adopted it. The 
Eussians, or the members of the Greek Church, 
reckon from the birth of Christ, old style. The 
Mohammedans reckon from the flight of their 
prophet from Medina. 1.300 years ago; the He- 
brews from the creation. 5641. 

Several great astronomers deserve mention for 
the services they rendered mankind in making 
known the wonders of the heavens. First of all 
ranks Copernicus, born in 14T3, a German, who 
verified the ancient theory that the sun was the 
center of the solar system. After his day this was 
a demonstrated fact, and not a mere hypothesis. 
Galileo, born 1564, made further discoveries in 
that same line, proving beyond a doubt that the 
world moves around the sun, not the sun around 
the earth. For that "heresy" he was tried, and 
would have suffered martyrdom had he not recan- 
ted, his recantation being no detriment to science. 
( ialileo was an Italian. Kepler, a German, born in 
1571, made great progress in this science, and with 
good reason exclaimed: "I think thy thoughts 
after thee, God." He discovered several of the 
fundamental laws of the solar system. With Sir 
Isaac Newton, born in 1642, England came to 
occupy the front rank in astronomical discoveries, 
for he discerned that greatest of all laws, the law 
of gravitation, or the reason why the planets re- 
volve, as well as why the apple falls to the ground 
when shaken from the stem. His supreme law is, 
that matter attracts other matter in proportion to 
its mass and distance. Sir William Herschel and 
his son, belonging in their life work to England 
and the present century, deserve exalted rank. as 
do Mitchell, father and daughter, in this country. 
Elias Colbert has done and is doing very much to 
bring astronomical knowledge within the easy 
reach of the general public. 



V 7 s- 

■ ' 



36 



TABLES AND EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 



TABLE SHOWING THE RELATIONS OF POSITION IN THE 0RBIT--I850. 



.£- 



Name. 


Longitude op 
Perihelion. 


Annual 
Variation. 


Longitude op 
North Node. 


Annual 
Variation. 


Inclination 
of Orbit. 


Annual 
Variation. 




75 7 14 
129 27 43 
100 21 21 
333 17 54 

11 54 58 

90 4 00 
170 38 49 

46 9 13 


+ 5-84 
— 268 
+ 11-81 
+ 15-82 
+ 6-65 
+19-37 
+ 2-40 


46 33 9 
75 19 53 

48 23 53 
98 56 17 

113 20 00 
73 14 38 

130 7 18 


— 7-82 
—18-71 

—23-29 

—15 81 
—19-42 
—36- 


7 8 
3 23 35 

1 51 2 

1 18 41 

2 29 39 

46 21 

1 46 59 


+0-181 
+0045 








— 003 




—0-226 


Saturn 


—0155 


Neptune 


+0 031 



TABLE SHOWINC RELATIONS OF MACNITUDE AND MASS. 





Dist. from Sun, 


Mean Diam'r. 


Sid. Period 


Mass (Weight). 


Volume. 


Density. 


Number 




Millions Miles. 


Miles. 


in Years. 


Earth + Moon— 1 


Earth ■= 1. 


Water = 1. 


op Moons. 




' " + 
35-9- 7-4 

67-1^- 0-46 


860,000 
3,000 


0-24 


065 


1,280,000 

0-05 


1-44 
6-85 




Mercury 






7,660 


0615 


0.77 


0-90 


4-81 




Earth 


92 -8^ 1-55 


7.91S 


1000 


0-988 


1 


5-66 


1 




141-4-13-2 
483-2-23-3 


4,21(1 
86,000 


1-88 
11-86 


0106 
312-3 


015 
370 


4.17 
1-38 


2 


Jupiter 


4 


Saturn 


886 —49-6 


70,500 


29-46 


93-5 


700 


0-75 


8 


Uranus 


1 80 -82-5 
2790 -25 


31,700 


84-02 


14-5 


60 


1-28 


4 




34,500 


164-78 


169 


80 


1-15 


1 



TABLE SHOWINC ELEMENTS OF THE LUNAR ORBIT, ETC. 



Mean Distance, in Earth Radii 


602656 


Sidereal revolution, days 


27-321661418 


Mean Distance in Miles, 


238,820 


Synodical revolution, days 


29-5305884 


Eccentricity of Orbit, 


05490079 


Inclination of Orbit 


5° 8' 40" 


Diameter in Miles, 


2,160 


Revolution of Nodes, days 


6,793-44 


Angular Semi-Diameter, 


14' 40" to 16' 45" 


Revolution of Perigee, days 


3,232-575 


Weight, (Earth = 1):=(1+81^)= 


0.012264 


Density, (Water = 1) 


3-5 



Mass (Weight) of Sun times Earth alone 



331,260 



EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 



Plate I. 

Contains representations of the planets Venus and Mars, Jupiter 
and Saturn. The figure of Venus (Fig. 2) is copied from a drawing 
by S.-hroeter, representing the planet near its inferior conjunc- 
tion. The figure of Mars (Fig. 1) is copied from a drawing by 
Secchi. The figure of Jupiter (Fig. 3) is copied from a drawing in 
the Sidereal Messenger, and the figure of Saturn (Fig, 4) is copied 
from a drawing by Dawes. 

Plate II. 

Shows the apparent size of the Sun as viewed from the several 
planets, and the relative sizes of the eight principal planets. 

Plate III. 

Is a representation of the appearance of the full Moon, copied 
from the engraving- of Bear and Maedler— also a representation 



of portions of the moon's surface as seen with a powerful tele- 
scope near the time of the first quarter. 

Plate IV. 

Contains representations of comets. Fig. 1 is a representation 
of Halley's comet as it appeared to the naked eye October 29, 1835, 
according to Stru ve. Fig. 2 is a representation of Donati's comet 
as it appeared to the naked eye October 10, 1858, according to Prof. 
Bond. Fig. 3 is a telescopic view of the head of Donati's comet 
as it appeared October 2, 1858, according to Prof. Bond. 

Plate V. 

This map shows all the prominent constellations visible in the 
United States ; the center is the North Pole. The map shows all 
the Fixed Stars of not less than the third magnitude, with some of 
the smaller stars. 



■vfg 



i^SliSp^^S^s^^^i^^iiiiii^^^^i] 




■':?: 



THE EARTH WITHOUT MAN. 




WITH A CEOLOCICAL CHART. 



-J 



>a . 




^r&i 



BiiliiiiiilililfiiiiliE^liilEgEilgEiEgE^i^ 



CHAPTER II. 

Matter and Motion-Theories of Creation-Geological Periods- Nature and Man-The Continents and Population- 
Geological Developments— From Sponge to Man-The Animal Kingdom. 




F the facilities for studying 
all the planets of our solar 
^ system were the same, this 
world would dwindle into 
insignificance, being one of 
the smallest of the heaven- 
ly bodies. It is, however, 
able to boast a surface of 197,124,000 
square miles, and a planetary mass 
amounting to 256,000 millions of 
cubic feet. All this matter is in 
constant motion. The " changeless 
, fltJiffi rocks" are never at rest, absolutely. 
3*"'^ As the earth itself is in motion, so 

are its component parts. Gradual 
changes are being wrought through 
this activity. "Nature, immutable 
in its laws, but forever variable in its 
phenomena, never repeats itself." The rotation of 
the earth is around an ideal axis, passing through 
the two poles. The movement is from right to left, 
or from west to east, that is, contrary to the appar- 
ent motion of the sun and stars. 
J The origin of the earth is an unsolved, if not an 
insoluble, mystery. Ingenious theories on this sub- 
ject have been elaborated,- but none of them have 
been actually verified, j Kant, Laplace, and others, 
have devoted a good deal of study to the birth of 
the earth. Their ideas are interesting, without 
being satisfactory, or worthy of more than mere 




reference in this connection. We know that it was 
a slow development. That much is certain. The 
records of geology show that "in the beginning," 
must have been millions, and probably billions, of 
ages ago, and that the present life, animal and 
vegetable, of the world, including man, must be 
of comparatively recent date. The commonly re- 
ceived opinion is that originally the planets were 
sparks from the sun, vast gaseous or liquid matter, 
and that by a process of cooling and solidifying, 
was brought into existence the rocks, soil, and 
various transmutations which make up a habitable 
world. It is supposed that some planets are now 
going through the process of preparation for util- 
ity, and perhaps others, again, have literally out-, 
lived their usefulness. 

With a lamp of geological science for guide, one 
might, by descending a shaft sunk deeply in the 
earth, read, page by page, the history written in 
the strata penetrated. Each stratum represents 
and records a vast and distinct formative period. 
These strata may be classed as shown in the 
subjoined chart. The organic remains, animal 
or vegetable, which are contained in a greater part 
of these various formations, afford the principal 
data for ascertaining, frequently with absolute cer- 
tainty, the order of succession of the various lay- 
ers. There is, however, more or less lapping over, 
the ages not being so perfectly disconnected in pro- 
ductions as the scientists at one time supjiosed. 



(37) 



r 



38 



THE EARTH WITHOUT MAN. 



" Tlie idea is not warranted," says Reclus, " which 
connects some kind of cataclysm with the end of 
each geological period, and continuity of life has 
linked together all the formations, from the organ- 




.Old Mai .SanrfjfonVi^il 



-Upper Ludlow Rock 



_ Aj i.mwtreu Lim es tone ^-^i^ -d 
ZaaraT Ludlow U arlc ' -^ « 

B 



zSSfrniock Limestone 



& SUale 




r^Caivdac ■.Sandiiorie 
'Siluriun^ 



"" ^J7bwei> 



% 



THAl'E OF REPTILE. 



FISH (heterocerque). 



MOLLUSCA 

( Cephalopoda, 
Gasteropoda, 
Brachiopoda. 

INVEHTEBRATA. 

Crustacea, etc. 
Annelids, etc. 
Zoophytes, etc. 

"The Earth's Strata. (Hitchcock.) 

ized beings which first made their appearance on 
earth, down to the countless multitudes which now 
inhabit it." To this maybe added, in a general 
way. that the higher the organism is raised in the 
scale of being, the narrower the limits between 



which it is confined. Man, for instance, is found 
in all parts of the world, but the higher types of 
manhood are quite limited. Human remains are 
to be found, on the other hand, side by side with 
the bones of the cave-bear, the mammoth, the 
woolly rhinoceros, and other extinct species. 

About three-quarters of the earth's surface is 
covered by sea. No part of this surface is without 
its organic life, and beneath large portions of the 
land are deposited the vast stores of fuel and 
metals of every kind. Ample provision is made 
for the happiness of every kind of creatures. The 
underground resources belong exclusively to man. 
He alone can appropriate to his use coal, iron, 
copper, silver, gold, and kindred resources of 
nature. The relations man sustains to his sur- 
roundings form an interesting subject of study. 
It is only where all conditions are favorable that 
satisfactory results can be obtained. It is no less 
true that, were all nature auspicious, this very 
favorability would be paralyzing to human effort. 
Some obstacles must be encountered, or no triumphs 
are to be expected. Perpetual summer balm, plenty 
and pleasure unceasing, would undermine the char- 
acter and debilitate the system, while arctic winter, 
sterility and suffering are no less benumbing. 

On the American continent, the area favorable 
to civilization is small. In South America the 
temperate region is narrow, and subject to disad- 
vantages so seriousas to preclude the hope of great 
South American prosperity. North America is 
much more favored, and. with Asia and Europe, 
comprizes the great area for civilization, and it will 
be with these continents, for the most part, that 
general history must have to do, not only now, but 
during the ages to come. Man can adapt himself 
to almost any vegetable food nature furnishes. 
The potato, now as important as wheat, was un- 
known to our ancestors of a few centuries ago. 
If there were no wheat or potatoes either, we could 
gel on very well with some of the other cereals and 
roots.. Hut the continent of America tried in vain 
to produce a permanent historical civilization with- 
out that one animal, the horse. While, therefore, 
details of zoology would be out of place here, it 
is well, before proceeding to the records of man, 
to pause for a brief consideration of the animal 
kingdom by which man is surrounded, and upon 
which he is so dependent. 



^J S 



THE EARTH WITHOUT MAN. 



39 



According to Cuvier, the greatest of all natural- 
ists, and second to none as a scientist, the living 
animals are divided into two great classes, those 
having backbones, and those destitute of the same ; 
vertebrates, and invertebrates. The former include 
fishes, reptiles, birds, and mammals, the latter being 
all those living things which nourish their young 
by direct food supply from the mother. The in- 
vertebrates take in mollusks, such as oysters, snails, 
cuttle-fish ; also spiders, lobsters, and insects gen- 
erally, including those half-developed, pulpy things 
called " radiated animals." One of the very lowest 
forms of life is the sponge, familiar to everybody 

as a toilet article. . 

The flint is a petri- 
fied sponge. The 
coral, as ornamental 
as the sponge is use- 
ful, is another petri- 
faction of animal 
life as found in the 
sea. 

| It is a popular 
theory with the sci- 
entists that one form 
of life develops into 
another, and that 
all, from man down, 
originated in the 
very lowest form of 
vitality, a form so 
very nearly akin to 
the vegetable kingdom as to be almost indistinguish- 
able from it. This is a theory, not an established fact. 
If it be true, then, we are not only descended from 
monkeys, but from a first parent lower in the scale 
of being than the dumb oyster, the useful sponge, 
or the beautiful coral. I The lowest form of man is 
about as much like the chimpanzee (the most 
human of animals) as he is like the civilized man. 
If this world were visited by a being of intelligence, 
or rather of capacity for intelligence, but utterly 
ignorant of what he was to find here, he would 
infer, as a strong probability, that the development 
from the least to the greatest was by gradual steps. 
He would nowhere find any " connecting link," 
however, but everywhere suggestions and family 
resemblances. 

The soft-footed animalculas, or rhizopoda, leading 




Female Hottentot. 



up to sponges, infusoria, corallines, corals, echin- 
odermata, and parasitic worms, constitute the 
different species of the first division of animals. 
The second division, with its countless sorts 
of worms, is just one step removed from insects, 
crabs, shrimps, and mollusks. The latter grade 
into fishes and reptiles. The progress to birds and 
animals of the mammal family is a much longer 
stride ; still the resemblances are preserved through- 
out. The embryo and the skeleton, however, show 
the kinship of nature more clearly than existence 
in its perfection. For instance, there is no mis- 
taking the man and the orangoutang, seen in any 

vitality, but their 
skeletons, with 
hands and feet cut 
off, are almost in- 
distinguishable. 
That any species 
ever passed over, by 
development, into 
another species, is a 
theory without the 
support of direct 
evidence. There is 
not an attribute of 
man, however, 
which is not found 
in rudimentary 
form in the brute 
creation. The old 
idea of instinct, in 
distinction from reason, has been abandoned. 
Rational use of intellectual faculties accounts for 
intelligence, judgment and efficiency, whether in 
man or beast, bird or insect. 

The animal kingdom has been compared to a 
great city. From it go out many thoroughfares, 
and each street has its own starting-point and des- 
tination, not necessarily separate in all respects, but 
maintaining individuality even in intersections. 
Along these streets are found all sorts of people, 
and all sorts of business. The Broadway of this 
city of Existence is Man. All other roads, whether 
parallel with or at right-angles to it, are tributary, 
and contribute to its supremacy. There is inter- 
dependence throughout, but all in consistence with 
the grand idea of climacteric unity in man's rule 
over " the earth and the fullness thereof." 



Female Gorilla. 



452 




The Golden Age of Fable— Primitive Savage— PnoM Hunter to Shepherd— From Shepherd to Farmer— Primi- 
tive Implements— Stone and Bronze — Gradations op Development, and Degrees of Savagery — Celts and 
Celtic Progress— Sir John Lubbock's Testimony— Prehistoric and Unhistoric Man. 




^Hr3®£i~-^ 



'HE poetic fancy in all ages 
has depicted primitive man 
as a delightful and angelic 
being. All civilized people 
have had their golden age 
of the past. If, as in the 
case of all Europe, the bar- 
baric age lapped on the age of 
civilization, compelling a recog- 
nition of ancestral savagism, 
still the imagination would trav- 
el back to a more remote ancestry 
ti> find an honorable origin. But 
now, the poetic faculty has been 
superseded by the scientific sense, 
and we must all admit, whatever 
our fancies and conceits, that man 
in his first estate was a savage of 
A few years ago, it would have been 
positively absurd in a historical work, to treat of 
prehistoric man. It would have been set down as 
self-evidently preposterous. But there is a history 
older than history. The annals of primeval man do 
not follow out any line of chronology with exact- 
ness, nor do they present to the mind individual 
types and details. They simply show us the stages 
by which the savage became a man capable of his- 
toric achievements. For this we are indebted to 
archaeology, which may be defined as the history of 
men and things which have no history. 



the lowest type. 



The Roman poet, Horace, was almost prophetic 
of what would be discovered centuries sifter him, 
when he wrote : " W hen these brutes, now called 




Mammoth (E. primiyeniw) and Mastodon {M. giganteus) Restored. 

men, first crawled out of the ground, a dumb and 
dirty lot, they fought for nuts and sheltering spots, 
with nail and fist; then with sticks; later, with 
arms forged of metal. Then they invented names 
and words. With language and thought, came cit- 
ies, and some relief from strife.'' In the days of 
the mammoth, in what seems to have been an 
almost totally distinct era, man lived in caves, and 
was on much the same plane of existence as the 
Fuegians when first discovered. He fed on fruits, 



(4o) 






^ 



J£* 



PREHISTORIC MAN. 



4 1 



nuts, and roots, on fish or flesh, according to his 
opportunities and necessities. Emerging, by slow 
and gradual steps, from the cavern of darkest sav- 
agery, primitive man was still a hunter, living by 
the chase, or a fisher, as circumstances might deter- 
mine. What is now the recreation of the over- 
worked civilized man was the first employment of 
the race. A people dependent upon wild beasts 



of a cave, he has a tent made of the skins of beasts, 
rude in its simplicity, still a great improvement on 
a hole in the ground. It was a great step to go 
from wild to domestic animals. The brute and 
man meet on the same level when both live by 
rapine and violence. Grazing is an ascent toward 
the table-lands of civilization. The Hebrews can 
trace their descent from that Bedouin sheik, Abra- 




Prehistoric 

and fish for sustenance are necessarily migratory. 
They must follow the trail wherever it leads, and if 
neither the game nor the fish appear in their accus- 
tomed haunts, they must go in search of them. 

From hunting to pastoral life is the natural 
gradation. This, too, is somewhat migratory. The 
flocks must be led beside still waters and into green 
pastures, be the same far or near. The shepherd 
is some advance upon the hunter and fisher ; still, 
he is very near the bottom of the ladder. He can- 
not build him a house or form society. The shep- 
herd must be in constant readiness to move. Instead 



Man. 

ham, but we may all rest assured that in the far- 
awav ages our ancestors fed their flocks and pitched 
their tents in true Arabic fashion, however obscure 
the annals may be. The hunter maybe as isolated 
from the rest of his kind as the deer of the forest, 
mating only at the fierce impulse of a passing pas- 
sion, but the nomad belongs to a tribe. It may be 
small, or it may branch out into an imposing mul- 
titude ; it is surely a great improvement. There is 
a community of interest which begets society and 
stimulates progress. Most nations can be traced 
back traditionally, if not historically, to this prim- 



Jsls 



42 



PREHISTORIC MAN. 



itivc or tribal system. The father is the patriarch, 
and as sncli a little king, absolute, indeed, but with- 
out temptation to despotism. Poets love to picture 
the pastoral life. It has charms for romance and 
sentiment, especially when viewed from afar. 

To the pastoral life succeeds the agricultural 
phase of progress. Necessity is the mother of civ- 
ilization. It takes a great deal of land to maintain 
a very small pastoral population. With the increase 
of people, it becomes impossible to live by meat and 
milk alone. Very likely there have, almost from 
the first, been some crude attempts at tillage, hut, 
in proportion as the people improved, the cultiva- 
tion of the ground has always gained in relative 
prominence. It is only when agriculture is the 
chief reliance of a people that permanent habita- 
tions are built, and stable institutions are out of 
the question with vagrant tribes of flock-tenders. 
It may be said, then, that when a people have so 





Stone Ax. 



(Mound Builders'.) 



Stone Hammer. 



far prospered that they are tillers of the soil, farm- 
ers, properly so called, they have reached a stage of 
civilization which fairly takes them out of the pre- 
historic list. 

There is abundant evidence of the correctness of 
this theory of progress. We now give the more 
prominent facts in support of the foregoing obser- 
vations. 

The rude implements discovered in the valley of 
the Somme, in France ; at Hoxne, Santon, Down- 
ham, and Thetford, England, in conjunction with 
elephant remains, and those of other extinct ani- 
mals, raises a presumption which is irresistible : their 
makers were rude barbarians. Flint instruments, 
found in the gravel drifts at Ponte Molle, near 



Rome, attest the same facts. So do many of the 
relics of America. In fact, wherever science has 
explored, and, as it were, had access to the libraries 
of prehistoric man, the same line of facts has been 
ascertained. The nearest approach to an exception 
to this rule is found in America. Here, on this 
continent, there was once a progress reaching civil- 
ization, and that without the pastoral phase. There 
was, however, an intermediate phase, and the prin- 
ciple of gradation from low to high is perfectly 
traceable in the remains of the aboriginal Ameri- 
cans, and in Peru there were shepherds with vast 
flocks of sheep. 

Mention has been made of the flint or stone, and 
of the bronze age. Man seems to have been endowed 
with a strong predilection for some sort of imple- 
ment. The researches of archaeology have traced 
out five distinct stages of the stone age, and on so 
broad a scale as to show the operation everywhere 




Copper Relics from Wisconsin. 

of the same grand law of growth. First came the 
rudest flints, mere chunks of stone. Then came 
flakes chipped from the rock, and showing the 
dawn of the creative or fashioning faculty. The 
third stage indicates some skill and art in the fash- 
ioning of the flint. The idea of form and comeli- 
ness, of adaptability and convenience, crops out. 
The fourth age was the beginning of grinding or 
rubbing. The points are made sharp by attrition. 
The fifth stage brings us to the perfectly polished 
and quite artistic flint implements, which show 
constructive invention. Some of these flints are a 
rude sort of ax, one piece fitted into another, like 
helve and blade. One is impressed with the 
immense progress made from the use of a jagged 



A 



!£- 



PREHISTORIC MAN. 



43 



stone, such as an ape might use, to the somewhat 
curiously wrought and laboriously finished flint 
hatchet. 

While there are found these five gradations, there 
are indicated by them three stages of human prog- 
ress. The flints, implements of the cave period, 
show man at his worst; the flint flakes belong to a 
people devoted to the chase, while the ground, pol- 
ished, and fashioned stones bespeak a pastoral age. 
not unmixed with the initial steps of agriculture, 
The archaeological designations of these three ages 
are the palaeolithic, the mesolithic, and the neo- 
lithic. No nation has come up to civilization with- 
out passing through those primitive stages. 

Between the fifth or stone age and the bronze age 
intervened a sixth stage, transitional in character, 
in which copper, cold and crude, was hammered 
into shape. It was used like a stone, and not fused 
and fashioned in conformity to the peculiar prop- 
erties of metals. It was treated as a kind of mal- 
leable stone. Very little creative progress was made 
anywhere during this stage. This period is found 
everywhere, but evidently continued much longer 
in the new world than in the old. The Promethean 
gift of fire seems to have come much earlier to the 
barbarians of the East than to the savages of the 
West. 

The seventh stage opens to view the bronze age 
proper. Then began the fusing of metals. The 
soft copper and hard tin were blended into the 
bronze of the prehistoric age. That was probably 
the result of a lucky accident. When once the idea 
of melting and mixing metals was conceived, the 



skill slowly attained in the making of stone and 
copper implements was brought into requisition, 
and improvements were easy and inevitable. The 
world over are found traces of the birth of bronze, 
the dawn of its day. and the brilliance of its aurora. 
Manufacturing by molding began. The corner- 
stone of all construction was laid when smelting 
and molding commenced, and that corner-stone 
may be said to have reached around the world. It 
was at this point of development that the more 
advanced peoples became celts, i. e., tool-makers 
and users. 

Sir John Lubbock remarks that " the use of 
bronze weapons is characteristic of a particular 
phase in the history of civilization, and one which 
was anterior to the discovery, or, at least, to the 
general use, of iron. Soon after iron, came pot- 
tery. Man found, not only the advantage of soft- 
ening metals with fire, but of hardening clay with 
it. A mass of evidence proves that a stone age 
prevailed in every great district of the inhabited 
world, followed, as general progress was made, by 
the other ages named." As Figuier observes, " The 
development of man must have been doubtless the 
same in all parts of the earth, and in whatever 
country we may consider him, man must have 
passed through the same phases in order to arrive 
at his present state. He must have had everywhere 
his age of stone, his epoch of bronze, and his epoch 
of iron, in orderly succession." In a word, the pre- 
historic man of the past still lives in the unhistoric 
man of the present, and the march from savagism 
to civilization is over substantially the same road. 




>T 



Jj 



" 

-S S 




II 



JIIE' 



THE MOST ANCIENT EGYPT. 



**'"^HiifFssfi 



Tf & 




!!llll!!l!!!li!iil[inin;: .. '"i;ii:i. :: ii'inii! . >> :i. liiiimiii llliilill!: ill iliii:ii:il iilillli n niniliHiiiiiilillii!::!.; 



* 






fflli 






tfmnfmmfmtimtTitmfflmrowg^ 





^ 



^fc^&^^^ 







CHAPTER IV. 



THE FOUNTAIN-HEAD OF HISTORY— THE GeOGRAPHT OP EGYPT— CLIMATE AND RESOURCES— THE 

Rosetta Stone— First Egyptian Dynasty— Cheops, his Pyramid and Sphinx— The Shep- 
herd Kings— The Dawn op Thebes 




^-#33£#~^ 



'N attempt has been made to 
trace man in his civilized 
state to Ethiopia, but the 
nearest to that country that 
research has been able to 
ciiine is Egypt. The land 
H"5fc of the Pharaohs, the pyr- 
amids, the Sphinx, and the 
Nile, if not the veritable cradle of civ- 
ilization, was its earliest historic home. 
By civilization is here meant that 
stream of intelligence and betterment, 
which, trickling through the ages, has 
fertilized Europe and America. The 
myriads of China and Japan are not 
without a civilization, and it may 
antedate that of more Western peoples, but it does 
not belong to that steadily widening current of 
thought which gives a certain unity to all the lands 
and times, from the dawn of history to date. 

As a term in geography, Egypt represents almost 
as fixed and unvarying a quantity as America. 
Nature has determined its boundaries. It, is indeed 
the country of the Nile, or Egyptus, as that river 
was once called. From the seven mouths of that 
grand river, through which it debouches into the 
Mediterranean Sea on the north, to the cataracts or 
rapids of the south, which arrest navigation at 
Syene, and from desert to desert, on either side, 
extends this wonder-land. Upper Egypt is the 




region of the undivided Nile, and Lower Egypt of 
the vast delta, through which it flows in several 
streams, broadening the area of productiveness. 
Besides these, were a few green spots in the desert, 
and ports on the Red Sea. 

By its geographical position, the country was pro- 
tected from hostile incursions by a better than Chi- 
nese wall, and allowed to develop normally until a 
comparatively late period. Not that the same race 
maintained the ascendency all the time, but that 
the immunity from hostile incursion enjoyed by that 
people was such as no other nation ever enjoyed 
until the United States came upon the stage of 
national development, It was not necessary to 
exhaust the resources and ingenuity of the people in 
war. There was ample leisure for and incentive to 
the cultivation of the arts of peace. 

The Rainless Land might be the appellation of 
Egypt. The productiveness of the soil is not depend- 
ent upon capricious clouds. During our spring 
months the air is sultry and the ground parched. 
The rains of mountainous Abyssinia commingle in 
the upper Nile, and by about the middle of June 
the mighty flood reaches Egypt, and the overflow 
begins. The fields of the delta are one vast sheet of 
water during August, September, and October. The 
villages, built on raised mounds or artificial hills, 
are little islands. The water is red with Abyssinian 
mud. When the water disappears, early in Novem- 
ber, the alluvial deposit is the richest of soil, and 



(44) 



_V]g 



THE MOST ANCIENT EGYPT. 



45 



the vegetation is prodigious. Two crops a year can 
be raised. First wheat and barley, then corn and 
rice. The latter crop is sowed to grow during the 
inundation, giving rise to the proverb about casting 
bread (seed) upon the water. It is harvested in time 
for the second crop to be put in, and matured during 
the same year. A country so fertile can support a 
very dense population, especially as the water affords 
facilities for transportation 
and exchange. For a long 
time gold and precious stones 
came from the south, and to 
some extent commerce is 
still maintained in that di- 
rection. The Nubian mines 
were the "bonanzas" of an- 
tiquity. To them Thebes 
was largely indebted for its 
opulence, being for five hun- 
dred years the richest city 
in the world. The water 
which overflowed the delta 
supplied the clay for most 
excellent brick, and a road- 
way for the stupendous 
blocks of stone which are 
still conspicuous and mar- 
velous in ruins. It is from 
the inscriptions on these 
monumental ruins that the 
oldest authentic history must 
be gleaned. Until a quite 
recent date those hiero- 
glyphics were a sealed book. 
The discovery and deci- 
phering of that key to the 
mysteries of Egyptian rec- 
ords, called the Rosetta Stone, led to the recovery of 
a lost treasury of knowledge. And here, an account 
of this pass-key to the historic treasures of Most An- 
cient Egypt can hardly fail to be read with interest. 
The Rosetta Stone was discovered in 1799, at 
Rosetta, a town on the delta of the Nile. It is sup- 
posed to have been set up originally in a temple, 
and was, in its perfect state, 3 feet 1 inch high, 2 
feet 5 inches wide, and 10 inches thick. It has been 
broken, but has still 14 lines of hieroglyphics, 32 
cursive Egyptian, the so-called demotic or enchorial 
writing, and 54 lines of Greek. The latter serve 




The Interior of the Great 
Pyramid. 



as the clew to the rest. From the Greek inscription 
it appears that it was erected in honor of King 
Ptolemy Epiphanes, in the ninth year of his reign, 
B.C. 196-7, by the priests assembled in synod. The 
birth of the king is narrated ; also the disturbances 
in Upper Egypt, the inundation of the Nile, the 
death of Ptolemy Philopater, the attack of Antio- 
chus, and especially that a copy of this synodical 
inscription should be carved 
on a tablet and erected in 
every temple of the first, 
second, and third rank, 
throughout the country. 
About one-third of the hiero- 
glyphic portion was pre- 
served, and nearly all the 
Greek and demotic versions 
of it. At the capitulation 
of Alexandria to the En- 
glish, not long after its dis- 
covery, it came into posses- 
sion of the conquerors, and 
in due time found its way 
to the British Museum and 
was published. It was at 
once recognized as a key to 
the decipherment of hiero- 
glyphics if only the com- 
bination of the lock could be 
discovered. Eminent Greek 
scholars succeeded in restor- 
ing the Greek text, and 
Egyptologists made some 
progress toward understand- 
ing the rest of the in- 
scription The demotic text 
is still somewhat inexplic- 
able, but finally, in 1851, Brugsch Bey is supposed to 
have completed the translation of the hieroglyphics, 
although the work was not really perfected until 1867. 
One year after, another tablet in three languages 
was found at San. The latter is in good preservation 
and has 37 lines of hieroglyphics, 76 lines of Greek, 
and 72 of demotic writing. The decree of Canopsus, 
served to complete and verify the progress already 
made in reading hieroglyphics. Between the two, 
it was positively ascertained that they were used 
for sounds mainly, or phonetically, not ideas, and 
the exact import of these sounds was determined. 




Interior of the Great 
Pyramid. 



4 6 



THE MOST ANCIENT EGYPT. 



Following the clew thus furnished, it has been 
discovered that the earliest dynasty to leave imper- 
ishable records was the royal house of Memphis, 
dating back to B. C. 4400, and coming down to 
B. C. 3300. The Memphian kingdom was Lower 
Egypt, now called " the Beharah " by the Arabs. 
The whole land was divided into states, much as 
the United States is. They are sometimes desig- 
nated nomes. These were, at the dawn of history, 
forty-two in number. Each enjoyed " state rights," 
but recognized the " national sovereignty " of the 
chief dynasty, wherever it might be located. The 
earliest monarch definitely outlined is Menes, the 
founder of Memphis, and constructor, it is .supposed, 
of the dyke of Co- 
chenke, which now 
regulates somewhat 
the overflow of the 
Nile. He caused tem- 
ples to be erected in 
every village or city, 
which were the main 
features of the towns. 
It may be observed 
that the ancient Egyp- 
tians were remarkable 
for their piety. Many 
of the priests were the 
scions of royalty, and 
the Pharaohs were often, if not usually, addressed 
as " Your Holiness." Memphis was a seat of learn- 
ing. A list of the kings who succeeded Menes 
could be given, but it would be barren of interest, 
for it is a list of names and nothing else for hun- 
dreds of years. There is a suspicious closeness of 
resemblance between the names of the first conquer- 
ors or founders of Egypt, India, Judea, and Greece, 
namely : Menes. Menu, Moses, and Minos. 

There were five Memphian dynasties, but only 
one successor of Menes who towered into the region 
of perpetual glory, Cheops, the master builder of 
all the ages. The crowning work of his reign was 
the pyramid bearing his name. It is 450.75 feet in 
height by 746 feet broad at the base. Surrounded 
by seventv minor pyramids, and companioned by 
that "monarch of the past." the Sphinx, it defies 
time or rivalry. High about it is piled the sand, 
but in vain the desert tries to entomb it. 

The builder of the Sphinx (called by the Arabs 




the " Lion of the Night") is not known. It has the 
form of a lion and the head of a man. It was hewn 
out of the solid rock, except that the fore-legs, which 
extend fifty feet from the breast, were added to the 
body. some idea of which can be formed from the fact 
that these legs are in good proportion to the 
rest of that ancient marvel. 

The great American humorist Samuel L. Clem- 
ens (Mark Twain), putting aside for the moment 
his cap and bells, thus eloquently gives voice to the 
sentiment inspired by the august presence of this 
gigantic work of art : 

" After years of waiting, it was before me at last. 
The great face was so sad, so earnest, so longing, so 

patient. There was 
a dignity not of earth 
in its mien, and in its 
countenance a benig- 
nity such as never 
anything human wore. 
It was stone, but it 
seemed sentient. If 
ever image of stone 
thought, it was think- 
ing. It was looking 
toward the verge of 
the landscape, yet 
looking at nothing — 
ope), :l .,d the sphinx. nothing but distance 

and vacancy. It was looking over and beyond 
everything of the present, and far into the past. 
It was gazing out over the ocean of Time — 
over lines of century-waves, which, further and fur- 
ther receding, closed nearer and nearer together, 
and blended at last into one unbroken tide, away 
toward the horizon of antiquity. It was thinking of 
the wars of departed ages; of the empires it had 
seen created and destroyed ; of the nations whose 
birth it had witnessed, whose progress it had watched, 
whose annihilation it had noted ; of the joy and sor- 
row, the life and death, the grandeur and decay, of 
five thousand slow revolving years. It was the type 
of an attribute of man — of a faculty of his heart and 
brain. It was Memory— Retrospection — wrought 
into visible, tangible form. All who know what 
pathos there is in memories of days that are ac- 
complished, and faces that have vanished — albeit 
only a trifling score of years gone by — will have 
some appreciation of the pathos that dwells in these 



THE MOST ANCIENT EGYPT. 



47 



grave eyes that look so steadfastly back upon the 
things they knew before History was born, before 
Tradition had being — things that were, and forms 
that moved in a vague era which even Poetry 
and Romance scarce knew of— and passed one by 
one away, leaving the stony dreamer solitary in the 
midst of a strange, new age, and uncomprehended 
scenes. The Sphinx is grand in its loneliness; it is 
imposing in its. magnitude ; it is impressive in the 
mystery that hangs over its story. And there is that 
in the overshadowing majesty of this eternal figure of 
stone, with its accusing memory of the deeds of all 
ages, which reveals to one something of what he 
shall feel when he shall stand at last in the 
awful presence of God." 
An eminent Egypt- 
ologist describes as fol- 
lows the method of pyr- 
amid building : " First 
the nucleus was formed 
by the erection of a 
small pyramid upon 
the soil of the desert. 
It was built in steps, 
and contained a stone 
chamber, well con- 
structed and finished. 
Then coverings were 
added until the final 
size was reached, and 
at last all was inclosed in a casing of hard stone, 
deftly fitted together and polished to a glassy surface. 
The pyramid, thus finished, presented a gigantic 
triangle on each of its four sides. The stone used 
for the inner structure was found near the place of 
erection, but as the work progressed, better material 
was brought from the mountain quarries as far up 
the Nile as the modern Assouan." The granite last 
referred to was as hard as metal, and susceptible 
of an exquisite polish. The dates of construction 
of the Sphinx and the great pyramid are subjects 
of conjecture, and authorities widely differ in their 
conclusions. It is supposed that the tenth king of 
Memphis was reigning when Abraham, forced by 
the stress of fodder for his flocks, drove his herds 
to Egypt, there getting himself into trouble by pre- 
tending that his wife was his sister. It may be well, 
in this connection, to speak of an episode in Egyp- 
tian history which served to consolidate the country 



politically. We refer to the reign of the Shepherd 
Kings, or Hvcsos, who scourged Egypt for several 
hundred years. From the meager accounts pre- 
served, they must have been to that country much 
what the Golden Horde, or Tartars, were to Russia. 
A race of shepherds and traders, these Arabs gradu- 
ally gained a foothold in Lower Egypt. Some think 
they were the Philistines before they settled in Pales- 
tine ; others, that they were the Hebrews, between 
the time when Joseph, or, as the tablets call him, 
Zephnet-Phoenich — Joseph the Phoenician— was a 
member of Pharaoh's cabinet, and the subjugation 
of the Israelites. Be that as it may, for a century or 
so these interlopers maintained a certain sovereignty 

over the agricultural 




n Captives Making Bricks. 



and mechanical Egyp- 
tians. Salatis was the 
first of these Shepherd 
Kings, and five others 
are named in the chron- 
icles. Finally the peo- 
ple became so restive 
under foreign domina- 
tion that Upper and 
Lower Egypt joined 
forces and swept the 
enemy out of the land. 
The union thusform- 
ed included the minor 
states of the country, 
and survived its immediate occasion. The kings of 
Thebes now became m on arch s of all Egypt, much 
as Ivan the Great secured for the grand princedom 
of Moscow the sovereignty of all the Russias through 
the expulsion of the Tartars. The Pharaohs of 
Abraham, Joseph, and Moses, were the rulers of 
Memphis, or Lower Egypt, and it was doubtless for 
the pyramids that the Hebrew slaves were com- 
pelled to make " bricks without straw," and it 
was in all probability from the fecund ooze of the 
delta of the Nile that the magical and miraculous 
ten plagues sprung. 

And now, without wearying the reader with mere 
skeletons of facts, names, and dates, we take leave 
of Most Ancient Egypt, only pausing to make 
this remark, although Egypt has well been called 
"the monumental land of all the world," no con- 
temporary monuments of Menes, the first to reign 
over all the land, have been discovered. 



«^s 



.£, 





CHAPTER V. 

From Memphis to Thebes— Karnak— The Tombs and Cataracts or Upper Egypt— Reform 
|*-tJ-> mm} in the Calendar— Amanothph and the Exodus— A Glimpse of Greece— Rameses the 

■\ 'I Great — Home Development and Conquest— Gold and its Influence. 








^-%&t^-^ 



seven hundred years the 
scepter of national suprem- 
acy, so long held by Mem- 
phis, belonged to Thebes. 
It was not simply a political 
ascendancy. Memphis and 
Lower Egypt could boast 
gigantic works which were 
a triumph of architectural 
science, but art, in its more esthetic 
character, belonged rather to Thebes. 
That marvelous city, the miracle of 
history, even in ruins, represents an 
unbroken chain of reigns, and its tab- 
lets preserve the names of monarchs 
with the most meager details. Of 
course, the catalogue of those names would be te- 
dious and unprofitable. The city had a road of its 
own to the Red Sea, and thus not only commanded 
the Ethiopian trade, but had a seaport. It was a 
London with its Liverpool. Atone time Elephan- 
tine, built on an island of the Upper Nile, was the 
capital of a small kingdom, as was also Heracleop- 
olis, near Memphis. But Thebes and Memphis 
long enjoyed the sovereignty of Egypt. 

In the shadowy days of antiquity, the temple of 
Karnak " rose like an exhalation," and the countless 
tombs of Beni-Hassar were tunneled into the hills that 
form the site of Egyptian Thebes, for this antique city 
must not be confounded with the Thebes of Greece. 



These houses of death give a certain deathlessness 
to Egypt, for upon the walls are depicted the em- 
ployments and amusements of the people. The 
resemblance between Egyptian life thousands 
of years ago and to-day is wonderfully close. 
Indeed, about Thebes are evidences of the most mar- 
velous achievements in Titanic art. Vast and im- 
perishable stones, such as modern skill could not 
quarry, served to make the region of Upper Egypt 
a ceaseless source of interest. 

Without attempting to follow the political for- 
tunes of dynasties with closeness, it will be of interest 
to note the more important facts of this middle pe- 
riod of Egypt. 

It was in the year B. 0. 1321, that the new peri- 
od began. It was then the calendar was reformed, 
a work showing great attainments in science ; as- 
tronomy especially. It was almost identical with 
the calendrial reformation inaugurated at Rome by 
Julius Caesar, which is the real basis of modem com- 
putation of time. Caesar was little more than a 
borrower from " the wisdom of the Egyptians," 
learned while dallying with Cleopatra (for that 
greatest of Romans had a genius for combining 
pleasure with more substantial advantages). The 
fundamental and intimate relation of that old re- 
form in time-keeping with the present system, renders 
it worth our while to look somewhat minutely into 
it. The era of which we speak was called Meno- 
phres, and of it an eminent Egyptologist remarks 



(48: 



^y 



As 



EGYPT AT ITS BEST. 



49 



(and we cannot do better than to quote his words) : 
■• The observing man may note that every star rises 
to-day earlier than it did yesterday, and that- every 
morning a fresh set of stars peeps up from the hori- 
y.'in to be seen but for a moment before they are lost 
in the bright light of the day-break. The day on 
which a star is thus first seen in the east, is called 
its heliacal rising, and at the beginning of the era 
of Menophres, the first day of Thoth, the civil new 
year's day began, falling on the day the Dog-star 
was first seen to rise at day-break, which was held 
to be the natural new year's day, when the Nile be- 
gan to rise, six weeks before the overflow. This 
agreement between the natural new year's day and 
the civil new year's day may have happened simply 
by the motion of the civil year, but it was possibly 
accompanied by a reform in the calendar, and by 
fixing the length of the civilyear at 305 days, in the 
belief that the months would not again move from 
their seasons. Among the common names of the 
months, that of the last, the Bull, was clearly 
brought into use at this time, when the year ended 
with the rising of that constellation. The months, 
however, were left with the mistakes in their hiero- 
glyphical names, which had arisen from former 
change of place. The four months which were 
named after the season of vegetation fell during 
the overflow of the Nile ; the months named after 
the harvest fell during the height of vegetation, 
and those named after the inundation fell during 
harvest tune. But if no alteration was made at 
this time in the calendar, and the civil year already 
contained 365 days, the addition of the five days had 
probably been made five hundred years earlier, 
when the first month of the inundation would have 




The Egyptian God, Thoth. 

begun with the Nile's overflow. The Egyptian year 
was never altered. For the want of a leap year, 
1401 civil years took place in 1400 revolutions of 



the sun; and in the beginning of the reign of the 
Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius, the new year's 
day again came around to the season from which it 
moved in the reign of che Menophres. Again, Plu- 
tarch says, that the God Thoth, i. c. King Thothmo- 
sis, taught' the Egyptians the true length of the 
year ; and the figure of this king is often drawn 
with a palm-branch, the hieroglyphic for the word 
year, in each hand, hence it is probable that he is 
the author of the change in the calendar, made in 
the year B. C. 1331." 

This reformer of time was industrious in many 
ways. Cleopatra's needle (now in Central Park. 
New York), and other obelisks, date from his 
reign. From the lowest part of the kingdom t<> 
Nubia, are scattered unmistakable evidences of his 
constructive energy. At Heliopolis, Ombos and 
Samneh, temples which must have been marvels of 
architectural grandeur were erected. But it was 
during the reign of his son Amanothph II. that 
the arts were brought to a high degree of perfec- 
tion, especially the industrial branches. The 
paintings on the walls of the Thebau tombs show 
this. The artisan life these set forth, reveals ad- 
vanced civilization. It is supposed that under this 
king the Hebrew exodus occurred, and we have 
herein probably supplied to us a missing link in 
Biblical history. The Bible tells us when Joseph 
brought his father and brethren into Egypt, and 
when Moses led them out, but when the transition 
from pets to slaves occurred, and the intermediate 
steps, are not suggested in the sacred record. From 
Joseph, prime minister, and his brethren highly 
favored, to abject slavery, was a long stride. In 
the light of Egyptology it seems probable, almost 
to certainty, that they either were the Shepherd 
Kings or their allies, and that the period of actual 
bondage was very brief, less, perhaps, than one hun- 
dred years. Even if they were not at all connected 
with the Shepherd Kings, they were of the same 
Arab stock, and the Pharaohs of Thebes and Unit- 
ed Egypt naturally " knew not Joseph," belonging 
as he did to the Memphian kingdom. The mud of 
the Nile, mixed with chopped straw, and baked in 
the sun was used very extensively. The Egyptian 
version of the Exodus is quite unlike the Hebraic 
account. The priests of Egypt were prejudiced 
against them because of their religion, and secured 
their isolation and enslavement. Moses, a learned 



'V 



EGYPT AT ITS BEST. 



priest of Heliopolis, preferred being the chief man 
among the despised Israelites, rather than one 
among many aristocratic priests. He espoused their 
cause, gave them a code of laws, and a reformed 
religion, encouraged them to form a hostile alliance 
with the Canaanites, and when they were beaten by 
Amanothph, he retreated with them into the desert, 
from which, after years of wandering and hiding 
from their adversaries, they succeeded in reaching 
the land of their 
allies whom in 
part they dispos- 
sessed. 

How much this 
history was a dis- 
torted account, 
\re leave the 
reader to judge. 
It is certainly in- 
teresting and cu- 
rious. The two 
peoples thus in- 
timately associ- 
ated in the far- 
off days may be 
said to ha v e 
given to Europe 
and America 
their great characteristics. To those fugitive slaves 
we owe our religion, and to their pursuers have been 
traced, through many a devious winding, the gen- 
eral civilization of modern 
times. It would be inter- 
esting to follow the Ex- 
odus to the Land of Prom- 
ise, but that would be a 
tangent, and we must now 
dismiss from our thoughts, 
in connection with Egypt, 
the children of Israel. 

Thothmosis IV. was the 
next king of Egypt. The 
temple which stands be- 
tween the fore-legs of the 
Sphinx, uear Memphis, 
was evidently the work of 
Dress of the King. his reign. That edifice 

shows, as has been observed, that " in this reign at 
least, though probably much earlier, the rock had 





been carved into the form of that monster." The 
next king, Amanothph III., was a great warrior, and 
did a great deal of temple and tomb building, of 
wall-painting and of obelisk-carving. He conquered 
numerous tribes of Ethiopian* His successor, 
Hornemnes deserves mention for the fact that he 
was unwittingly the father of Greek civilization. It 
was this way : Greek pirates, or sailors, much the 
same thing in old times, had established themselves at 

Sais, on the east 
of the Delta, and 
conducted t li e 
Mediterranean 
commerce of 
Egypt, being for 
the most part in- 
dependent and 
free. Gradually 
they spread and 
improved, enjoy- 
ing the privilege 
of intercourse 
with cultured 
Egypt for five 
hundred years. 
Finally, at the 
time at which 
we have arrived 
they incurred the enmity of the government, 
They belonged to Lower Egypt, and Upper 
Egypt ruled the country. They were driven 
out as the Hebrews had been before them. They 
returned to Greece, founded several cities (Boeotian 
Thebes among the number), and thus sowed 
the seeds of Greek civilization. Athens is sup- 
posed to owe its origin to that second great 
exodus. 

We come now upon the name which towers 
above all other Theban names — Barneses. The 
first king who bore that name achieved noth- 
ing, at least left nothing, which has survived the 
ravages of three chiliades. His son, Oimemep- 
thah, was an industrious builder, and the inscrip- 
tions upon the walls of his structures, are very 
useful in deciphering the religion of Egypt. 
The next king, Barneses II., brought the The- 
ban dynasty to its highest glory. War and 
architecture, sculpture and painting, united in 
making him the most illustrious of all the mon- 



COLOSSAL STATUE OF KAMESES THE GREAT. 



SnT 



EGYPT AT ITS BEST. 



>te 



arohs the Nile can boast. His name is hardly less 
imposing than that of Cfesar. He was succeeded by 
Plhehmen-Meiothph, Oimempthah II., Osinta, Ro- 
nierer, and four more kings bearing his own name, 
and then the glory of Thebes departed, not a sud- 
den and overwhelming calamity, like that which 
dimmed the light of Troy and Jerusalem, but else- 
where, and with diminished luster, shone the star 
of Egyptian Empire. The last of those kings was 
a contemporary of Priam, Achilles, Helen, and 
Ulysses. The period from Rameses the Great to 
Rameses the last, was nearly two hundred years. 

No nation of antiquity relied so much as Egypt 
did upon the development of its own resources for 
growth and splendor. Indeed, no other nation ever 
equaled it in this proud pre-eminence until the 
United States of America surpassed it. The mar- 
tial spirit was not wanting even upon the banks of 
the Nile. The tablets abound in evidences of con- 
quest. Rameses the Great seems to have inaugu- 
rated a somewhat new policy. Hitherto wars ap- 
pear to have been waged for defense, and against 
encroaching neighbors. But he marched forth up- 
on a campaign of subjugation. The carved and 
painted walls of Theban temples portray victory 
over the Ethiopians and the Arabs not only, but 
Tartars, or Scythians, Medes, Persians, Syrians, 
Lycians, and, in fine, the countries generally now 
known as Turkey in Asia, and Russia in Asia. 
How thorough were his conquests we cannot ascer- 
tain, but they were certainly extensive enough to 
give that king rank among the great soldiers of 
mankind. The art of war must have been much 
the same then as it continued to be, down to the 
invention of gunpowder. Steel was known and 
used both for offense and defense. 

The population of Egypt at its best, when the 



glory of Thebes was brightest, is supposed to have 
been about 5,500,000. This estimate is based on the 
registry of the crown tenants of the military age. 
The subjugation of Ethiopia brought the gold- 
mines of that country into the direct possession of 
the Egyptians. To realize the importance of this, 
one should recall the situation of this country before 
and after the Mexican war. Prior to that conflict 
the precious metals came into the coffers of the 
United States through commercial intercourse, but 
after that, the mines of California (a part of the 
territory secured from Mexico) were worked to the 
best advantage, and a new era in })rosperity was in- 
augurated. Those ancient mines diffused wealth 
over the known world. Even Palestine sat, as 
it were, under the drippings of the Egyptian 
mint, and so astonishing was the increase of wealth 
in Jerusalem, that the chronicles of the Hebrew 
kings declare that gold was as plenty as stones in 
the streets of that capital during the reign of 
Solomon. The Ophir of the Bible is supposed by 
some to have been simply a port on the Red Sea, 
the gate through which the gold of Egypt 
poured into Palestine in exchange for the prod- 
ucts of that " land flowing with milk and hon- 
ey." The exhaustion of those Nubian or Ethio- 
pian mines had much, perhaps most, to do with the 
decay of Egypt. We shall see further on in this 
history how Spain derived advantage from the 
mines of the new world, only to make its fall the 
greater. The light of three thousand years is too 
dim to admit of a close analysis of the causes of 
Egypt's fall, but certain it is, that its prosperity was 
not abiding, and that by the time the last of the 
Rameses passed away, the glory of Thebes, which 
had been gradually fading for a century and a half, 
suffered a permanent, but not a complete, eclipse. 




s'\ 



k. 





THE DECLINE 



OF EGYPT. 




■ i!iii«iiiii!iiiii««viwi«i*i | ii««wiiii | iwi« | iii«Niii!i«««wnii > ; 



;i|iiiiiiiiiiininii!aiii!iii!i!i««iwiiwii|!iiiwiiiiiiiii««iiwiwnawvi* 





^-*^*#^^ 



ATIONS do not build monu- 
ments in honor of disaster, 
and the lights which fall 
upon the decline of Egypt 
are for the greater part side- 
lights. The nation was di- 
vided, and the glory of 
Thebes departed about 950 
B. C. Shishank, of Bubastis, in Low- 
er Egypt, succeeded the dynasty of 
Ranieses, so far as that dynasty had 
succession in power. His capital was 
about sixty miles from one of the 
mouths of the Nile. It was very 
near, if it did not embrace in its im- 
mediate jurisdiction the land of 
Goshen, and was thus that part of 
Egypt from which the Jews derived 
many of their ideas, being next to 
Heliopolis. The TJrim and Thummim of the Hebrew 
priesthood was also worn by the priests of Bubastis. 
It is generally supposed that the whole history of 
the fall of man is of Egyptian origin, and the re- 
semblance between the laws, customs and rites of 
that country and of Palestine are striking, although 
in many particulars there is a sharp contrast, showing 
that Moses was no mere copyist. The kings of Bu- 
bastis could not extend their sway over the whole 
country, although they made some conquests abroad. 
Tanes and Mendes were independent cities and sov- 
ereignties, and Thebes was no inconsiderable power 



long after it had suffered eclipse. It faded out so grad- 
ually that it cannot be assigned a date of death. 
Shishank divided the temporal and the spiritual 
powers. The soldiers of the Bubastis were obeyed 
in the Thebaid, but the priests had no jurisdiction 
beyond their immediate parishes, as the modern 
term is. 

Soon after the death of Shishank, almost inter- 
minable civil war became chronic. No master- 
spirit arose to quell the storm. First one city and 
then another would be in the ascendant, and for- 
eign dependencies threw off the Egyptian yoke. 
Notable among these secessions was Ethiopia, and 
finally that southern nation became the master and 
Egypt the servant. Although independent, it was 
Coptic, and as a factor in the development of man, 
was essentially Egyptian. It contributed no new 
element to civilization. If, as some suppose, the 
Ethiopians, called also the Cushites, really ante- 
dated the Egyptians in civilization, their subsequent 
career added no lasting monuments to their glory. 
The Ethiopians waged fierce warfare with other na- 
tions far to the North, especially Assyria, now 
grown to greatness, but in all the arts followed 
the models of Egypt, feebly and far off. At the 
height of its glory, the Nubian gold-mines added to 
the resources of the kingdom, and some works still 
stand to attest the imitation of Theban grandeur, 
notably the temple at Napata, and the monarch of 
Ethiopia boasted himself to be the well-belovril of 
Athor, a Theban goddess. Sometimes the Cushite 



(52) 



src 



lU. 



THE DECLINE OF EGYPT. 



S3 



kings established their court at Thebes, later in 
Memphis, and still later at Sais, in Lower Egypt. 
The Ethiopian conquerors, like the Normans who 
took England, were gradually absorbed, and as Nor- 
mandy was lost sight of, and conquered and con- 
querors became unified as Englishmen, so Cushite 
and native Coptic gradually merged in Egyptians. 
This Cushite period, as it might be called, was not 
without its glory. From the Greeks and Phoeni- 
cians the people learned navigation and caught the 
spirit of enterprise. The priests tried to discourage 
all progress, and did succeed in greatly hampering 
it. but some of the monarchs were great and secular. 

About the middle of the seventh century before 
the Christian era, Psammeticus I. encouraged in- 
tercourse with the Greeks. He employed them as 
soldiers, gave Greek names to his children, and al- 
lowed colonies from Greece to settle upon the Delta. 
His son, Necho II., sent a fleet on a voyage of dis- 
covery from the lied Sea, with a view to circum- 
navigate Africa, and see if there were not some 
•• Northwest" passage for commerce. The expedi- 
tion covered a period of three years. The Straits 
of Gibraltar were discovered and sailed through. 
As far as known, this was the most far-reaching 
voyage which had ever been undertaken at that 
time, and quite outstripped the "sailor's yarn " spun 
by Homer about the wanderings of Ulysses. 

Necho carried on extensive wars with the Assyri- 
ans, or, as by that time they deserved to be called, 
Babylonians or Chaldeans, for Nineveh had fallen. 
This line of military policy was carried on with va- 
rying fortunes, amid scenes no longer of much in- 
terest, till Cambyses the Mede crushed the liberties 
of Egypt. What he began, his son and heir fin- 
ished. He thoroughly overthrew the ancient em- 
pire of Egypt, and henceforth its most ancient 
form ceased to exist. The original, independent 
and African nation was no more. Afterwards 
Cambyses took Sais, captured King Psammeticus 
and over-ran and sacked the cities. From that 
time on, the Egypt of the pyramids has had only 
its past to boast of, and its ruins to glory in, and 
its subsequent achievements have been mainly due 
to foreign influences. 

It was in the year 523 B. C. that Cambyses 
inarched his conquering barbarians into Egypt, and 
332 B. C, that Alexander the Great invaded the 
land of the Sphinx. During those two centuries 



the country was at the lowest ebb of happiness and 
the high-water mark of misery. The demoniacal 
Cambyses madly destroyed and desolated out of 
wanton savagery. The stupendous works of art at 
Thebes and elsewhere, were laboriously disfigured 
and defaced. His wanton Medes and Persians, the 
Vandals of their day, took special delight in break- 
ing off the heads of statues, the beard being held 
in as much veneration among them as the " pig- 
tail "is in China. No inconsiderable portion of the 
destruction now witnessed among the ruins of 
Egypt is chargeable to them, especially during the 
reign of the mad Cambyses. His immediate suc- 
cessor, Darius, was a mercenary ruler. He cared 
more for the spoils and revenue than for malicious 
gratification. Taken as a whole, that period of 
two hundred years was one long, relentless, and 
desolating tyranny, relieved briefly during the war 
of Xerxes with Greece, when the opportunity for 
revolt was improved, resulting, however, in no act- 
ual benefit to the Egyptians. 

That was a dreary period. Its details are unin- 
teresting in the extreme. It is only from the stand- 
point of general results that it possesses significance. 
What was really the most important thing of all, 
was the fall of Egypt as a vast schoolhouse of the 
nations. The pursuit of knowledge in that coun- 
try was beset with exceeding difficulty, especially 
for the Greek. The foreign student of philosophy, 
science, and art, would need true heroism to trust 
his life in any part of Egypt, especially if he were a 
Greek. That was an exceedingly fortunate thing 
for Greece and the whole world. It stimulated and 
developed the indigenous civilization of Greece, and 
contributed incalculably, although indirectly, to the 
glory of Athens. The intellectual scepter of the 
world passed from Coptic into Grecian hands, never 
to be regained. Henceforth the very glories of 
Egypt, if they do not really belong to Greece, are yet 
so very Hellenic as to have a distinctive type more 
suggestive of Athens than of Thebes or Memphis. 
It was during this decline of Egypt that the univer- 
sity of Heliopolis, was established, restoring largely 
to Egypt its educational functions. The schools 
of that city cannot be dated in their origin, but it is 
known that it was there that Solon, Pythagoras, 
Plato, and the learned Greeks generally, repaired to 
study not only " the wisdom of the Egyptians," but 
the science, philosophy, institutions and literature 



"7H 



;FT 



54 



THE DECLINE OF EGYPT. 



of Assyria, and the whole world of existing civiliza- 
tion. There the scholars of the nations far and 
near repaired for study, as now they seek the uni- 
versities of Germany. 

There are some features of the laws of the Coptic 
period which merit attention, but which may be- 
long to the oldest empire, for a common law older 
than any record of it, is by no means peculiar to 
English-speaking peoples. The principle of crimi- 
nal law was retribution, not reform or mere re- 
straint in the future. It was " an eye for an eye 
and a tootli for a tooth." Slaves were far better 
protected than children or wives. Forgers were 
severely punished. Imprisonment for debt was not 
allowed. The most notable law was what in Brit- 
ish and American law is called " the statute of lim- 
itations," carried to the extreme that no debt could 
be collected at law unless it had been acknowledged 
in writing, provided the defendant denied the ob- 
ligation under oath. 

The clothing of the Egyptians was mostly linen, 
the women wearing a single garment extending 
from head to foot; the men. one of coarse texture 
and somewhat shorter. Sandals were worn gen- 
erally, but the head was bare, except that some- 
thing in the way of a badge of distinction was 
worn. The ordinary dwelling was a small plot 
of ground inclosed between four unroofed walls. 
A priest could marry only one wife, but poly- 
gamy was allowed to the secular part of the com- 
munity. The land belonged to the crown, the 
priesthood, and the soldiery in equal parts, the rev- 
enues of the government coming from the peasants 
on the crown lands. The area of civilization was 
not far from eleven millions of acres. For politi- 
cal purposes the country was divided into twines, or 
counties, varying from time to time in number 
from thirty to forty. There were also township di- 
visions for purposes of government. It may be 
added in conclusion, that the fine arts of this period 
compare poorly with the sculpture and painting of 
Greece ; the pupil far surpassing the master. 

Speaking of this period, an eminent historian 
writes : " We now possess but few traces of the 
Egyptian laws and customs by which to explain the 
form of government ; but there are two circumstances 
which throw some light upon it, and prove that it 



was a mixed form, between a monarchy and an aris- 
tocracy. First, every soldier was a land-owner, and 
arms were only trusted to those who had such an 
estate in the country as would make them wish to 
guard it from enemies from abroad and from ty- 
rants and tumults at home. These men formed a 
part of the aristocracy. A second remarkable in- 
stitution was the hereditary priesthood. Every 
clergyman, sexton and undertaker, every physician 
and druggist, every lawyer, writing clerk, school- 
master and author, every sculjjtor, jjainter, and 
land measurer, every magistrate and every fortune- 
teller, belonged to the priestly order. Of this sacred 
body the king, as we learn from the inscriptions, 
was the head ; he was at the same time chief-priest 
and general-in-chief of the army, while the temples 
were both royal palaces and Availed castles of great 
strength. 

The power of the king must have been in part 
based on the opinion and religious feeling of the 
many ; and however seltish may have been the 
priests, however they may have kept back knowl- 
edge from the people, or used the terrors of the 
next world as an engine for their power in this, yet 
such a government, while more strong, must have 
been far more free than the government of the 
sword. Every temple had its own hereditary fam- 
ily of priests, who were at the same time magis- 
trates of the city and the district, holding their 
power by the same right as the king did his. The 
union between church and state was complete. 
But the government must have been a good deal 
changed by Rameses II. and his father. After all 
Egypt was united under one scepter, the power of 
the monarch was too great for the independence of 
the several cities. The palaces built by these kings 
were not temples ; the foreign tributes and produce 
of the gold mines were used to keep in pay a stand- 
ing army ; and by a standing army alone could 
Rameses have fought his battles so far from home 
as in Asia Minor and on the banks of the Euphra- 
tes. The military land-holders were wholly unfit- 
ted for foreign warfare." There is no plainer les- 
son in history than this : However splendid and 
strong it may seem, a nation which employs for its 
defense foreign mercenaries, has entered upon its 
period of decline. 



r 



^ 









EGYPT AND THE 
GLORY OF ALEXANDRIA. 




f^ 




CHAPTER VII. 

Alexander am) Alexandria— The Phyl.e— Papyrus Making — Alexander and Egypt- 
First of the Ptolemies — Alexandrian Commerce and Public Buildings — The Muse- 
um — The Library— The Ptolemies and Science — Alexandrian Philosophy — The Mate- 
rial Decline of the City — Alexandrian Christianity — Theological Warfare — Zeno- 
bia in Egypt — Persian Ravages — The Saracen Invasion. 

ML-- 

N the meteoric splendor of 

Alexander, Greece may 

well take perpetual pride. 

It is none the less true that 

he was by no means a typ- 
ical Greek. He belonged 

to barbaric Macedonia, 

which had little in corn- 
classic Athens, or the cul- 
has made the name of 
His exploits belong 




inon with 
tore which 
Greece illustrious. 

indeed to another portion of this his- 
tory, but we are now about to enter up- 
on a chapter of the past which consti- 
tutes the one grand monument to his 
glory. His dazzling splendors as a 
world conqueror will shine forever, but 
the kingdom was divided upon his un- 
timely death, and fell into fragments. It was 
saved from universal disgrace by the Ptolemaic dy- 
nasty, and the still greater and more enduring gen- 
ius of Alexandria (for there are local as well as per- 
sonal genii). We have seen Egypt rise and fall, 
being the world's greatest academy, even in its de- 
cline. But Persian oppression and the enervating 
influence of wealth had so vitiated the Coptic race 
that it seemed incapable of recovery. The new pe- 
riod of Egyptian greatness is more Hellenic than 
Coptic. It is Greece transplanted into Egypt, much 
as the glory of the United States is England trans- 

~~ (55) 



ported to America. For three centuries the dynasty 
of the Ptolemies endured, and for nine cen- 
turies, Alexandria was the great literary and scien- 
tific metropolis of the world, rivaling in scholar- 
ship, if not original works of genius, Athens and 
Rome at their best. 

Hitherto, in our history, we followed the course 
of empire as marked out upon the tablets and 
memorial stones of royal association, but we may 
now pass out into the broader ocean of literature. 
About the time of the Persian invasion, papyrus 
became common and cheap in Egypt, and what is 
more, the use of letters took the place of picture 
writing with its slow work and unsatisfactory re- 
sults. The way was thus made ready for Alexan- 
dria with its libraries and book-lore. There are in 
Europe, to-day, no less than ten thousand Egyp- 
tian papyri. But our main concern is with Alex- 
andria, its kings and savants, its erudition and its 
literature ; in fine, the part taken by it in the devel- 
opment of man. 

Having established his sway over all Greece and 
the Grecian cities of Asia Minor, Alexander led his 
forces against Darius. His war upon the Persians 
endeared him to the Egyptian heart, so that when 
he went thither he was hailed as a deliverer. With 
a quick eve to the possibilities of empire, he deter- 
mined to erect a city worthy to perpetuate his name 
near one of the mouths of the Nile, where then 
stood the small village of Rhacotis. The site was 



^ 



56 



EGYPT AND THE GLORY OF ALEXANDRIA. 



well chosen, and although he never returned to 
carry out the plan, his idea, barely begun in his life- 
time, bore fruit. Between that little village and 
the island of Pharos, the water was exceptionally 
deep and peculiarly well adapted for the harborage 
of ships. 

Alexander treated the Egyptian prejudices with 
respect, instead of trying to exasperate and hu- 
miliate the people. His victories over the Per- 
sians made secure his hold upon the land of the 
pyramids, and his reverence for Amnion and the 
other deities of the Nile, made his claim of sonship 
to Amnion a highly appreciated compliment. It 
was eight years after his entrance upon Egypt that 
he died at Babylon, 
during which period 
very little had been 
done to carry out his 
plan beyond preparing 
the way for it. His 
half-brother, Philip 
Arridseus, was declar- 
ed by his generals, 
assembled at Babylon, 
to be his successor. 
But in the course of a 
few years the empire 
fell into fragments, 
these generals dividing 
it between themselves. 
The province of 
Egypt fell to the lot 
of Ptolemy. From the 
first, he was virtually 
king of the country, and his dynasty continued 
with varying fortunes, until finally the imperialism 
of Rome absorbed the country. The city which he 
built and made his capital, survived the dynasty 
with which in glory it was indivisibly united for a 
brilliant series of centuries. 

The first of the Ptolemies, B. C. 332, was sur- 
named Soter, and the last in point of fact was Cleo- 
patra, who applied the fatal asp to her breast B. C. 
30. The real glory of Alexandria faded gradu- 
ally as the light of Christianity obscured the bright- 
ness of pagan philosophy and science. No other 
date can be fixed for the final eclipse of its splen- 
dor so appropriate as the burning of its marvelous 
and vast library by the Arabs, A. D. 640. We 




Light-house on the Pharos.— (One of the Seven Wonders of the world.) 



shall not, however, in this chapter, catalogue the 
kings who ruled in Alexandria or the emperors who 
held it in vassalage, but endeavor to give an idea of 
the actual place held during these years by the 
city which may be said to furnish the connecting 
link between ancient and modern times. 

This city combined commercial with educational 
supremacy and in its palmy days, which were many, 
had about three hundred thousand inhabitants, 
which, by the way, is about its present population. 
It was laid out on a generous plan. The two main 
streets crossed one another at right-angles in the 
middle of the town, which was from the first, three 
miles long and nearly a mile wide, with streets wide 

enough for carriages. 
Upon the neighboring 
island of Pharos was 
erected (about three 
centuries before 
Christ) a gigantic 
light-house of white 
marble, which is class- 
ed as one of the seven 
wonders of the world. 
As described, the early 
citv must have been 
peculiarly mode r n . 
The public buildings 
which fronted the har- 
bor included a cham- 
ber of commerce, and 
beside the wharf and 
cemetery, there were 
theaters, circuses, race- 
courses, public parks, public libraries, public schools, 
and the temple of Therapis, which might pass for 
a cathedral. The chief of all these institutions 
was the University, generally called the Museum. 
This Museum was the home of philosophy and 
learning, the resort of students old and young. Its 
great hall was devoted to lectures, and was also used 
as a dining-room, for the physical necessities of the 
scholars were duly regarded. The state spent vast 
sums of money in maintaining this institution. On 
the porch and in the spacious grounds gathered " in 
groups and knots " the scholars and professors in 
the pursuit of knowledge. In the old Coptic uni- 
versity previously mentioned, the savants taught 
only what was, strictly speaking, " the wisdom of the 



i V 



\ 



ik_ 



EGYPT, AND THE GLORY OF ALEXANDRIA. 



57 



Egyptians;" but this Hellenic University was truly 
cosmopolitan. It drew knowledge from the whole 
world. Its library was early a large one and steadily 
increased with the growth of literature. 

It may be well to say here that the Alexandrian 
library was fired three times, and nearly destroyed 
each time ; first by Caesar, when lie conquered the 
city ; second by Christian fanaticism, and lastly by 
Mohammedan fanaticism, the loss being greater 
upon each repetition. This vast repository of liter- 
ature was open to the public for reading and for 
copying, and the latter was an important industry 
in those days of more thirst for knowledge than 
facilities for its gratification. The papyrus and the 
scribe of those days were the printing press and 
compositor of modern times. The first Ptolemy 
was a historian of no mean attainments, and the 
last to make that name illustrious was an astrono- 
mer second only to Galileo and Copernicus. It was 
not bravery alone which was rewarded in Alexan- 
dria, nor yet commercial enterprise. Neither was 
under-rated, but both were held in less repute than 
scholarship, art, and all which the term culture 
embraces. Sculptors, painters, poets, historians, 
linguists, scientists of all kinds, and every dweller 
upon the lofty table-land of intellectual life, were 
the real aristocrats of that city. Not only was 
Alexandria a repository for all the wisdom of Greece, 
but it embraced the body of Syrian and Assyrian 
learning and Jewish literature. The scattered 
writings of the Hebrew tongue were gathered into 
one book and translated into Greek (for Alexan- 
dria being a Grecian city, in fact, made Greek the 
language of general literature). That translation 
is known as the Septuagint, and is identical with 
our Old Testament. Jesus Christ and others in the 
New Testament, quoted from the Septuagint, when- 
ever they quoted at all from the scriptures of their 
own people, which shows that the Septuagint was 
the version used even in Judea. 

Never did a sovereign show more appreciation of 
intellectual superiority, regardless of nationality, 
than the founder of the great house of Ptolemy. 
He lived familiarly with the learned men of his 
capital, courting their society. He was not so 
much their patron as their friend, for he did not 
have the offensive ways suggested by the term 
" patronize." The list of eminent professors at 
Alexandria would be a very long one, covering the 



entire range of 'intellectual pursuits. The noble 
city was an asylum for the banished free-thinkers 
of other lands. None were more famous than the 
physicians. Anatomy was born at Alexandria, and 
so indeed was natural history. Mathematics was 
brought to a still higher degree of perfection there 
than ever before attained. The study of nature by 
patient analysis and consecutive observation was fair- 
ly begun there, without being carried to any very 
satisfactory degree of perfection. There was in the 
Alexandrian dissecting-rooms and zoological collec- 
tions the suggestions of modern science, but the 
difference is that between the gray of early morn 
and full sunlight. Unfortunately, between that 
twilight and this daylight was the almost rayless 
darkness of a thousand years. When Alexandria 
fell, night overspread the world, its mantle being 
finally lifted only by the invention of printing. 

The peculiarity of Alexandria as compared with 
other great cities of learning, ancient and modern, 
was the paucity and insignificance of its original 
literature. The copying business seemed to lie un- 
favorable to the development of originality. It can 
boast no Homer, no Plato, no Virgil, no Horace, no 
Tacitus. In the world of ideas, poetical or philo- 
sophical, its every contribution to literature might 
perish without any very serious loss. Much has been 
said of the Alexandrian school of philosophy, its 
Neoplatonism and its Agnosticism, but these terms 
suggest vast erudition, with a singular barrenness of 
ideas. Philo, the Jew, was second to no Alexan- 
drian in his philosophical ability, and his works are 
extant and accessible to English readers, but they 
are dreary and vapid. The attempt to adapt Pla- 
tonic thought to Hebraic theology was futile. The 
long list of writers, prose and poetic, contains no 
really great name. It is not for its productions of 
genius, but for the conservation of learning, that 
Alexandria is entitled to wear a crown of metropoli- 
tan supremacy. 

Its commerce continued with some interruptions, 
but without eclipse, until the trade of India and the 
far Orient began to go around the continent of Af- 
rica, instead of through its northern portion. The 
voyage around Africa and through the Straits of 
Gibraltar, jjreviously mentioned, bore little fruit, at 
least it had no direct connection with the discovery 
which left Alexandria stranded upon the desert, un- 
til the construction, or rather the reconstruction, of 






_ik 



^L 



58 



EGYPT, AND THE GLORY OF ALEXANDRIA. 



the Suez Canal by DeLesseps, since which time it 
has resumed some commercial importance. 

What has now been said of Alexandria as a seat 
of learning, prepares one to understand the part 
taken by that remarkable city in determiiring the 
character of Christianity, which service, be it good 
or ill, was the final glory of the city. The date of 
the introduction of Christianity into Egypt is uncer- 
tain. St. Mark has the traditional honor of its in- 
troduction. The first opponent of Christianity, the 
father of all who assail it, as unworthy the "divinity 
which doth hedge it about," was Celsus of Alexan- 
dria. He was answered by his townsman, Origen. 
That controversy partook of the metaphysical hair- 
splitting so popular in that university town. Hith- 
erto, the Christians had been content to be practical 
pietists. The scholarly and scholastic Alexandrians 
. raised and discussed matters of opinion, and inau- 
gurated the terribly demoralizing policy of excom- 
munication on dogmatic ground. Theology, as a 
field for dialectic combat and angry disputation, was 
born in the Museum, and was the natural offspring 
of the Alexandrian school of philosophy. It was 
there that Bishop Athanasius insisted upon the di- 
vinity of Jesus, and Presbyter Arius denied it, car- 
rying the controversy so far as to occasion the Ni- 
cene Council and Creed, and making a schism in 
the church, over a creedal point quite foreign to 
the simple thought of the primitive Christians. For 
a time Alexandria was the capital of Christianity, 
almost as truly as Rome afterwards became. But 
that proud position was only briefly held. When 
Constantine had established his court on the Bos- 
phonis, the city named in his honor became the seat 
of empire for the Greek Church, and Rome as a 
rival capital, became the metropolitan see for the 
rival western church. 

The opinion of Athanasius was espoused in Rome- 
and that of Arius in Constantinople, and Alexan- 
dria lost its prestige. Constantine sought to make 
his urban namesake a great, seat, of learning, the 
central point of Greek thought, and an intellectual, 
as well as religious center of influence. In this lie 
so far succeeded as to sap the life of Alexandria. 
What Roman conquest had hardly impaired, and 
Arab conquest subsequently attempted, the rivalry 



of Constantinople very nearly effected. The real 
secret, however, of Alexandrian decay wa,s the un- 
due prominence given to mere learning in distinc- 
tion from real thought, and polemical theology in 
distinction from actual religion. 

In the year A. 1). 270, occurred an interesting 
episode in Egyptian history. Zenobia, Queen of 
Palmyra, one of the most interesting characters in 
history, was acknowledged by all Egypt as queen. 
She made the country a province of Syria. Her 
reign was short, but its influence upon Upper Egypt 
permanent. Two years after her sovereignty began, 
she w;is taken captive by a Roman army and car- 
ried in triumph to Rome, to spend the rest of her 
days in enforced retirement. 

The Coptic element still clung to the idea of sep- 
aration from imperial Rome through Syrian leader- 
ship. This movement failed, but the Copts of Up- 
per Egypt were fired with a quenchless purpose to 
break the hated yoke. When, at length, the Ro- 
man Empire was divided, Egypt fell to the lot of 
the Eastern Empire. That was about the begin- 
ning of the fifth century. A century later, the 
Persians having conquered a large part of Syria, in- 
vaded Egypt. Temple ravages were committed, but 
the capital was not taken. Other raids followed, 
but no decisive advantage was gained. The country 
suffered terribly from the rivalries of Persia and the 
Eastern Empire. Then came the Saracen. One 
of the first countries to be conquered by the follow- 
ers of Islam, was the land of the Pharaohs, Alexan- 
dria only offering serious resistance. The Saracen 
commander who won this province was Amru. It 
was under the Caliphat of Omar. It was by Amru 
that the Alexandrian library was burned the third 
time, in obedience to the instructions of Omar, who 
said, '• If the books are the same as the Koran they 
are useless, if not, they are wicked, therefore they 
should be burned in any case." In this spirit did 
the Saracens ever rule all Egypt. It is none the 
less true, that ultimately, the treasures of Alexan- 
drian knowledge were largely preserved and dissem- 
inated in Europe by the Mohammedans rather than 
the Christians. The service to civilization rendered 
by the Moors in Spain, might be called without ex- 
aggeration, Egypt's last, best gift to mankind. 



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CHAPTER VIII. 

Egypt, Geographically speaking— From Amru to Saladin— The Mamelukes and Turk- 
ish Subjugation— Present Dtnasty— Debt of Egypt, and its Political Consequences 
—Railroads and the Suez Canal— Cairo, and the Present Alexandria— The Nile- 
Natural Resources— Slave Trade and Education— Present Population, Fellahs, 
Copts and Turks. 

of the 




;F all the countries 

world Egypt alone is the 
same, geographically speak- 
ing, "yesterday, to-day, and 
forever." Natural bounda- 
ries determine its area. 
Egypt As It Is, presents 
the same topographical pe- 
culiarities as did the Egypt of the 
Pyramids and the Sphinx. The coun- 
try embraced is the lowest or northern 
division of the valley of the Nile, 
from the lowest cataract, latitude 
34° 3' 45" north, to the Mediterranean 
Sea, latitude 31° 35'. Measured on the 
meridian line, its length is 450 miles, 
but making due allowance for the windings of the 
mighty river, its length reaches 600 miles. The 
average width is eight miles, the maximum width 
being Kill miles. The whole area of the valley, in- 
cluding the Delta of the Nile, is only 11,351 square 
miles. There is a good deal of semi-desert country 
included in Egypt proper, on either side of the valley, 
which swells the area to 175.130 square miles. For 
administrative purposes, then' are thirteen provinces 
or counties. The jurisdiction of Egypt, as a nation, 
extends to some outlying regions. Nubia, Darfur and 
a vaguely defined territory, mostly barren sands, 
with occasional oases. 

Between the Egypt which Amru conquered and 
the present nation of that name, which came into 



existence, politically, during this century, and is now 
subject to a novel subjugation, retaining the sem- 
blance of independence without its reality, stretches 
a gulf which may be sufficiently spanned for our 
purpose in few words; for when Alexandria fell, 
Egypt became once more enveloped in "a darkness 
that might be felt." Under the Caliphs, alike at 
Damascus and Bagdad, it was a mere cipher. The 
Fatima dynasty of the Saracen Empire gained pos- 
session of the country in 909 under which Cairo 
was founded, and became, as it has remained ever 
since, the capital. That famous Payuim, Saladin, 
who did so much to baffle the Crusaders, obtained 
the sovereignty of Egypt, and a new era seemed 
about to dawn upon the land : but witli his death 
the Empire was dismembered, and Egypt again 
lapsed into utter insignificance. 

In 1250 came the regime of the Mamelukes. 
They were Turkish or Caucasian slaves, who became 
so strong, being trusted with the affairs of state by 
their enervated masters, that they rose in successful 
rebellion, deposing the Sultan who feebly reigned at 
Cairo. They were never fully conquered until Na- 
poleon won the victory of the Pyramids, July, 1798. 
The Ottoman Empire succeeded, however, in reduc- 
ing the country to a partial condition of vassalage. 
This reduction dates from 1517, Selim being the 
Ottoman sovereign under whom the subjugation was 
effected. 

The present Khedive (Arabic for king), Mehemet 
Tewfik, came to the throne in 1879, upon the abdi- 



vi * 



(59) 



r 



6o 



EGYPT AS IT IS. 



cation of his father, Ismail. He is the sixth ruler 
of the dynasty founded by that truly great man, 
Mehemet Ali, who was appointed governor of 
Egypt, as viceroy of the Sultan at Constantinople, 
in 1806. His reign as a sovereign began Ave years 
later. Mehemet Ali remained upon the throne which 
he himself reared until 1848. His eldest son, Ibra- 
him, died the same year, and the crown passed to 
Abbas, Ali's grandson. He wore it until 1854, when 
his uncle. Said, a man nine years his junior, suc- 
ceeded him. In 1863 Ismail came to the throne, a 
man of such Oriental extravagance, both in public 



$500,000,000. The actual control of the nation is 
in the hands of an "International Commission of 
Liquidation," composed of seven members. The 
present Khedive has an annual allowance of $500,- 
000 for himself, $200,000 for his deposed father, 
and $875,000 for other members of the royal 
family. 

The railroads of that country are the property of 
the state. They extend, all told, about a thousand 
miles. The great public work of Egypt, belonging 
to modern times and practical matters, is the Suez 
canal. It has a total length of ninety-two miles, 




Cairo. 



improvements and personal or household habits, 
that he became a hopeless bankrupt. His abdica- 
tion was the result brought about by the combined 
pressure of British and French creditors. One of 
the prodigalities of the Khedive was an agreement 
to pay the Sultan an enormous tribute in exchange 
for more perfect independence, for the indepen- 
dence achieved by force in 1811 left some vestiges of 
vassalage. In 1866 the almost complete disinthrall- 
ment was purchased by an agreement to pay a lib- 
eral annual tribute and furnish Turkey in time of 
war a contingent of Egyptian soldiers. In every- 
thing else the separation was absolute. 

The debt of Egypt at the close of 1880 was about 



and is wide and deep enough for the passage of 
large vessels. The sidings serve the same purpose 
as switches on single-track railroads. The number 
of vessels which passed through it in 1879 was 1,477, 
with a tonnage of 3,236,943. It was first opened 
for business in 1869. The cost, in round numbers, 
of this short canal was $100,000,000, so difficult was 
it to protect the channel from the drifting sand. 
This canal was a triumph of French engineering, 
its projector and constructor having been M. de Les- 
seps, the indefatigable head of the Panama canal 
project now being pushed for the uniting of the two 
great oceans. At the present time the Suez canal 
is under British control. More than three-fourths 



*7T« 



_s> L>- 



EGYPT AS IT IS. 



6l 



of the shipping which passed through the canal dur- 
ing its first decade belonged to Great Britain. Port 
Said, on the Mediterranean end of the route, is one 
terminus, and Suez, on the Red Sea, the other. A 
new town, Ismailia, came into existence in connec- 
tion with the canal. None of these towns, however, 
can boast any real thrift and general business. 

Egypt has only two cities of any considerable size, 
Cairo and Alexandria. They are 117 miles apart. 
The discovery of the passage to India by the Cape 
of Good Hope, in 1497, was afar more serious blow 
to Alexandria than its capture by Amru. Its glory 



tions. But it is only in a commercial point of view 
that the Alexandria of to-day is an important city. 

The population of Cairo is about 350,000. It is 
the religious capital of Mohammedanism It is 
there that the great university of Islam is located. 
Not less than ten thousand students assemble there 
to study the Koran, and con the priestly lore of the 
Crescent. Saracenic architecture is exhibited in its 
highest degree of perfection in its numerous mosques 
and minarets, the most remarkable of the former 
being the one erected by Sultan Tooloon, in 879. 

An ancient Egyptian proverb exclaims, " What, 




Town of Suez. 



had indeed departed, but it was still an impor- 
tant mart of trade. The commerce of the East 
flowed through its port, and its marvelous light- 
house continued to be the great beacon of commerce. 
After Portuguese enterprise had wrought its work of 
revolution the city dwindled to a population of 
6,000 a century ago. But since then it lias received a 
fresh lease of life. Ten years ago the population 
hail reached 220,000. Besides the Pharos, it has a 
breakwater two miles long which furnishes a road- 
stead for a very extensive commerce between Eu- 
rope and India. From its wharfs are exported large 
quantities of grain, sugar, cotton, and other produc- 



want ye wine who have Nilus to drink of ? " To no 
other country is any river anything like as impor- 
tant as the Nile is to Egypt. This mighty stream 
was long a profound mystery as to its source, and 
a prolific source of speculation, no less than a tempt- 
ing field for exploration. It is still somewhat of a 
mystery, but it is certain that the river is formed by 
the junction of the Blue and White Nile at Khar- 
toom, the capital of Nubia. The elevation at that 
point above the level of the sea is 1188 feet. After 
flowing northerly through about two degrees of lat- 
itude, it receives a third and final tributary at El 
Dumer, called the Black Nile. From this point it 



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k- 



62 



EGYPT AS IT IS. 



descends, in a round-about way, througn several lat- 
itudes, forming the famous Cataracts of the Nile, 
the last being at Assonan, the boundary between 
Nubia and Egypt. For about fifteen hundred 
miles this majestic river receives no tributary. The 
White Nile is believed to be the parent river. It 
originates in a large lake, the Victoria Nyanza, sit- 
uated in equatorial mountains. 

The valley of the Nile, from Phike to Cairo, is 
hedged about by chains of hills. The Delta proper 
is. however, one dead level — a plain without so much 



are found in the desert. The crocodile and the hip- 
popotamus rarely visit the lower Nile. Wild hogs 
roam in the marshes bordering the Delta. Camels, 
donkeys and mules are raised in large quantities. The 
principal crops of the farmers are, to name them in 
the order of their importance, cotton, maize, dur- 
ra, beans, wheat, barley, rice, lintels, lupine, gar- 
den vegetables, clover, sugar-cane, flax, hemp, to- 
bacco, sesame, opium, henna, indigo, safflower, 
roses, melons, oranges and bananas. Sheep are 
raised largely, and it is a great country for poultry. 




Port Said, and the Northern End of the Canal. 



as a hillock. The desert between the Nile ami the 
Red Sea is somewhat diversified by hills. The usu- 
al rock formation of the country is limestone, with 
some granite in the southern portion. The only 
minerals found in quantities to yield revenue are 
salt, natron and r. "re. The plants which nature 
produces without tillage usually have hairy, thorny 
exteriors. The palm-tree flourishes with very little 
cultivation. Oranges, figs, and tamarinds abound 
and are of an excellent quality. Olive, mulberry, and 
poplar trees thrive there. 

Zoologically speaking, Egypt does not make very 
much of a showing. Gazelles, hyenas, and jackals 



The slave trade still survives in Egypt to some 
extent, but it is being suppressed gradually, and 
that mainly through British influence. A system 
of popular education, very imperfect and inadequate, 
still of vast advantage to the rising generation, has 
been adopted, and it is not too much to hope that 
Egypt may once more have a place among the really 
important members of the family of living nations. 
Of the present population, a modern writer has accu- 
rately, if somewhat floridly, remarked : " In the ill- 
paid fellahs who cultivate the soil and work the 
boats and water-wheels, who live in mud hovels, 
wearing very little clothing, we see the unprivileged 



IK* 



U£ 



EGYPT AS IT IS. 



63 



class, that has labored under various masters from 
very early times, unnoticed by the historian. These 
are the same in the form of the skull as the Galla 
tribe of east Africa, aud were probably the earliest 
inhabitants of the valley. Such were the builders 
of the pyramids, as we learn by comparing their 
heads with the great Sphinx. They suffer under 
the same plagues of boils and blains, of lice and of 
flies, as in the time of Moses. Their bodies are 
painted with various colors, pricked into their skin, 
as they were when the Israelites were forbidden to 
make any marks on their flesh. 

" In the industrious Copts, the Christians of the 
villages, the counting-house, and the monastery, 
with skull and features half European and half 
Eastern, we have the old Egyptian race of the Delta, 
the ruling class, such as it was in the days of Psam- 
metichus and Shishank. Between Silsilis and the 
second cataract we find, under the name of Nubians, 
the same old Egyptian race, hut less mixed with 
Greeks or Arabs. Such were the Nabatse who fought 
against Diocletian, and such in features were 
the kings of Ethiopia, Saba-Cothph. and Ergame- 
nes. We know them by their likeness to the stat- 
ues, and by their proud contempt of the Fellahs. 
They were both zealous Christians under Athana- 
sius ; but Christianity has only remained among the 
mixed race of the Copts. 

•• To the east of the Nile, near Cosseir, aud again 
throughout the whole of Ethiopia from Abou Sim- 
bel to Meroe, are the Ababdeh Arabs, brave and 
lawless. These were the Southern enemies con- 
quered by Raroeses, and they often fought against 
the Romans. They are the owners of the camels now, 
as they used to be, and are the carriers across t he sands 
of the desert. To the south of Syene, in the desert 
between Ethiopia and the Red Sea, are the less civ- 
ilized marauding Bishareen Arabs, the Bleminyes 
and Troglodytes of the Greeks. These Arabs seem 
to be less at home on the banks of the Nile than 
the Copts and the Nubians. They no doubt reach- 
ed the valley at some later period, when the others 
were already settled there, and reached not by pass- 
ing through Egypt, but by crossing over from the 
Arabian side of the Red Sea. 



Some modifications of this classsfication were 
among the results of 1882, which in a small way 
changed the political status of Egypt. In 1880 ef- 
forts were made to organize a National or purely 
Egyptian party, the aim of which was to rid the 
country of foreign influence. This movement cul- 
minated in 1881 in an im-urrectionary agitation, at 
the head of which was Arabi Pasha, who, born a 
Fellah, had risen througli service in the army to the 
rank of General, and had become the Khedive's 
Minister of War. 

After an open rupture with the Khedive, Arabi, 
having control of the army, ignored the authority 
of the Controllers General, appointed by England 
and France, and in this way came in conflict with 
those powers On the 25th of May 1882, France 
and England presented their ultimatum, demanding 
a restoration of the statu quo. Arabi declined to 
comply, and after weeks spent in fruitless negotia- 
tion. England decided on military interference. The 
war opened with the bombardment of Alexandria 
by the British Fleet under the command of Admiral 
Seymour July 11, aud closed with the capture of 
Tel-el Kebir Sept. 13. The Britisli force, under 
General Garnet Wolseley, had invaded the country 
from the lino of the Suez Canal, and General Wolse- 
ley attacked Arabi's army Sept. 10, with a force of 
30,000 men aud 60 guns. The Egyptians were 
! routed and Arabi surrendered. Cairo was occupied 
i Sept. 15, and within a few days all the insurgent 
I troops had laid down their arms. 

The Khedive was restored with the old powers, 
the army was reorganized under English supervi- 
sion, and reforms were undertaken in the civil ser- 
vice. Arabi Pasha and his leading associates were 
tried for treason and condemned to death. The 
Khedive commuted the sentence to banishment, and 
they were sent with their families to Ceylon. As a 
result of the war English methods of reorganization 
were introduced in Egypt, the Khedive and the 
Sultan of Turkey consenting. 

To the initial observation of this chapter, may be 
appositely added, that in comparative importance 
as a member of the household of nations, present 
Egypt is the greatest conceivable contrast to the 
Egypt of antiquity.* 

* See papre 309. 



_J is 

=S5* 



4. 





C 



ETHIOPIA 
AND THE PH(ENIC\^ S 




1 





CHAPTER IX. 



Ethiopian and Ph(ENIcian Conjectures— Ethiopia and Egypt— Elective Monarchy and 
Glimpses op Civilization— Christianity— The Arts and Sciences in Ethiopia — Modern 
Ethiopia, or Abyssinia— Phoenicia, and Phoenician Cities— Tyre and Sidon — Commerce 
and Enterprise— Phoenician Colonies— The Arts and Industries op the Phoenicians — 
The Disappearance of this People. 




S^HN 3C *#*»-oi 




iF the honored names in the 
list of ancient nations and 
peoples, none are more shad- 
owy and vague than Ethiopia 
and the Phoenicians. The 
£5? former stands for a well-de- 
^£n3 fined region of country, pri- 
marily, but is often confound- 
ed with Africa in general, and Egypt 
in particular ; the latter, applied to a 
people who can hardly be said to have 
had an abiding habitation. The Ethi- 
opians occupied a land now penned up 
YP-^ and isolated, but once the half-way 
pi V^-J house between interior Africa and 
India. There was, indeed, a Phoenicia, 
but the Phoenicians were free rovers 
Herein the two present the sharpest 
possible contrast ; but in the estimation of many, 
they are equally entitled to honor ; one for origina- 
ting civilization (an unsubstantiated claim for Ethi- 
opia), and the other for its dissemination. Books of 
ponderous size and great erudition, if somewhat fan- 
ciful in theories, have been written to show that 
even Egypt and Judea derived their civilization 
from Ethiopia or Cush, while whole libraries have 
been published to prove that the promulgation of 
progressive ideas must be accredited to the enter- 
prising Phoenicians. Without going into the dis- 



of the seas. 



cussion of those speculative themes, it may be of 
interest in this chapter to familiarize the reader with 
the lands and peoples suggested by the heading. 

In that southeast region where the sources of 
the Nile have been sought, mountains abound, and 
there are also rich valleys. From time immemorial, 
two distinct races have been found there, the Ethi- 
opians and the Arabs. The latter were ever nomads, 
but the former dwelt in cities, possessed governments 
and laws, left monumental ruins distinctively their 
own, and were once far-famed for their arts and cul- 
ture. The Nubian valley was once as fertile as the 
delta of the Nile. It is so still, except as the sands 
of the adjacent deserts have drifted on and overlaid 
the original soil. Cataracts impede navigation and 
make a strong barrier between Ethiopia and Egypt. 
Caravans have always been the dependence of Nu- 
bia for commercial intercourse. Camels and drom- 
edaries are river and sea to that country. At the 
southern extremity of the Nubian valley, the river 
spreads itself and incloses numerous fertile islands. 
Along the entire length of this valley, one may even 
now encounter a succession of grand ruins, monu- 
ments which rival in beauty and exceed in sublimity 
the marvels of Thebes. But for all that, Ethiopia 
can give no intelligible account of its youth and 
usefulness. Those monuments are dumb. No Ro- 
setta stone has unsealed their lips. We know from 
Egyptian records, that the Pharaohs early invaded 



(64) 



fv^ 



ETHIOPIA AND THE PHOENICIANS. 



65 



the territory, subjugated the people and enriched 
their own country with the treasures of the van- 
quished. 

From scattered and brief mention here and there 
in the remotest ages of history, it is evident that the 
Ethiopians were a warlike people, and at one time 
masters of the navigation of the lied Sea, and a part 
of the peninsula of Arabia. They were indeed con- 
quered by Egypt, but later, when Egypt's conqueror, 
Cambyses, attempted to extend the sway of the 
Medes and Persians to that country, he failed. Nat- 
ural barriers were more potent, however, than hu- 
man prowess. 

At one period of Egyptian history the monarchs 
of that country were Ethiopians. This Cushite dy- 
nasty furnished three kings, Sabbakon, Sevechus, 
and Tarakus, the latter called in the Hebrew histo- 
ry, Tirhakah. In the reign of Psammeticus, the 
entire warrior caste of Egypt migrated to Ethiopia 
and became the military instructors of the people. 
[ The Ethiopian kings were elected. The electors 
were the priests, for there, as everywhere, the church 
sought to rule the state. A singular custom pre- 
vailed. If the ecclesiastics wanted a change in the 
administration they dispatched a courier to the mon- 
arch with orders to die. So potent was superstition 
and priestcraft, that this mandate appears never to 
have been resisted until as late as the reign of the 
second Ptolemy. During that sovereign's rule in 
Egypt, Er^amenes, of Ethiopia, received orders to 




1 3 

1 An Ethiopian princess traveling in a plamtram, or car drawn by ox- 
en. 2 Over her is a sort of umbrella. 3 An attendant. 4 The char- 
ioteer or driver. 

be his own executioner. But he was a Greek phi- 
losopher by education, and instead of meekly obey- 
ing, he slew the priests and instituted a new religionA 



This country, called also Meroe, was not averse to 
female sovereignty, if a stranger to female suffrage. 
More than one queen ruled the land of Cush. The 
Queen of Sheba is supposed to have been one of the 
number, and certain it is that Candace, who made 
war upon Augustus Caesar, was one of the most 
illustrious sovereigns of antiquity, scant as is our 
knowledge of her. She was indeed defeated by the 
world-conquering legions of Rome, but she was able 
to secure terms of peace which were highly honora- 
ble, and in strong contrast with the tragic fate of 
Cleopatra. 

It is highly probable that Ergamenes introduced 
the worship of Jehovah, among other gods, for un- 
der Queen Candace (the second probably of this 
name) we find, from the Acts of the Apostles, that 
her Secretary of the Treasury, as the officer would 
be called in this country, traveled by chariot to Jeru- 
salem for purposes of worship. The account rep- 
resents him as reading the scriptures as he jour- 
neyed (the Septuagint, probably), and as having 
been converted to Christianity by Philip. 

Traces of the Christian religion are to be found in 
Ethiopia, but the Ethiopians took more readily to the 
worship of Islam's prophet than to the fellowship of 
Jesus of Nazareth. That once grand and powerful 
country long since lapsed into barbarism and ceased 
to possess interest or importance. 

We cannot better close this account of Ethiopia in 
its relations to antiquity than by quoting Dr. Tay- 
lor's comments upon its arts, commerce and manu- 
factures : " The pyramids of Ethiopia, though in 
ferior in size to those of Middle Egypt, are said to 
surpass them in architectural beauty, and the sepul- 
chers evince the greatest purity of taste. But the most 
important and striking proof of the progress of the 
people in the art of building is their knowledge and 
employment of the arch. The Ethiopian vases depict- 
ed on the monuments, though not richly ornamental, 
display a taste and elegance of form that has never 
been surpassed in sculpture and coloring. The edi- 
fices of Meroe, though not so profusely adorned, rival 
the choicest specimens of Egyptian art. It was the 
entrepot of trade between the North and the South, 
between the East and the West. It does not appear 
that fabrics were woven in Ethiopia as extensively 
as in Egypt : but the manufactures of metals must 
have been at least as flourishing But Meroe owed 
its greatness less to the produce of its soil or its fac- 



i- 



66 



ETHIOPIA AND THE PHOENICIANS. 



-k 



tories than to its position on the intersection of the 
leading caravan-routes of ancient commerce. The 
great changes in these lines of trade, the devasta- 
tions of successive conquerors, and revolutions, the 
fanaticism of the Saracens, and the destruction of 
the fertile soil by the encroachments of the desert- 
sands, are causes sufficient for the ruin of such a 
powerful empire. Its decline was probably accele- 
rated by the pressure of the nomad hordes, who took 
advantage of its weakness to plunder its defenseless 
citizens." 



with England which began early in 18G8. In a few 
months the conquest was complete, and rather than 
yield to Sir Robert Napier's demand for uncon- 
ditional surrender, Theodore committed suicide. 
Early in his reign he had shown some high qualities 
of statesmanship, and inspired the hope that Ethi- 
opia would Once more become a fairly prosperous 
country ; but that hope was doomed to disajipoint- 
ment. Gondar, the capital and chief city, once had 
a population of 50,000, but now it has hardly more 
than one-tenth of that number. 




Coast of Tyre. 



The population of Abyssinia, the present Ethio- 
pia, so far as there is a modern country correspond- 
ing to ancient Cush, is about 3,000,000. The com- 
mon people are industrious husbandmen, belonging, 
for the most part, to the Abyssinian Church, a branch 
of Christianity which retains the Oriental rite of cir- 
cumcision, as no less binding than baptism and the 
sacrament of the Lord's Supper. The government 
is an absolute monarchy. In 1855, Theodore III. 
was crowned king of Abyssinia, and under him the 
country came into considerable prominence. He 
conceived the idea of conquering Egypt. This really 
chimerical idea, and the imprisonment of certain 
British subjects, finally involved Theodore in a war 



Phoenicia was an insignificant tract of land in the 
north of Palestine, along the coast of the Mediter- 
ranean Sea, of uncertain extent. A plain twenty- 
eight miles in length and averaging about one mile 
in width, constituted Phoenicia proper, hemmed in 
between the sea and the mountains. Later, the term 
applied to a strip of country 120 miles long and 
some twenty miles wide. The modern Beirut is 
within its limits. So were the old cities of Byblus, 
Tripolis, and Aradnus. But the cities which made 
it illustrious were Tyre and Sidon, or Zidon, prover- 
bial in the days of our Savior for their wickedness. 
Both were great commercial cities, less than twenty 
miles distant front each other. The modern name 



ETHIOPIA AND THE PHOENICIANS. 



6 7 



>1l+ 



of Sidon is Saida. Tyre is now in litter ruin. It 
was overthrown by Alexander the Great, and its 
destruction prepared the way for the supremacy 
of Alexandria. All the other cities of Phoenicia 
accepted the Grecian yoke without a struggle. Tyre 
regained somewhat its ancient prosperity, but never 
its relative importance. Its complete destruction 
occurred during the Crusades. The people became 
convinced that their position was a most unfortu- 
nate one, being especially liable to military depreda- 
tion, and so, as a Venetian historian expresses it, " the 
Tyrians, one day at vespers, leaving the city empty, 
without the stroke of a sword, without the tumult 
of war, embarked on board their vessels and sailed 
away, no more to return."' That was a proceeding 
eminently in keeping with the Phoenician spirit of 
adventure. They had always been a sea-faring peo- 
ple. 

They dwelt along a coast indented with harbors and 
bays, well supplied with timber suitable to shipping 
purposes. The famous "Cedars of Lebanon " belonged 
to, and largely explain the maritime enterprise of, 
the Phoenicians. Their cities were not parts of one 
great empire, but free and independent states, joined 
together by the loose tie of a confederate league, 
Sidon being the head-center at first, and afterwards 
Tyre. The people were sailors and merchants, and 
the dividing line between piracy and commerce was 
vague and uncertain. 

The earliest authentic history of the Phoenicians, 
is the account of the reign of Abica of Tyre (B. C. 
1950). That was in the days of David. His son 
and heir, Hiram, was a broad-minded sovereign, as 
his negotiations with David and Solomon show. 
Under him, Tyre was the commercial capital of the 
world. One hundred and fifty years later, Carthage 
was founded. It was an offshoot of Tyre, and 



served an important purpose in the westward exten- 
sion of commerce. Its struggle witli Rome for the 

DO 

supremacy of the world belongs to a later period of 
this history. 

Apart from that struggle, known as the Punic 
Wars, the Phoenicians were content to confine their 
ambition to the water. That was their element. 
Of course they had a large land trade, for it was 
necessary to their merchant marine. That trade 
had three branches, — the Arabian, which included 
the Egyptian, and that with the Indian seas ; the 
Babylonian, or the heart of Central Asia and North 
India ; the Armenian, including what would now be 
called Southern Russia. What their ships did was 
to bridge the watery gulfs, which neither camels nor 
the fragile boats of the Nile could cross, and thus 
maintained commerce between peoples otherwise 
isolated from each other. Vast caravans from 
" Araby the Blessed" brought frankincense, myrrh, 
cassia, gold, and precious stones, cinnamon, ivory . 
ebony, and similar merchandise. Like the Jew of 
to-day, the Phoenician was to be found wherever 
there was money to be made in traffic, and since 
commerce is the great agency in the advancement 
of civilization, the corsairs of Tyre and Sidon were, 
in effect, however mercenary their designs, the great 
evangelists of antiquity, missionaries of learning 
and progress. They submitted to Nebuchadnezzar 
without serious resistance, and later, to Persia, but 
all the while maintained commercial liberty. The 
payment of tribute was exacted and complied with. 

All along the Mediterranean. Phoenician colonies 
were established, and trading-posts grew into cities. 
These colonies were to be found on either shore, and 
on mainland and island. They even pushed their ad- 
venturous keels through the straits of Gibraltar, estab- 
lishing trade with the Britons and the Scandinavians. 




* sh 



lit. 



** 








CHAPTER X, 



A Peculiar People— The Fatherhood op Abraham— From Isaac to Moses— The Great Law- 
giver — The Period op the Judges — Saul and David — Solomon; King, Poet and Philoso- 
pher — Disunion and Subjugation — The Restoration and the Maccabees — Under the 
Roman Rod — The Destruction op Jerusalem — Persecution in Dispersion — Improved Con- 
dition op the Jews — Jerusalem no longer their Dream op Paradise. 




HE object of this chapter is 
to bring to mind the more 
important features of scrip- 
tural history, and such ma- 
terial trials and experiences 
as throw light thereupon, 
reserving for another con- 
nection that crowning glory of 
the Jews, Jesus Christ and his 
mission. Christianity belongs to 
the present, albeit its roots draw 
nourishment from the past. A 
Hebrew chronological table will 
be found in the Tables of Refer- 
ences. 

In taking a. general survey 
of the whole world, past and 
nationality stands out conspic- 
distinctive characteristics. The 
.lews are that nationality. They are indeed " a 
peculiar people." Despised and persecuted, dis- 
persed and maligned for nearly two thousand 
years, they remain steadfast and apart, clinging 
with tireless tenacity to their immemorial customs, 
the Hebraic blood unmixed and pure, always and 
everywhere. Wherever found (and they are almost 
ubiquitous) they are as distinctly " the children of 
Israel" as if intermarriage with other nations were 



present, one 
nous for its 



an absolute impossibility. With a history as spe- 
cific as if it were the record of a day, they take ns 
back to the very foundation of all existence, and 
show us the founder of the nation, Abraham, in his 
relations to the whole human family. He was an 




An Arah Sheik. 

Arab Sheik and belonged to a tribe of Bedouin 
shepherds, which sacrificed their first-born to ap- 
pease the gods of their idolatry. Abraham, who 
was born about B. C. 2200, enjoined upon his de- 
scendants the substitution of a sacrificial beast for 
a human being, assuring them that he did so by the 
express command of Jehovah, whom they should 
worship in all singleness of devotion. The story of 
the rescue of Isaac by divine interposition is told 



68) 



V? 



Jq_ 



te, 



THE JEWS. 



69 



with minuteness, and must have produced a pro- 
found impression. Then, too, he took care to re- 
move to a region of country remote from his ances- 
tral home. When, in later time, the history of the 
Jews began to be written, the record was carried 
back to the very morning of creation, and each gen- 
eration given from Adam down, together with 
many details, such as the sacrifice of Abel, the wick- 
edness of the antediluvians, the Deluge, the Tower 
of Babel, and other incidents too familiar to be 
mentioned here, but all of which, taken together, 
tended to strengthen the hold upon the children of 
Abraham of the religious changes instituted, and 
out of which the distinctive nationality of the Jews 
grew, by a gradual process of development. The 
oneness of the Deity, and Abraham's abhorrence of 
human sacrifices, may be called the Joachim and 
Boaz of the Hebrew temple, the parent thoughts of 
the very nation itself. Isaac did not make any 
marked contribution to the nationality. He lacked 
the vigor and the personal power of his father Abra- 
ham, and his son Jacob, or Israel. The latter saw 




Arrival of Jacob's Family in Egypt. 

his somewhat numerous family, with their vast 
flocks, comfortably quartered on the rich pastures of 
Lower Egypt — Goshen — while one of the sons was 
prime minister of that great kingdom. That must 
have been a proud day for the patriarch. But he 
was not unmindful of the great mission of fidelity 
to Jehovah which his grandfather inaugurated, and 
with his dying breath he besought his children to be 
true to the great trust of nationality bequeathed to 
them. His eye of faith saw his descendants wend- 
ing their way back from Egypt to Canaan, there to 
make trial of a pure theocracy. It was four hun- 
dred years before that hope was realized. Some 
idea of what the Jews learned during those centu- 
ries may be inferred from a perusal of Egyptian 



history. How much of that time was spent in sla- 
very we know not, but it is safe to say that the He- 
brews had the full benefit of the discipline of bond- 
age, and also of association on terms of amity with 
the most civilized people then on the globe, and 
that by the time they returned to Palestine they 
were incomparably better prepared for the responsi- 
bilities of nationality than they would have been 
had they remained wandering shepherds, dwelling 
in tents and seeking new pasturage as immediate 
wants might dictate. 

Moses was a greater genius than Joseph, or any 
of his ancestors. He was a thorough scholar, famil- 
iar with all the learning of the day, and the laws, 
customs, and history of Egypt. To learning he 
added reflection. It was not in vain that he fed the 
flocks of Jethro forty years. During those years of 
seclusion he had time for meditation and the devel- 
opment of vast ideas. When, at length, the time 
came for him to lead the Hebrews out of bondage, 
he was prepared to be their great lawgiver. What- 
ever view one may take of inspiration, it must be 
conceded that the preliminary experience of Moses 
was admirably adapted to prepare him for the great 
work in hand, and here it may be well to say that it 
would be improper in a work of this kind to enter at 
all upon the discussion of the inspiration of the Bi- 
ble or the special interposition of Providence in Jew- 
ish affairs. 

Counting the years of captivity in Babylon, the 
Hebrew nation dwelt in Canaan about fifteen hun- 
dred years. It was B. C. 1450 when they crossed 
Jordan equipped with an elaborate code of laws and 
system of worship. It was to he a theocracy, the 
government acknowledging no king but Jehovah, 
the priesthood being the nearest approach to royalty. 
Moses was not the founder of a dynasty. From in- 
fancy to manhood the adopted child of a king's 
daughter, he still had no sympathy with the pomn, 
pageantry and luxuries of court. He tried to pre- 
serve the Hebrews from such an incubus. For a 
few hundred years the experiment of a pure theoc- 
racy, with leadeis called " Judges," worked well : at 
least, it gave satisfaction: but the people finally 
wearied of such Arcadian simplicity. There were 
fifteen judges, ending with Samuel, and including 
one woman, Deborah, and that strongest of men. 
Samson. That was a period of much conflict and 
not much real progress. The books of Joshua and 



THE JEWS. 



Judges reveal to us a people on the brink of utter 
barbarism, sunk in the depths of ignorance, and in 
imminent danger of lapsing permanently into idola- 
try. It was at the beginning of the fifteenth cen- 
tury before Christ, that Joshua led the people 
across Jordan, and the last of the eleventh century 
when Samuel, the last of the judges, delivered up 
the reins of government. To that period belonged 
Deborah with her song, Gideon and his band, Jeph- 
thah and his daughter, and Samson the strong; all 
so familiar to the reader as to call for only the brief- 
est mention. 

The first king, Saul, was evidently chosen for his 
great stature, while his successor, David, was a man 
of genius. From the • character given Saul one is 
not surprised that he failed to found a dynasty. 
David is spoken of as a man after God's own heart, 
by which it is not implied that Deity approved the 
many wrongs he did, but that he was the right kind 
of man to develop the rude Hebrews into an im- 
portant nation, and gain for that people recognition 
among the family of nations. It was during the 
reign of this sovereign that the Jews were able to 
secure diplomatic connection with Egypt, Phoenicia 
and other nations in the vicinity. David was a great 
warrior, a true statesman, and a good poet. He had 
a versatile genius. Some of liis psalms are too mil- 
itary and vehement to suit the present taste, but 
that he is entitled to high rank in the world of poe- 
sy is indisputable. As a statesman he was too 
much devoted to his own particular tribe, Judah, in 
distinction from Israel as a whole. The dismem- 
berment of the kingdom followed at the death of 
his successor and son, Solomon. The nation was 
never reunited politically, but all tribal distinctions 
were ages ago obliterated, and it is impossible to 
discriminate between the Jews proper and the Ten 
Tribes, that is, in dispersion. 

Solomon was another great genius. The prov- 
erbs attributed to him may he a collection of na- 
tional proverbs, but the song which bears his name 
attests the exuberance of his youthful imagina- 
tion, while the Ecclesiastes attests the profound 
philosophy of his old age. The young man who 
could sing only of love, and who had every oppor- 
tunity for enjoyment, recorded in his old age the 
utter vanity of earth. He was the great poet and 
the one philosopher of old Judea. 

From the death of Solomon to the overthrow of 



the independence of both branches of the Hebrew 
nation, about three hundred years, the Jews do not 
seem to have made much progress. They certainly 
made no impression upon the outside world. It was 
a constant warfare between monotheism and poly- 
theism. The people seemed to be infatuated with 
other religions, and in perpetual peril of losing their 
peculiar ideas, and of merging in the common herd 
of idolatry. But captivity in Babylon cured them 
of all disposition to forsake Jehovah. This was a 
very remarkable fact, quite inexplicable, indeed ; but 
whatever the reason, it is certain that those Jews 
who returned from the captivity were cured of all 
leaning towards other gods. A few of the older 
people could remember the old city of Jerusalem 
with its magnificent temple, and the horrors of the 
siege, the relentless cruelty of Nebuchadnezzar, and 
the sins for which the people were punished. But 
for the most part, all was new to the restored peo- 
jjle. It is thought by many that the Jews had no 
literature before this time, that the history, laws, 
and poetry of the nation had been preserved and 
banded down orally, but this is not probable. It is 
no doubt true, however, that contact for two gener- 
ations with the learned and polished Babylonians, 
had been of incalculable advantage to them, and 
very likely portions of the history were written for 
the first time by Ezra, the scribe. His name is 
borne by only one book, and several books are 
anonymous. He may have written those, and edited 
new editions, as we say, of all the Hebrew literature 
of that date, and all but a few of the minor proph- 
ets antedated Ezra. 

Several of the books of the Bible relate Lo the 
captivity and the restoration, after which the Bib- 
lical record is almost silent. Those of the minor 
prophets, which belong to the later period, throw 
very little historical light. It was in B. C. 536, 
that the Hebrews were authorized by Cyrus to re- 
turn to Judea, and many of them did return under 
the leadership of Zerubbabel. They formed a Per- 
sian province or satrapy, and so remained for over 
two hundred years, the high priests being allowed 
to act as governors, usually. The yoke of Persia 
was light. Alexander the Great received the sub- 
mission of Jerusalem, and after his death Ptolemy 
Soter took the city, carrying away one hundred 
thousand captives. Henceforth, until the Romans 
came into possession of it, Judea was the prey 



■r r y » 



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THE JEWS. 



71 



of rival powers, now Egypt and now Syria. Anti- 
ochus and the Ptolemies coveted it, and eacli 
thought they had a claim upon it. In B. C. 169, 
Antiochus Epiphanes of Syria took and plundered 
the city of Jerusalem, massacred vast numbers of 
the people, and desecrated the holy places. The 
sacrilege even more than the cruelties of the Syri- 
an despoilers aroused the national indignation. 

The Maccabean wars followed, in which the Jews 
under the Maccabees showed great heroism and 



bloody massacre followed. Herod was successful. 
This inhuman tyrant died in B. C. 3, and his suc- 
cessor, Archelaus, was the Herod who slaughtered 
the innocents, in the fiendish hope of killing the in- 
fant Jesus. In A. D. 6, he was banished for his 
cruelties. Then the scepter departed from Judea, 
and the next ruler was a Roman Procurator. 
Among the latter rulers was Pontius Pilate. In 
A. D. 37, Agrippa was made king of Judea, but 
upon his death, seven vears later, the pro-consul of 




Jerusalem, from 

valor. Under Judas Maccabees, favorable terms of 
peace were secured, lasting, however, only a short 
time. The Syrian power was irresistible by the 
Jews. When (B. C. 63) Pompey the Great de- 
manded the submission of the Jews to Roman sway 
he was hailed as a deliverer. But a few years later 
another Roman, Crassus, plundered the temple, 
robbing it of vast treasures. Troublous times 
again prevailed. The Asmodean family ruled as 
subject kings, and had done so for over one hun- 
dred years, but in B. 0. 37, Herod led a Roman 
army in an assault upon Jerusalem for the avowed 
purpose of dethroning the ruling dynasty. A 



Mount of Olives. 

Syria had Judea within his jurisdiction, and it has 
. been a part of Syria ever since. 

In A. D. 66, a rebellion broke out against Ro- 
man authority in Csesarea, a city established by 
the Romans among the Jews. Vespasian marched 
60,000 soldiers into Judea to quell the uprising. 
After two years of ineffectual warfare hostilities 
were suspended until A. D. 70, when Titus, the son 
of Vespasian (the latter being then Emperor of 
Rome) laid siege to the city, and after a desperate 
resistance took it. So stubborn had been the de- 
fense that Titus determined to destroy the Jews, 
root and branch. He razed their sacred city to the 



~- 



L^L 



7 2 



THE JEWS. 



ground aud dispersed the people. From this time 
on they have been a nation without a country. 

The history of the Jews in dispersion is the story 
of cruelty and injustice carried to the utmost verge. 
Rome persecuted them because they were such rig- 
id adherents to the worship of Jehovah, to the ex- 
clusion of all other deities. It was the custom to 
deify the dead emperors, aud pay to them certain 
homage, which to a Hebrew would be idolatry. To 
the Roman government, refusal to worship as pre- 
scribed by the authorities was treason. The Jews 
were free to worship their own God in their own 
way, and the Roman mind could not see why they 
should object to paying the prescribed respect to 
the memory of deceased emperors. Out of this 
state of affairs grew bloody persecutions which con- 
tinued down to the days of Constantine. The 
Christians could appreciate the conscientious scru- 
ples of the Hebrews. Indeed, they shared them, 
and were herein on a common level with them. 
They, too, had been persecuted much and often for 
refusal to conform to the religious requirements of 
the State. But none the less, they proved more 
cruel in their treatment of the Jews than the pa- 
gans had. It was for a very different reason. In- 
stead of being very grateful to them for being the 
" peculiar people " from whom they had derived 
their sacred book, their Deity and their Savior, 
the Christians seemed only to remember that Jesus 
Christ was crucified at the instigation of a Jewish 
mob. That all the patriarchs, prophets and apos- 
tles from Abraham to Paul were Jews, and even 
the Lord himself, had no mollifying influence. All 
through the ages the Jews were persecuted by the 
Christians, aud in this day there is a strong popu- 
lar prejudice against them all over Christendom, 
on account of one act of mob violence. 

There has been a gradual improvement in public 
sentiment towards the Jews, and for the most part 
the laws discriminating against them have been re- 



pealed. The progress made by them in attaining 
the front rank in all the higher walks of life is 
phenomenal. They hold the purse-strings of com- 
merce and finance generally, to such an extent that 
they may be called the bankers of the world. 
There are a great many Rothschilds on a smaller, 
yet large scale. In music the Hebrew genius has 
excelled. In statecraft the children of Israel are 
pre-eminent. In every civilized and half -civilized 
land they are a nation within a nation, a people 
within a people, neither seeking nor allowing as- 
similation with their neighbors. There are no in- 
dications of any tendency toward Gentilism. 

It may be added that since the rod of oppression 
has been broken, the Israelites show no longing to 
return to Palestine. On the contrary, they have 
a keen scent for any land " flowing with milk 
and honey," offering good opportunities for busi- 
ness. Modern Canaan is sterile and uninviting. 
Originally shepherds, then slaves in brick-kilns, 
later farmers, they are now wholly given to traffic 
and all the different phases of exchange, with every 
trace of the agriculturist obliterated from the na- 
tional character. It has been justly observed by a 
modern Hebrew writer that " the majority of in- 
telligent Israelites in the present have long since 
abandoned the work of building up an independ- 
ent national existence of their own. Their pa- 
triotism has been illustrated upon all the great 
battlefields of this century. The achievement of 
higher conditions of human life they are disposed 
to regard as the fulfillment of Messianic prophecy, 
and the furthering of this end in intimate union 
witn their fellowmen as the highest dictate of 
their religion." To the United States government is 
due the high honor of being the first Christian na- 
tion to accord the Jews absolutely full and equal 
rights before the law, and the example of this nation 
was eminently helpful to them in securing their 
rights in other lands. 




.4JBAMMA' \ ' 



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HEBREW LITERATURE AND SECTS. 



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CHAPTER XI. 

The Intangible in Jewish History— The Hebrew Bible— The Septuagint— The Talmud— 
Sadducees and Pharisees— Essenes— Testimony op Pliny— Philo on the Essenes— 
Josbphus on Jewi-u Sects— The Chasidim— Felix Adler on the Jews in Literature 
and op To-day. 




'HE chapter immediately 
preceding the present one 
was devoted to the out- 
ward facts of Jewish his- 
tory, omitting such details 
as belong more appropri- 
ately in the tabular state- 
ments yet to be made, also reserv- 
ing for a later chapter Christ and 
Christianity. The Founder of 
our religion was indeed a Jew by 
nativity, but he was also u. part of 
the Roman Empire. The Jews 
have been and are a mighty pow- 
er in the world, apart from their 
nationality and the religion which 
lias been adopted by the civilized 
world. Judaism must be classed 
among the supreme forces of mankind. One 
might be entirely familiar with Biblical and Chris- 
tian history without forming anything like an ade- 
quate conception of Jewish influence upon the gen- 
eral course of events. While this volume may well 
pass by many important matters, upon the suppo- 
sition that the reader will consult his Bible for de- 
tails of Hebraic history, there are phases of the 
case which serve to explain the otherwise inexpli- 
cable potency of the Hebrew nation upon which 
the sacred record throws but very little light. This 
class of facts will occupy our main attention in 



this connection. But upon the threshold of our 
present subject is the book of books — the Bible. 

The Old Testament is held in equal reverence by 
Jews and Christians. In each of those great 
churches some hold that volume to be the word of 
God in the fullest sense, while others see in it simply 
the most important part of the literature of a re- 
markable people. The Old Testament, as it is held 
by Protestants, consists of thirty-nine books, orig- 
inally written in Hebrew. Their age is uncertain 
in many cases. The oldest manuscript of the I lid 
Testament which is now known dates from 1100. 
It is the opinion of many learned scholars that the 
laws, history and poetry of the Jews were never re- 
duced to writing until after the Captivity. Others 
again, contend that Moses left behind him a body 
of laws, and a history up to date, to which anony- 
mous writers added from time to time, and this lat- 
ter theory is more consistent with the representa- 
tions of the Bible itself and with what is known of 
the Jewish people. 

Among the literary treasures of Alexandria was 
a translation into Greek of the Hebrew Bible. It 
is known as the Septuagint, from the tradition 
that the translation was the work of seventy per- 
sons. The quotations in the New Testament were 
made, as internal evidence proves, from that rather 
than from any original version. It varies only 
slightly from the Hebrew text. 

Next in rank to the Bible stands, in Jewish 



(73) 



f 



74 



HEBREW LITERATURE AND SECTS. 



esi imation, the Talmud. This is a library in itself, 
composed by many writers through a long jjeriod 
of time, covering the entire range of Hebrew 
thought, spiritual and secular, with some grotesque 
attempts at science. For many centuries it has 
served as an authority upon all matters of faith 
and religious practice among the Jews, and the 
great business of the educated priesthood was to 
ascertain and make known the contents of the Tal- 
mud. It has been compared to an ocean which 
only an expert mariner could navigate, and on 
which the unskillful and inexperienced would be 
lost. As a bond of national union the Talmud has 
been a'great power among the Jews in the disper- 
sion and persecution. 

In all the record, from Genesis to Malaehi, one 
finds no indications of sectarianism. In the New 
Testament we are confronted with Pharisees and 
Sadducees indulging in all the rancor of sectarian 
animosity. These sects seem to have come into 
existence between the Restoration ordered by Cyrus 
and the subjugation by Rome. The Sadducees 
were very conservative, tenacious for the laws and 
regulations of Moses, suspicious of any and every 
thing not distinctly based on the Pentateuch. The 
Pharisees were more inclined to adapt Mosaic ideas 
to current opinions. In time they came to substi- 
tute traditions not only for the more ancient law, 
but for the more modern thought. In the days of 
our Savior the chief difference between these sects 
was on the doctrine of the resurrection and immor- 
tality. The Sadducees rejected both, finding no 
warrant for either in the books of Moses, while the 
Pharisees accepted and taught both, finding noth- 
ing against either in Moses or the other prophets. 
Jesus was outspoken in criticism of both, but on 
i Imii' cardinal point of difference he was a Pharisee. 
The same was true of Paul, and all the early fa- 
thers. Indeed, so integral is the doctrine of immor- 
tality to the Christian idea of religion that it is 
difficult to understand how a sect which rejected 
that doctrine could be religious at all. and espe- 
cially how it could be ranked as the conservative 
or orthodox branch of the church. It may be said 
that Christianity has never been Sadducaical, but 
the Jews, as a general thing, are, and Pharisaism 
(using the term in no offensive sense) is a part of 
< 'hristianity. 

Another sect of the Jews, not mentioned in the 



Bible, and long neglected, is deserving of far more 
attention. We refer to the Essenes. That bril- 
iant essayist, Dj Quiucey, had the temerity to pro- 
nounce this sect a myth, or rather, a sort of for- 
gery. He may have been sincere, although this is 
open to doubt. However that may be, the hypoth- 
esis is simply preposterous. There are three dis- 
tinct and original sources of Essenic information, 
namely, Pliny, Philo, and Josephus. They are not 
entirely harmonious, but differ only as it would be 
natural for three writers to differ who had widely 
distant points of observation. Josephus, being a 
Jew who resided in Jerusalem, had the best means 
of information ; Pliny, who merely crossed the 
country, the least; Philo was an Alexandrian Jew. 
Pliny, the elder, born in Verona twenty-three 
years after the Christian era began, wrote in his 
natural history this passage : 

" Lying to the West of Aspeltetes, and sufficiently 
distant to escape its noxious exhalations, are the 
Esseni, a people that live apart from the world, and 
marvelous above all others throughout the whole 
earth, for they have no women among them ; to 
sexual desire they are strangers ; money they have 
norie ; the palm-trees are their only companions. 
Day after day, however, their numbers are fully re- 
cruited by multitudes of strangers which resort to 
them, driven thither to adopt their usages by the tem- 
pests of fortune, and wearied with the miseries of 
life. And thus it is that through thousands of ages, 
in t 1 1 i . . i v - to relate, this people eternally prolonged 
t.ieir existence without a single birth taking place 
there, so fruitful a source of population to it is that 
weariness of life which is felt by others." 

Except as to the antiquity of the sect, Pliny's idea 
of it was substantially correct. 

Philo's account is as follows : 

" Our lawgiver trained an innumerable bodv of 
his pupils to partake of these things, being, as I 
imagine, honored with the appellation of Essenes 
because of their exceeding holiness. And they dwell 
in many cities of Judea, and m many villages, and 
in great and populous communities. And this sect is 
not an hereditary or family connection ; for family 
ties are not spoken of with reference to acts volunta- 
rily performed, but it is adopted on account of their 
admiration for virtue and love of gentleness and hu- 
manity. At all events, there are no children among 
the Essenes ; no, nor any youths or persons only just 



-ii 



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HEBREW LITERATURE AND SECTS. 



75 



entering upon manhood. Since the dispositions of 
all such persons are unstable and liable to changes 
from the imperfections incident to their age, but 
t hey are all full-grown men, and even already de- 
clining toward old age. Such as are no longer car- 
ried away by the impetuosity of their bodily passions, 
and are not under the influence of the appetites, but 
such as enjoy a genuine freedom, the only true and 
real liberty. And a proof of this is to be found in 
their life of perfect freedom. 

" No one among them ventures at all to acquire 
any property whatever of his own, neither house nor 
slave, nor farm, nor flocks, nor herds, nor anything 
of any sort which can be looked upon as the foun- 
tain or provision of riches, but they bring them to- 
gether into the middle as a common stock and en- 
joy one common, general benefit from it all. 

" And they all dwell in the same place, making 
clubs, and societies, and combinations, and unions 
with one another, and doing everything throughout 
their whole lives with reference to the general ad- 
vantage; but the different members of this body 
have different employments in which they occupy 
themselves and labor without hesitation or cessation, 
making no mention of either cold or heat or any 
change of temperature as an excuse for desisting 
from their tasks. But before the sun rises they be- 
take themselves to their daily work, and they do not 
quit it until some time after it has set, when they 
return home rejoicing no less than those who have been 
exercising themselves in gymnastic contests ; for 
they imagine that whatever they devote themselves 
to as a practice is a sort of gymnastic exercise of 
more advantage to life and more pleasant to both 
soul and body, and of more enduring benefit and 
equability, than mere athletic labors, inasmuch as 
such toil does not cease to be practiced with delight 
when the age of vigor of body has passed, for there 
are some of them who are devoted to the practice of 
agriculture, being skillful in such things as the sow- 
ing and cultivating of lands ; others again, are shep- 
herds or cowherds, and experienced in the manage- 
ment of every kind of animal; some are cunning in 
what relates to swarms of bees ; others again are ar- 
tisans and handicraftsmen, in order to guard against 
suffering from want of anything of which there is at 
times an actual need ; and these men omit and de- 
lay nothing which is requisite to the innocent sup- 
ply of the necessaries of life. 



" Accordingly, each of these men who differ so 
widely in respective employments, when they have 
received their wages, give them up to one person 
who is appointed as the universal steward and gen- 
eral manager, and he, when he has received the 
money, immediately goes and purchases what is nec- 
essary, and furnishes with food in abundance, and 
all other things of which the life of man stands in 
need. And those who five together and eat at the 
same table day after day, contented with the same 
things, being lovers of frugality and moderation, 
and averse to all sumptuousness and extravagance 
as being a disease of both body and mind. Not on- 
ly are their tables in common, but all their dress, for 
in the winter there are thick cloaks found, and in 
the summer light, cheap mantles, so that whoever 
wants one is at liberty, without restraint, to go and 
take whichever kind he chooses, since what belongs 
to one belongs to all, and on the other hand, what- 
ever belongs to all belongs to each individual. 

"And again, if any one of them is sick, he is 
cured from the common resources, being attended 
by the general care and anxiety of the whole body. 
Accordingly the old men, even if they happen to be 
childless, as if they were not only the fathers of 
many children, lint were even also particularly hap- 
py in an affectionate offspring, are accustomed to 
end their lives in a most happy and prosperous and 
carefully attended old age ; being looked upon by 
such a number of people as worthy of so much hon- 
or and provident regard that they think themselves 
bound to care for them even more from inclination 
than any tie of natural affection. 

"Again, perceiving with more than ordinary acute- 
ness and accuracy what is alone, or at least above 
all other things, calculated to dissolve such associa- 
tions, they repudiate marriage, and at the same 
time they practice continence to an eminent de- 
gree ; for no one of the Esseues ever marries a wife, 
because woman is a selfish creature, and one addict- 
ed to jealousy in an immoderate degree, and terribly 
calculated to agitate and overturn the natural in- 
clinations of a man, and to mislead him by her con- 
tinual tricks ; for as she is always studying deceitful 
speeches and all kinds of hypocrisy, like an actress 
on the stage, when she is alluring the eyes and 
ears of her husband, she proceeds to cajole his pre- 
dominant mind after the servants have been deceived. 

"And again, if there are children, she becomes full 



^r 



.£- 



7 6 



HEBREW LITERATURE AND SECTS. 



of pride ;md all kinds of license in her speech, and all 
the obscure sayings which she previously meditated 
in irony, in a disguised manner, she now begins to 
utter with an audacious confidence, and becoming 
utterly shameless, she proceeds to violence, and does 
numbers of actions of which every one is hostile to 
sucli association ; for the man who is bound under 
the influence of the charms of a woman, or of chil- 
dren by the necessary ties of nature, being over- 
whelmed by the impulses of affection, is no longer 
the same person towards others, but is entirely 
changed, having, without being aware of it, become 
a slave instead of a freeman. 

" This now is the enviable system of life of these 
Essenes, so that not only private individuals, but 
even mighty kings, admiring the men, venerate the 
sect and increase their dignity and majesty in a 
still higher degree by their approbation and by the 
honors which they confer on them." 

The foregoing extract is a fragment of the lost 
works of Philo, preserved by the historian of the 
primitive church, Eusebius. It may be found in 
the fourth volume of Yonge's translation of Philo's 
works. The following excerpt is from Philo's essay 
on " The Virtuous being also Free " : 

" Among the Persians is the body of the Magi 
[called in the gospel 'wise men of the East']. More- 
over, Palestine ami Syria too are not barren of ex- 
emplary wisdom and virtue, which country no slight 
portion of that populous people, the Jews, inhabit. 
There is a portion of that people called Essenes, in 
number something more than four thousand, in my 
opinion, who derive their name from their piety, 
though not according to any accurate form of the 
Greek dialect, because they are, above all men, de- 
voted to the service of God, not sacrificing living 
animals, but studying rather to preserve their own 
minds in a state of holiness and piety. These men, 
in the first place, live in villages, avoiding cities on 
account of the habitual lawlessness of those who in- 
habit them, well knowing that such a moral disease 
is contact with wicked men, just as a real disease 
might lie from an impure atmosphere, and that this 
would stamp an incurable disease upon their souls. 
Of these men some cultivate the earth, and others, 
devoting themselves to those arts which are the re- 
sults of peace, benefit both themselves and all who 
come in contact with them, not storing up treasures 
of silver and gold, nor acquiring vast sections of 



earth out of a desire for ample revenue, but provid- 
ing all things which are requisite for the natural 
purposes of life ; for they alone of almost all men, 
having been originally poor and destitute, and that, 
too, from their habits and ways of life, rather than 
from any real deficiency of good fortune, are never- 
theless accounted very rich, judging contentment 
and frugality great abundance, as in truth they are. 

"Amongthose men you will find no makers of 
armors or javelins or swords or helmets or breast- 
plate-; or shields; or makers of arms or military 
engines ; no one, in short, attending to any employ- 
ment whatever connected with war, or even 
to any of those occupations, even in peace, which 
are easily perverted to wicked purposes ; for they 
are utterly ignorant of all traffic, and of all com- 
mercial dealings, and of all navigation, but they 
repudiate and keep aloof from all that can possibly 
afford any inducement to covetousness ; and there is 
exercise to train them toward its attainment all 
praiseworthy actions by which a freedom which can 
never be enslaved is firmly established. 

" And a proof of this is that though at different 
times a great number of chiefs of every variety of 
disposition and character have occupied their coun- 
try, some of whom have endeavored to surpass even 
ferocious wild beasts in cruelty, leaving no sort of 
inhumanity unpracticed, and have never ceased to 
murder their subjects in whole troops, and have 
even torn them to pieces, while living, like cooks, cut- 
ting them limb from limb, till they themselves be- 
ing overtaken by vengeance of Divine justice, have 
at last experienced the same misery in their turn ; 
others again having converted their barbarian fren- 
zy into another kind of wickedness, practiced an in- 
effable degree of savageness, talking with the people 
quietly, but through the hypocrisy of a more 
gentle voice, betraying the ferocity of their real 
dispositions, fawning upon their victims like treach- 
erous dogs, and becoming the cause of irremediable 
miseries to them, have left in all their cities monu- 
ments of their impiety, and hatred of all mankind, 
in the never-to-be-forgotten miseries endured by 
those whom they oppressed ; yet no one, not even of 
those immoderate tyrants, nor of the more treach- 
erous and hypocritical oppressors, was ever aide to 
bring any real accusation against the multitudes of 
those called Essenes. or Holy. But every one being 
subdued by the virtue of these men, looked up to 



vp 



V 



HEBREW LITERATURE AND SECTS. 



77 



them as free by nature, and not subject to the 
frown of any human being, and have celebrated 
their manner of messing together, and their fellow- 
ship with one another beyond all description in re- 
spect of its mut'.al good faith, which is ample proof 
of a perfect and very happy life." 

Without pausing for any comment, we append 
now what Josephus says in his brief epitome of the 
three sects of the Jews : • 

•• There were three sects among the Jews who had 
different opinions concerning human actions. One 
was called the sect of the Pharisees ; another the 
sect of the Sadducees ; and still another the sect of the 
Essenes. Now for the Pharisees, they say that some 
actions, but not all, are the work of fate, and some 
of them are in our own power, and that they are lia- 
ble to fate without being caused by fate. But the 
sect of the Essenes affirms that fate governs all things 
and that nothing befalls men except with its deter- 
mination. And for the Sadducees, they take away 
fate, and say that there is no such thing, and that 
the events of human affairs are not at its disposal, 
but they suppose that all our actions are within our 
own power, so that we are ourselves the cause of 
what is good, and receive what is evil from our own 
folly." 

This brief and metaphysical comparison of the 
sects is found in the thirteenth book and fifth chap- 
ter of the Antiquities. But it is not all Josephus 
has to say on the subject. On the contrary, after a 
digression, he devotes considerable space to the sub- 
ject, and with that extended passage closes the full 
presentation of the original sources of Essenic infor- 
mation. This final excerpt is as follows : 

•• For there are three sects among the Jews, the 
followers of the first of which are the Pharisees, the 
second the Sadducees, and the third sect, which pre- 
tends to a severer discipline, are called Essenes. 
These last are Jews by birth and seem to have great- 
er affection for one another than the other sects 
have. These Essenes reject pleasures as an evil, but 
esteem continence and the conquest over our pas- 
sions as a virtue. They neglect wedlock, but choose 
out other persons' children while they are pliable and 
lit for learning, and esteem them to be of their kin- 
dred, and form them according to their own man- 
ners. They do not absolutely deny the fitness of 
marriage, and the succession of mankind thereby 
continued ; but they guard against the lascivious be- 



havior of women, and are persuaded that none of 
them preserve their fidelity to one man. 

" These men are despisers of riches, and so very 
communistic as raises our admiration. Nor is there 
any one to be found among them who hath more 
than another ; for it is a law among them that those 
who come to them must let what they have be com- 
mon to the whole order, insomuch that among them 
all there is no appearance of poverty or excess of 
riches, but every one's possessions are intermingled 
with every other's possessions, and so there is, as it 
were, one patrimony among all the brethren. They 
think that oil is a defilement, and if any of them be 
anointed without his approbation it is wiped off his 
body ; for they think to be sweaty is a good thing, 
as they do also to be clothed in white garments. 
They also have stewards appointed to take care of 
thei'- common affairs, who every one of them has no 
separate business for any, but what is for the use 
of them all. 

" They have no one certain city, but many of 
them dwell in every city ; and if any of their sect 
come from another place, what they have lies open 
for them, just as if it were their own ; and they go 
in to such as they never knew before as if they had 
been ever so long acquainted with them ; for which 
reason they carry nothing at all with them when 
they travel into remote parts, though still they take 
their weapons with them for fear of thieves. Ac- 
cordingly, there is in every city where they live, one 
appointed particularly to take care of strangers and 
to provide garments and other necessaries for them. 
But the habit and management of their bodies is 
such as children use when they are afraid of mas- 
ters ; nor do they allow the change of garments or 
of shoes until they be first entirely torn to pieces or 
worn out by time. Nor do they either buy or sell 
anything to one another, but every one gives what 
he hath to him that wants it, and receives from him 
in turn of it what may be convenient for himself ; 
and although there be no requital made, they are 
freely allowed to take whatsoever they want of 
whomsoever they please. 

" And as for their piety towards God, it is very 
extraordinary ; for before sunrise they speak not a 
word about profane matters, but put up certain 
prayers, which they have received from their fore- 
fathers, as if they made supplication to the sun for 
rising. After this, every one of them is sent away 



^C 



^ 



78 



HEBREW LITERATURE AND SECTS. 



by their curators to exercise some of those arts 
wherein they are skilled, in which they labor with 
great diligence until the fifth hour ; after which 
they assemble themselves together again in one 
place, and when they have clothed themselves in 
white veils, they then bathe their bodies in cold wa- 
ter. And after this purification is over, they every 
one meet together in an apartment of their own 
into which it is not permitted to any one of another 
sect to enter, while they go, after a pure manner, in- 
to the dining-room as into a certain holy temple, and 
quietly sit themselves down, upon which the baker 
lays their loaves in order ; the cook also brings a sin- 
gle plate of one sort of food, and sets it before every 
one of them ; but a priest says grace before meat, 
and it is unlawful for any one to taste food before 
grace be said. The same priest, when he hath 
dined, says grace again after meat; and when they 
begin and when they end, they praise God as He that 
hath bestowed food upon them ; after which they 
la\ aside their white garments and betake themselves 
to their labors again until the evening ; then they re- 
turn home to supper after the same manner, and if 
there be any strangers there they sit down with 
them. Nor is there ever any clamor or disturbance 
to pollute their house, but they give every one leave 
to speak in their turn ; which silence thus kept in 
their houses appears to foreigners like some tremen- 
dous mystery ; the cause of which is that perpetual so- 
briety they exercise ; and the same settled measure 
of meat and drink that is allowed them, and that such 
as is abundantly sufficient for them. 

"Ami truly, as for other things, they do nothing 
but according to the injunctions of their curators; 
only these two things are done among them at their 
own free will, which are to assist those that want it, 
and to show mercy ; for they are permitted of their 
own accord to afford succor to those that are in dis- 
tress ; but they cannot give anything to their kin- 
dred without the curators. They dispense their 
anger after a just manner and restrain their passion. 
They are eminent for fidelity and are the ministers 
of peace. Whatever they say also is firmer than an 
oath, but swearing is avoided by them, and they es- 
teem it worse than perjury, for they say that lie who 
cannot be believed without swearing by God is 
already condemned. They also take great pains in 
studying the writings of the ancients, and choose out 
of them what is most to the advantage of their soul 



and body, and they inquire after such roots and 
medicinal stones as may cure their distempers. 

"But now, if any one hath a mind to come over 
to their sect, he is not immediately admitted, but he 
is prescribed the same method of living which 
they use, for a year, while he continues excluded, 
and they give him also a small hatchet and the 
forementioned girdle and the white garment. And 
when he hath given evidence during that time 
that he can observe their continence, he ap- 
proaches nearer to their way of living, and is made 
a partaker of the waters of purification ; yet is he 
not even now permitted to live with them, for after 
this demonstration of his fortitude, his temper is 
tried two more years, and if he appear to be worthy, 
they then admit him into their society. And before 
he is allowed to touch their common food, he is 
obliged to take tremendous oaths that in the first place 
he will practice piety toward God, and then that he 
will observe justice toward men, and that he will do 
no harm to any one, either of his own accord or at 
the command of any one ; that he will always hate 
the wicked and be assistant to the good ; that he will 
ever show fidelity to all men, and especially to those 
in authority, because no one obtains the government 
without (rod's assistance, and that if he be in 
authority he will at no time abuse his authority, nor 
endeavor to outshine his subjects either in his gar- 
ments or in any other finery ; that he will be per- 
petually a lover of truth and propose to himself to 
reprove those who tell lies ; that he will keep his 
hands clean from theft and his soul from unlawful 
gains : and that he will neither conceal anything 
from those of ins own sect nor discover any of their 
doctrines to others; no, not though any one should 
compel him to do so at the hazard of his life. More- 
over, he swears to communicate their doctrine- t.> 
no one otherwise than as he receives them himself ; 
that he will abstain from robbery, and will equally 
preserve the books belonging to their sect and the 
names of the angels [or messengers]. These are the 
oaths by which they secure their proselytes to them- 
selves. 

'• But for those that are caught in any heinous 
sins, they cast them out of their society, and he who 
is thus separated from them does often die after a 
miserable manner, for as he is bound by the oath he 
has taken, and by the custom he hath engaged in, 
he is not at liberty to partake of that food that he 






tK- 



9 «. 



iiL 



HEBREW LITERATURE AND SECTS. 



79 



meets with elsewhere, but is forced to eat grass and 
famish his body with hunger until he perish, for 
which reason they receive many of them again, and 
when they are at their last gasp, out of compassion 
to them, as thinking the miseries they have endured 
until they came to the brink of death to be sufficient 
punishment for the sins they had been guilty of. 

"But in the judgments they exercise they are 
most accurate and just, nor do they pass sentence by 
the vote of a court that is fewer than a hundred. 
And as to what is determined by that number, it is 
unalterable. What they most of all honor, after 
the name of rod himself, is the legislator Moses, 
whom if any one blaspheme he is punished capitally. 
They also think it a good thing to obey their elders 
and the majority. Accordingly, if ten of them 
be sitting together, no one of them will speak while 
the other nine are against it. They also avoid spit- 
ting in the midst of them or on the right side. 
Moreover, they are stricter than another of the Jews 
in resting from their labors on the seventh day, for 
they not only get their food ready the day before, 
that they may not be obliged to kindle a fire on that 
day, but will not remove any vessel out of its place, 
or go to stool thereon ; nay, on the other days they 
dig a small pit a foot deep with a paddle (which 
kind of hatchet is given them when they are first 
admitted among them) and covering themselves 
round witli their garments that they may not affront 
the divine rays of light, they ease themselves into 
that pit : after which they put the earth that was 
dug out into the pit, and even this they do only in 
the more lonely places which they choose out for 
this purpose ; and although this easement of the 
body lie natural, yet it is a rule with them to wash 
themselves after it as if it were a defilement to them. 
Now after the time of their preparatory trial is over, 
they are parted into four classes, and so far are the jun- 
iors inferior to the seniors, that if the seniors should 
be touched by the juniors, they must wash them- 
selves, as if they had intermixed themselves with for- 
eigners. They are long-lived also, insomuch that 
many of them live above a hundred years, by means 
of the simplicity of their diet ; nay, as I think, by 
means of the regular course of life they observe also. 
They contemn the miseries of life, and are above 
pain by the generosity of their minds. And as for 
death, if it be for them glory, they esteem it better 
than living always-; and indeed our war with the 



Romans gave abundant evidence what great souls 
they had, in their trials, wherein they were tortured 
and distorted, burnt and torn to pieces, and went 
through all kinds of instruments of torment, that 
they might be forced either to blaspheme their leg- 
islator, or to eat what was forbidden them ; no, nor 
once to flatter their tormentors, or to shed a tear ; 
but they smiled in their very pains, and laughed 
those to scorn who inflicted the torments upon them, 
and resigned up their souls witli great alacrity, as 
expecting to receive them again. 

" For their doctrine is this, that the matter they 
are made of is not permanent, but that the souls are 
immortal and continue forever ; and that they come 
out of the most subtile air, and are united to their 
bodies as to prisons, into which they are drawn by 
a certain natural enticement; but that when they 
are set free from the bonds of the flesh, that then 
they, as released from a long bondage, rejoice and 
mount upward. And this is like the opinion of the 
Greeks, that good souls have their habitations be- 
yond the ocean, in a region which is neither op- 
pressed with storms of rain or snow or intense heat ; 
but that tliis place is such as is refreshed by the 
gentle breathing of the west wind that is perpetu- 
ally blowing from the ocean ; while they allot to 
bad souls a dark and tempestuous den, full of nev- 
er-ceasing punishment. And indeed, the Greeks 
seem to have followed the same notion when they 
allot the islands of the blessed to their brave men, 
whom they call heroes and demigods, and to the 
souls of the wicked the region of the ungodly in 
Hades, where their fables relate that certain persons, 
as Sisyphus and Tantalus and Ixion and Tityus are 
punished, which is built on this first supposition 
that souls are immortal : and thence are those ex- 
hortations to virtue and dehortatioiis from wicked- 
ness collected whereby good men are bettered in the 
conduct of their life by the hope of reward after 
death, and whereby the inherent inclinations of bad 
men to vice are restrained by the fear and expec- 
tation they are in, that although they should lie con- 
cealed in this life, they should suffer immortal pun- 
ishment after their death. These are the divine 
doctrines of the Essenes about the soul, which 
lay an unavoidable bait for such as have once had a 
taste of their philosophy. 

" There are also those among them who under- 
take to tell things to come bv readinar the holv 



10 



L^L 



80 



HEBREW LITERATURE AND SECTS. 



books, and using several sorts of purifications, and 
being perpetually conversant in the discourses of the 
prophets ; and it is but seldom that they miss in 
their predictions. 

" Moreover, there is another order of Essenes, 
who agree with the rest in their every way of living 
and customs and laws, but differ from them in the 
point of marriage, as thinking that by not marry- 
ing they cut off the principal part of human life, 
which is the prospect of succession ; nay, rather that 
if all men should keep the same opinion, the whole 
race of mankind would fail. However, they try 
their spouses for three years, and if they find they 
have their natural purgations thrice, as trials that 
they are likely to be fruitful, they then actually 
marry tlum. But they do not use to accompany 
with their wives when they are with child, as a dem- 
onstration that they do not marry out of regard to 
pleasure, but for the sake of posterity. Now the 
women go into the baths with some of their gar- 
ments on, as the men do with somewhat girded 
about them. And these are the customs of this or- 
der of Essenes. 

" But then, as to the two other orders first men- 
tioned, the Pharisees are those who are esteemed 
most skillful in the exact explication of their laws, 
and introduce the first sect. These ascribe all to 
fate [or Providence] and to God, and yet allow 
that to act what is right, or the contrary, is princi- 
pally' in the power of men, although fate does co- 
operate in eveiy action. They say that all the souls 
are incompatible, but that the souls of good men 
only are removed into other bodies, but that the 
souls of bad men are subject to eternal punishment. 
But the Sadducees are those that compose the sec- 
ond order, and take away fate entirely, and suppose 
that God is not concerned in our doing or not do- 
ing what is evil ; and they say that to act what is 
good or what is evil is at man's own choice, and that 
the one and the other belong so to every one that he 
may act as he pleases. They also take away belief 
in the immortal duration of the soul, and the pun- 
ishments and rewards in Hades. Moreover, the 
Pharisees are friendly to one another and are for 
the exercise of concord and regard for the public ; 
but the behavior of the Sadducees one toward an- 
other is in some degree wild, and their conversa- 
tion with those who are of their own party is as 



barbarous as if they were strangers to them. And 
this is what I had to say concerning the philo- 
sophical sects among the Jews." 

At the risk of being somewhat tedious, we have 
presented absolutely all that is known of the sect 
of Jews whose peculiarities are most strikingly sug- 
gestive of Christianity. In these strangely neg- 
lected excerpts may be found a key to much 
which would otherwise be inexplicable in the 
connection of Judaism with the religion of modern 
Europe. 

The Chasidim is a modern sect of Jews. It is 
numerous among Polish, Hungarian and Russian 
Jews, but almost unknown elsewhere. It is fanat- 
ical in the extreme, and abject in subservience to 
the priests. The Chasidim have been compared to 
the Shakers in their eccentric religious practices. 

The most important sect of to-day is the Karaites, 
(sons of scripture) dating from the early part of 
the middle ages. Once powerful, their numbers 
are now insignificant, their importance growing 
out of their intellectual history. Rejecting the 
Talmud, they ever strenuously maintained the 
sole authority of " Moses and the Prophets." They 
were noted in a period of general darkness for lit- 
erary and scientific activity. Their literature has 
been lost, in large part, but very much still remains, 
a proud monument to the intellectual capacity of 
the Hebrew nation. At present the Karaites are 
almost extinct, except as found in the Crimea, where 
they are protected and prosperous. Eormerly they 
were doubly persecuted, the Christians hating them 
the same as any other Jews, and the Rabbinical or 
orthodox Jews seeing in them heretics worse than 
" Christian dogs." 

In discussing the Jews and their place in history, 
Felix Adler remarks : " Not only has their own 
literature been opened to scientific study by such 
men as Zunz, Geiger, Munk, Rappoport, Luzzato, 
and others, but they have rendered signal service 
in almost every department of science and art. I 
mention among the Philosophers, M. Mendelssohn, 
Maimon Herz ; in political economy, Ricardo and 
LaSalle ; in literature, Borne, Heine, Auerbach, 
Grace Aguilar; in music, Mendelssohn, Meyerbeer, 
Halevy ; among the prominent statesmen of the 
day, Disraeli, Lasker, Cremieux," — and, he might 
have added, Gambetta. 



&r 



>: y K v c yc \<c 

^\ '^\ -CA 





& Assyrian Antiquity — Ninus and Semiramis — Senacherib and Sardanapalis — Description of &- 
Nineveh — Clay Libraries — Babylon; Its Hanging Gardens and Temple op Belcs — 
Babylonian IIistory — Alexander and Babylon — Recent Archaeological Discoveries- 
Syria in its First Period — Syria under the Selucid^e— Modern Syria and Syriac. 



ACCORDING to Hebraic his- 
tory, the primitive king- 
dom of the world was As- 
syria. Nlmrod was the 
first to establish monarchy 
SLog^ in the place of the patri- 

*^5fc arcna l f° rm of government, 



and of the 

cities hav- 
ing a place 

in history, 

N i n e v e h 

was t h e 

first. That 

city and 
Babylon, among the 
most memorable in an- 
tiquity, both belonged 
to Assyria. That king- 
dom is supposed to 
have been formed 
about two thousand and two hundred years before 
our present era. Assyria projier corresponded very 
nearly to the present Koordistan. The term, how- 
ever, lias been used in a loose way to apply to a vast 
and shifting area in the vicinity of the Euphrates 
and the Tigris. Tbc name itself is derived from 



Asshur, a son of Shem, and the chief god of the 
Assyrian idolatry. There are archaeological reaspns 
for supposing that the Assyrians were Semites. 
Their features in sculpture are Jewish and Arabic 
in resemblance. 

Ninus is the name of one of the early and more 
illustrious o!' the Assyrian kings. He was, perhaps, 

thefounder of Nin- 
eveh, the previous 
capital being now 
lost entirely. If 
history and tradi- 
tion do not slan- 
der him, this king, 
like the " s'w e e t 
singer of Israel," 
was guilty of the 
monstrous crime of 
choosing for the fa- 
vorite of his harem 
the wife of one of 
his brave soldiers. 
It is not charged that the Assyrian monarch caused 
the death of the despoiled husband. This Bath- 
sheba of Nineveh was the famous Semiramis, 
long one of the more august figures in history. 
Recent research has greatly dimmed the luster 
of her renown, or rather, cast suspicion upon 




AND THE 
ADJACENT COUNTRIES 



?|s —■ 



(81) 



r 



82 



ASSYRIA AND SYRIA. 



the flattering accounts of early historians. But if 
the latter may be at all trusted, she was indeed a 
helpmeet to Ninus during his life, accompanying 
him iu war, and counseling with him at all times on 
all matters of state. When he died Semiramis as- 
sumed the administration as regent. To her Assyria 
is said to owe Babylon. If so, she, not Nebuchad- 
nezzar, could truthfully say, " Behold, is not this 
great Babylon which I have budded." Under her 
it became great and metropolitan, but not the capi- 
tal. She was a woman of war, and is representee] 
by Herodotus as having " led her conquering legions 
far and near." 

The next Assyrian monarch of renown was Sc- 
nacherib, who began to reign about TOO B. C. He 
fought successfully with the Egyptians, the Israel- 
ites and the Philistines. It was by his father, Sar- 
gon, that Babylon was made a part of Assyria, and 
it was by Senacherib that the captivity of the ten 
tribes was effected. The number of the captives is 
computed at 300,000. He built a most superb pal- 
ace in Nineveh which Layard has unearthed in its 
ruins. Nineveh readied the culmination of its ar- 
chitectural glory in the first half of the seventh cen- 
tury. It was near the close of this century (the ex- 
act daLe is unknown) that it was destroyed. The 
governor of the province of Babylon, assisted by the 
Scythian hordes from the North, captured and de- 
stroyed it. The last king of Nineveh was Sardan- 
apalus, renowned (whether justly or not is open to 
dispute) for effeminacy. He was wholly abandoned 
to the pleasures of the seraglio. When besieged in 
his capital, he is said to have raised a huge funeral 
pyre, placed his numerous wives and costly treas- 
ures upon it, and then with his own hand applied 
the torch. This done, he mounted the pile himself, 
and fittingly perished. With him the Empire of 
Assyria went down forever and Nineveh became a 
ruin. The scepter of empire passed to Babylon. 

Nineveh was on the Tigris distant nearly three 
hundred miles from Babylon. It was more than a 
city in the ordinary sense of the term. It was a col- 
lection of fields as well as houses, designed to be a 
walled community, capable of withstanding any and 
every kind of siege. It was fifteen miles long and nine 
miles wide. It is believed that the houses were built 
separately, and each had very considerable ground. 
The walls were two hundred feet high, and so wide 
that three chariots driven abreast could pass along 



the top. Making all due allowance for extrava- 
gance of statement, it is certain that Nineveh was a 
very marvelous city. 

The clay of that region made excellent bricks. 
Early the art of writing was introduced and tin' 



ubli«hev of that day 



■1 I.iikI, 




Chaldean Bricks. 



potter was the 
The soft brick-: 
were indented 
with the words 
of the author, 
and then those 
in a nil script 
bricks were 
kilned and thus 
preserved. Of 
late years vast 
quantities of 
these earthen 
books have 
been brought to light, and many of them translated. 
For historical purposes they are not very satisfac- 
tory, mythological creations being so interwoven 
with actual fact as to defy critical dissection. 

In the plain of Shinar, about sixty miles 
south of Bagdad, where now stands the little 
village of Ilillah, once stood the magnificent 
Babylon, the metropolis of Ohaldea. It was about 
fourteen miles in extent on each of its four 
sides. The river Euphrates ran through it. Kaw- 
linson believes it to have been the most magmficent 
city of the old world. Isaiah calls it " the glory of 
kingdoms, the beauty of the Chaldee"s excellency." 
Its most notable feature, accounted one of the seven 
wonders of the world, was the series of so-called 
hanging gardens within its walls. Those gardens 
consisted «of terraces raised one above the other to 
an immense height on pillars, well floored with cem- 
ent and lead, and covered with earth in which the 
most beautiful shrubs and trees were planted. Im- 
memorial in its origin, the city was completed by 
Nebuchadnezzar of Biblical fame. It was a brick 
city, naphtha and bitumen taking the place of lime. 
The most remarkable structure of Babylon was the 
temple of Belus. The following is the description 
of it: "The temple of Belus was, at its founda- 
tion, a furlong in length, and about the same in 
breadth ; its height is said to have exceeded six hun- 
dred feet, which is more than that of the Egyptian 
pyramids. It was built in eight stories, gradually 



I - 5 



^ 



■vjs 



ASSYRIA AND SYRIA. 



§3 



UL*. 



diminishing in size as they ascended. Instead of 
stairs, there was a sloping terrace on the outside suf- 
ficiently wide for carriages and beasts of burden to 
ascend. Nebuchadnezzar made great additions to 
this tower, and surrounded it with smaller edifices, 
inclosed by a wall somewhat more than two miles 
in circumference. The whole was sacred to Bel or 
Belus, whose temple was adorned with idols of gold 
and all the wealth that the Babylonians had ac- 
quired by the plunder of the East." 

The earliest authentic record of the Babylonians 
goes back to B. C. 747. They were an offshoot 
from the Chaldeans who dwelt among the moun- 
tains of Taurus and 
Caucasus. They were 
employed originally as 
mercenaries by the As- 
syrians. That lias al- 
ways proved a danger- 
ous experiment, fre- 
quently ending, as in 
tins ease, in the ultimate 
overthrow of the em- 
ploying power by the 
employes. The intro- 
duction of the Egyp- 
tian solar year with the 
accession to the Baby- 
lonian throne of Nabo- 
nasar, merely fixes a 
date (B. C. 747). Noth- 
ing noteworthy occur- 
red, however, except that ualendraic adoption 
under that ruler, nor yet under his twelve 
successors. Prior to the overthrow of Nineveh, 
Babylon was the seat of a satrap rather than a king. 
The first real sovereign was Nabopolasar, the fa- 
ther of Nebuchadnezzar. The latter raised the em- 
pire to its supreme glory. He extended widely its 
area and the grandeur of Babylon. The book of 
Daniel furnishes about all the history we have of 
the empire from that date to its complete submis- 
sion, supplemented by some references of a histori- 
cal character in Jeremiah and Ezekiel. 

There is, however, a break in the record which 
can be supplied in its meager outlines from another 
source. So far as the Biblical record goes, it would 
be a waste of space to reproduce it, so familiar and 
accessible is it. But Belshazzar did not immediate- 




ly succeed Nebuchadnezzar. Between them inter- 
vened the regency of Queen Nitocris, who held the 
reins of government during the strange insanity of 
the great king. Besides her were Evilmerodach. who 
was slain and succeeded by his brother-in-law, Neri- 
glosar, whose son was dethroned for his despotism, 
and the lawful dynasty restored in the person of the 
young and dissolute Belshazzar, whose feast on the 
very night his capital was taken and himself slain, 
is known to all. 

As we write, brilliant successes in Assyrian areha?- 
ology are reported. In 1880 an expedition was or- 
ganized to search for tablets, or brick books, on the 

site of Babylon. It was 
under the charge of 
Ilormuzd Rassam. An 
account from a source 
usually authentic, states 
that Rassam has un- 
earthed " a perfect treas- 
ure trove of relics, con- 
taining some traditions 
that date before the 
flood." The account 
proceeds thus : 

"Among his discov- 
eries are the account- 
books of the great fi- 
nancial officers of the 
Babylonian E m p i r e , 
who farmed the public 
revenues, this ancient 
known as the house of Beni Egibi : 



beini 



syndicate 

fragments of the history of Babylon to the time of 
the capture of the city by Cyrus ; royal personal rec- 
ords madeby Cyrus and by Alexander the (heat, who 
was consigned so summarily by Hamlet to the bung- 
hole of a beer-barrel ; a record of the gardens of King 
Merodach Caladan, who bad sixty-three park- in 
Babylon : and several inscriptions made by Nebu- 
chadnezzar himself, which may throw some light 
upon his bucolic experiences in the grass. 

" Besides the records, Rassam has discovered ex- 
tensive hydraulic works which were used to water 
the hanging gardens ; the ruins of the observatory 
tower of the great temple of Nebo. containing beau- 
tiful specimens of vitrified bricks which have always 
been a puzzle to the scientists ; the ruins of the city 
of Cutha, containing a temple that was restoied by 



V 



=»£ 



84 



ASSYRIA AND SYRIA. 



Nebuchadnezzar ; another city, not yet identified, at 
a place known by the Arabs as the Mounds of Deyr ; 
and still another city which the records showed to 
be the ancient Sippara. These two cities Rassam 
believes to be the cities of Sepharvaim, mentioned 
in the Book of Kings." 

The London Times gives the following interesting 
particulars concerning these two cities : 

" The first three lines of the largest of the foun- 
dation records bring our speculative thoughts to a 
focus and center our minds on the traditions of one 
of the most ancient cities of Chaldea: ' To the 
Sun-god, the 
great lord, 
dwelling in 
Bit - Parra, 
which is within 
the City of Sip- 
para.' Here, 
1 hen, we have 
restored to us 
the ruins and 
reoords of a 
city whose tra- 
ditions go back 
to the days be- 
fore the flood. 
u li e n pious 
Xisuthrus, by 
order of his 
god, ' buried in 
the city of Sip- 
paraof the Sun 
the history of the beginning, progress, and end of 
all things' antediluvian. And now we recover, 
twenty-seven centuries after they were buried, the 
records of the pious restorers of this ancient temple. 
Such a discovery as this almost makes us inclined 
to dig on in hopes of finding the most ancient 
records buried there by the Chaldaic Noah. There 
are many points of history raised by this inscrip- 
tion, but it will suffice to say that from the earli- 
est days of Babylonian history the city of ' Sippara 
of the Sun ' was a prominent center of social and 
religious life." 

Evidently the mysteries of antiquity, as hidden 
beneath the debris of Babylon the Great, afford a 
tempting field for exploration. 

Had Alexander the Great lived to a good old age, 



Babylon would have had a second and perhaps more 
glorious career, but the untimely death of that great 
conqueror was fatal to her reconstruction. Ptole- 
my carried out the Alexandrian idea in Egypt, but 
the old capital of "the Chaldees' excellency" rap- 
idly fell into ruins, and the jackals do indeed " cry 
in their desolate houses, and wild hounds in their 
pleasant palaces." 

Syria is not a very definite term, but was gen- 
erally used to designate not only the present 
Syria but Mesopotamia also, and a part of Asia 
Minor. Damascus was the capital of the kingdom 

of Syria, a city 




DAMASCUS. 



at least as old 
as Abraham. 
The desert of 
Syria was not 
far off, on the 
oasis of which 
were built 
Tadmor and 
Palmyra. 
Baalbec, one of 
the most inter- 
esting cities in 
ruins to be 
found any- 
where, was all- 
ot her Syrian 
city. The coun- 
try was often 
divided into 
numerous pet- 
achieved no honor, 
in war against sev- 
near to the close of 



ty states, and as a nation 
King David was successful 
eral Syrian states. It was 
Solomon's reign that the powerful dynasty of Ha- 
dad was founded by Rezor, who had been a slave 
originally. He succeeded in building up a power 
which was a formidable foe to Israel for several 
centuries, but that was about all. The most 
powerful king of Syria was Benhadad. The Jews 
and Israelites, after the secession of the Ten Tribes, 
were often at war, and Syria was sometimes a party 
to their quarrels. During the reign of Ahaz at Jeru- 
salem, the Syrians joined the Israelites in war upon 
the former, who sought .the protection of Tiglath- 
pileser, of Assyria. Judea's extremity was Assyria's 
opportu nity, and Damascus, which threatened to 



&? 



t£ 



ASSYRIA AND SYRIA. 



85 



rival Nineveh, was destroyed. With it fell the king- 
dom of Syria, to be lost sight of until after the dis- 
memberment of the Macedonian Empire, when it 
once more was a name and a power. 

The second period of Syrian history began with 
the victory of Seleucus over the satrap of Persia 
and Medea (B. C. 312) and continued until the Ro- 
man Empire swallowed up the kingdom, two hun- 
dred years later. He built up a strong kingdom and 
his son Antiochus strengthened it still more. The 
permanent capital of this new Syria was Antioch. 

The Ptolemies, as we have seen, made themselves 
a mighty factor in the world's progress ; but the Se- 
leucida? did nothing worthy of note. It is true that 
the Christians were first called such in Antioch, but 
that city never exerted any very remarkable influ- 
ence in the religious world, and the second Syrian 
kingdom may be dismissed with the observation 
that it is suggestive of the fact, that nations, like 
individuals, may be so very commonplace as to be 
beneath notice. During the period of the Crusades 
Syria suffered terribly. In 1517 Sultan Selim con- 
quered it, and it has ever since remained a part of 
the Ottoman Empire, except from 1832 to 1841, 
when it was under Egyptian rule. It now forms a 
portion of the three pashalics, Aleppo, Damascus, 
and Sidon, and has a population, inclusive of the 
nomadic Arabs, of about 2,000,000, most wretched- 
ly governed, and eking out a scant subsistence upon 
a soil exhausted by improvident tillage. 

The term Assyria long ago ceased to have a place 
in the actual, in distinction from the historical 
world, but the Syria of to-day is that portion of 
Turkey in Asia which lies between latitudes 31° 
and 37° 2' north, skirting the Mediterranean 
Sea from the Gulf of Iskanderoon to the Isth- 
mus of Suez, with an area estimated at 60,000 
square miles, although the eastern and southern ex- 



tensions are indefinite. It includes Palestine with 
its many mountains, towns, rivers, lakes and other 
places rendered sacred by Hebrew history and tra- 
dition. It is the land of the Bible, and the oriental 
customs, costumes and general mode of life of 
Biblical times may still be found there. Man has 
changed less than nature, for fields once fertile are 
now sterile. The great difficulty is the scarcity of 
water. The soil is light and sandy, easily rendered 
a victim of drouth. Wheat, barley and beans are 
the chief products. Figs, olives and mulberries 
thrive in many parts of Syria, and are the staple 
fruits of the land. Peaches, pomegranites, oranges, 
lemons, grapes, apricots and almonds are also grown 
there. Jackals, hyenas, antelopes, wild swine and 
wolves are the pest of Syria, while camels, asses, 
horses, sheep, goats and cattle are the main domes- 
tic animals. There are some Christians and a few 
Jews among the native population, but for the most 
part Mohammedanism is the prevailing religion. The 
language now mainly in use is Arabic. The old 
Syriac, or Aramaic, has nearly died out. Modern 
Greek is understood and largely used on the coast. 
The Syriac is a dialect of Shemitic language known 
to us through a Christian literature extending back 
to the second century of our era, and which flour- 
ished until the Saracen Empire arose, and the Cross 
gave way to the Crescent. A great deal of primi- 
tive Christian literature is preserved in that lan- 
guage. But the most notable distinction of the 
Syriac is its ancient versions of the New Testament. 
It also has at least two very old versions of the Old 
Testament. In determining the correct text of the 
sacred volume these venerable manuscripts are of 
inestimable importance. The Syriac language is in 
itself a curious monument of repeated conquests, 
containing as it does a great many words of Greek. 
Persian, Latin, Arabic and Tartar origin. 




■*>' 



J^ 



i 



ite- 





CHAPTER XIII. 



Persian Isolation— Early History and Wars— Physical Aspects and Conditions— Darius, 
Parthia and Rome— Zoroaster and the Magi— The Zend Avesta and the Parsees— 
Summary op the Persian Bible— Comparative Antiquity— God, Satan and Immortality 
—Modern Persia— Persian Literature. 




!^— #*c^-^ 




T is the peculiarity of Per- 
sia that it has hovered per- 
petually upon the border 
of civilization, neither con- 
tributing to it nor deriving 
benefit from it. From the 
earliest times to the pres- 
ent day it has been in in- 
tellectual isolation. Having much that 
was good, it has strangely lacked the 
assimilating faculty. It conquered 
Egypt, overthrew Babylon, and sub- 
dued the Greek cities of Asia Minor, 
yet it remained substantially the same. 
Its area varied with the fortunes of 
war, but its national character under- 
went no radical alteration. And even 
when the sword of Islam revolutionized 
the religion of Persia, the people remained as they 
had been from the earliest times, half barbaric and 
half civilized, all after their own fashion. 

The early records of Persia are merely the wild 
dreams of table and poetry. The earliest authen- 
tic account of that nation relates to the wars of Cy- 
rus. Cambyses, Darius. Xerxes and Mithridates. of 
which we hear enough for the purposes of this vol- 
ume in connection with Egypt. Babylon, Greece and 
Rome. Persia deprived the first of independence. 



the second of existence itself, but sought in vain to 
conquer the third and fourth. It can only boast 
that, notwithstanding Alexander's victories and the 
heroism of Marathon, Thermopylae, and Salamis, 
the Greeks did not destroy Persia; they simply pre- 
served their own. Mithridates did not crush or even 
check Roman conquest, but his kingdom main- 
tained its own individuality and independence, sur- 
viving the fall of Rome no less than the decay of 
Athens. The Persian dynasties, whether Archa?- 
menidae, Arsacidae, or Sasanidae, do not concern the 
world of progress, but they held their own for near- 
ly twelve hundred years, falling only before the 
fanaticism of the Koran. 

Ancient Persia was only about three hundred 
miles long and two hundred wide, between the In- 
dian Ocean and the Persian Gulf. It is a moun- 
tainous country and not very fertile. It suffers 
severely from drouth. It was a good place to raise 
predatory warriors, also to excite poetic fancy and 
religious emotions, but a very poor place to culti- 
vate a happy community and develop a wholesome 
state of society. 

Bv the aid of Cuneiform inscriptions, the brick 
libraries of Assyria, and other sources of informa- 
tion, some genuine history has been arrived at. 
Darius Ilystaspes, who came to the throne in P>. ( '. 
521, reduced the kingdom to political order. Before 



71 «~ 



(86) 



SIC* 



PERSIA, PARTHIA AND THE ZEND AVESTA. 



8 7 



his day, the Medes and Persians were two 
neighboring tribes of Assyrians, who, by uniting 
their forces, had been able to subdue kings and 
build up a great empire loosely held together. From 
his reign may be dated the consolidated and organ- 
ized kingdom. 

Among the more imposing ruins of antiquity 
must be numbered Persepolis, supposed to have 
been founded by this Darius. It was wantonly de- 
stroyed by Alexander the Great. 

Darius Hystaspes divided the country into nine- 
teen satrapies, or provinces, each holden for the 
purpose of certain fixed tribute and ruled by a sa- 
trap who was virtually absolute, so long as he paid 
his taxes in full. 
The central govern- 
ment maintained 
some authority as a 
safeguard against 
refusal to pay the 
assessments. There 
was indeed a period 
during which Persia 
seemed dead, the 
victim of Alexan- 
der's genius, but it 
was only stunned. 
The dynasty of Da- 
rius Hystaspes did, 
it is true, go down after two centuries, but in less 
than one hundred years the Parthians under 
Arsaces revolted, and another Persian dynasty 
was founded which remained in power about 
450 years, Mithridates belonging to that dynasty. 
During that period the empire was usually called 
Parthia. The Parthians were a tribe of Ayrian 
neighbors of the Medes and Persians, to whom 
they were early subjected, and with whom they 
became identified. The change of name of the 
kingdom was mainly due to the dynastic change. 
The Parthians were often at war with Rome, nei- 
ther gaining decisive victories. It is thought that 
if Julius Csesar had lived a few years longer he 
would have annexed Parthia or Persia to the Ro- 
man Empire. 

The real interest in Persian history relates to 
Zoroaster and the Zend Avesta. All else, except as it 
lias already been suggested, may well be 23assed over 
in silence, as a period of war and intrigue having 




no vital connection with the great current of events. 
The ancient Greeks attributed, and the modern 
Parsees still attribute (the latter being those who 
still hold the Zend Avesta to be the revelation of 
God) the authorship of the sacred book of old Per- 
sia to Zoroaster. He was a great philosopher and 
religious teacher. The age in which he lived is un- 
known, and conjectures vary widely. All the inci- 
dents of his life, as recorded, were mythical. He 
was a native of Bactria, a country in Central Asia, 
having the city of Bactria for its capital. It was 
the home of the Magi or " wise men " to whom 
reference is made in the Gospel of Matthew. A 
deputation of Magi, guided by the star of Bethle- 
hem, paid their re- 
spects to the infant 
Jesus in his manger 
cradle. 

The Zend Avesta 
was the Bible of 
Persia under the 
olden kings. AVhen 
Alexander overran 
Asia, the ancient 
religion fell into de- 
cline, and the Par- 
thians systematical- 
ly suppressed it. 
Many of the books 
or parts were lost forever, but when the Per- 
sian dynasty of Sassanida? came to the throne, no 
effort was spared to restore " the good book " in its 
entirety. When the Mohammedans took Persia 
and compelled the people to substitute the Koran 
for the Zend Avesta, the more devout and res- 
olute fled to Bombay, Surat, and elsewhere, 
taking their religion and their literature with 
them. They are known now as Parsees, and 
to them is the world greatly indebted for the 
preservation of all that was really worth pre- 
serving in Persia. 

Oriental scholars think that the oldest portions 
of this work cannot be placed later than B. 0. 
1500. It was added to from time to time, but the 
great bulk of it was collected together, it is sup- 
posed, about a thousand years later. It con- 
sists of twenty-one parts called Nosks, each 
containing a vesta and zend, that is, an orig- 
inal text and commentary thereon. Only a 



7H 



&r 



88 



PERSIA, PARTHIA AND THE ZEND AVESTA. 



very small part, chiefly the Vendidad, is extant. 
The names and summaries are as follows: 

1. Setudar.— (Praise worship) containing the 
praise and worship of the Yazatas, or angels. 

2. Setudgar. — Prayers and instructions to men 
about good actions : chiefly those enjoining one an- 
other to assist his fellowman. 

3. Valmta-Maihra. — On abstinence, piety, and 
religion. 

4. Bagha. — An explanation of religious duties, 
how to guard against hell and reach heaven. 

5. Dam-dat. — Knowledge of this and a future 
life, revelations of God con- 
cerning heaven, earth, water, 
trees, fire, men and beasts. 
On the resurrection of the 
dead and the passing of the 
Bridge Chin vat. 

6. Nadur. — On astron- 
omy, astrology, geography, 
etc. 

7. Pacham. — What food 
is allowed or prohibited. 

8. R a tush la i. —(Fifty 
chapters, only thirteen extant kill 
at the time of Alexander the \ '-, 
Great) treated of kings and \ 1 
high priests. \ 

9. Burush. — (Sixty chap- 
ters extant at the time of 

Alexander.) The code of The visit of 

laws for kings; also, on the sin of lying. 

10. Koshusarui. — On metaphysics, natural phi- 
losophy, and divinity. 

11. Vishtasp Nosh. — On the conversion of King 
Gushtasp and propagation of religion. 

12. CMdrusht. — On the nature of divine things, 
obedience due to kings, agriculture, and the reward 
of good actious. 

13. Safand. — On the miracles of Zoroaster. 

14. Baghan Yesh. — Praise of high, angel-like men. 

15. Iarasld. — On human life ; why some are 
born in wealth and others in poverty. 

1(3. Nayarum. — Code of law; what is allowed, 
what prohibited. 

17. Husparum. — On medicine and astronomy. 

18. Domaxarub. — On marriages, and treatment 
of animals. 

19. Huskarum. — Civil and criminal law. 



20. Vendidad. — Removal of uncleanness of ev- 
ery description, from which great defects arise in 
the world. 

21. Hadokht. — On the creation ; its wonders. 
The Zend Avesta is supposed to be the oldest of 

all literary works, at least of the Aryan race, with 
one exception, and that exception is the Rig. Vida 
of India. The latter is believed to have been pro- 
duced before the great Aryan family began its mi- 
gration from India, and when the Sanscrit was the 
common language of all the many Aryan nations.* 
The Zend Avesta is more spiritual. Instead of de- 
ifying natural objects, it 
spiritualizes worship. It 
must have produced, or been 
produced by, a great relig- 
ious reformation. 

The cardinal doctrine of 
this Persian faith was the ex- 
istence of two mighty spir- 
its, good and evil, God and 
Satan. The personality of 
the devil was not distinctly 
taught by Zoroaster, who be- 
lieved in a great first cause, 
the primal good, and an evil 
tendency. But the region 
with which his name is iden- 
tified is thoroughly dualistic, 
as much so as the scene in 
the wise Men. the Garden of Eden and the 

book of Job. The relics of the Zend Avesta 
contain some sublime poetry, and eminently Christ- 
like prayers. The belief in a future existence 
of personal consciousness is a prominent feature 
of the Zoroastrian religion. The Jews were 
brought in contact with this religion during 
their captivity, and borrowed from them the word 
Paradise, for as found in the New Testament, 
it is a Persian word. The sect of the Pharisees, 
with their firm belief in immortality, may be 
claimed as the result of intercourse of the Jews 
with the Persians. In the Persian theology the 
spirit of good is called Ormuzd ; of evil, Ahriman. 
In its present f >rm the religion of ancient Persia 
sees in these two personages merely principles, ten- 
dencies, and laws of being. 

The Persia of to-day is oue of the most unhappy 

* For the Aryans, see chapter on India. 




Js 



PERSIA, PARTHIA AND THE ZEND AVESTA. 



89 



A. 



kingdoms on the earth. In distress and misery the 
Persians are sadly pre-eminent. The government 
is an absolute monarchy. The king, or shah, knows 
no authority but his personal caprice. The present 
ruler, Nassr-ed-Din, revels in wealth while his sub- 
jects starve by the thousands. The area of the 
kingdom is 648,000 square miles, a large part of 
which is an arid desert. There are not, on an 
average, more than seven persons to a square mile, 
and still the population is excessive. The taxes are 
levied on the plan of squeezing from the producing 
class all they can possibly endure and live, often 
more than that. There are four cities of consider- 
able size, Tauris or Tabreez, Teheran. Mershed, Is- 
pahan and Yezd. Ispahan is the capital. There 
are eight thousand villages 111 the country. In 1873 
the Shah visited Europe and much good was an- 
ticipated therefrom, but he was too brutish to profit 
by his observations. The prevailing religion is Mo- 
hammedanism. Thereare not more than seven thou- 
sand followers of Zoroaster left. They are called 
Parsees. The severity of Mohammedan persecution 
drove the persistent Parsees into exile. Many of 
them found asylum in India. The Armenian and 
Nestorian Christians are somewhat numerous in 
some parts of Persia. The native name for the 
country is Iran. The best feature of Persia is its 
educational facilities. Thereare numerous colleges 
for the upper classes in which Persian and Arabic 
literature are cultivated, and many of the common 
people can read. The literature of the language is 
rich, especially in poetical works. But in the rise 
of the Saracen Empire, the Persia which had so 
long maintained itself in its essence uncontamin- 
ated and unbroken, was lost forever. The old 
name exists and some of the national traits, but 
the blight of Islam was complete and irremediable. 
The poets of Persia deserve high rank. The pres- 
ent poet-laureate of the Shah, Hakim Kaani, is said 
to have a rare command of language and rhythm, 
and to be worthy to rank with the best authors of 



the. day. The first rank among the poets of Persia 
belongs to Rudaki. Whole lines are in the highest 
degree classic. He was born blind. Omar Kheiy- 
ane, a great poet, astronomer and mathematician, 
was the author of a work called Aljebr u el Mukabi- 
leh, or the science which still bears the name Alge- 
bra, which he gave it. He was an extreme free- 
thinker in religion. Anwari is another famous name 
in Persian classics. His " Divan," or collected 
works, has been lithographed at Zebris during the 
present reign. Saadi, who flourished in the thir- 
teenth century, has never been excelled for the pur- 
ity and elevation of his sentiments. His fancy 
soared among the stars of the most sublime ideas of 
ethics. His " Rose-Garden," a charming collection 
of moral tales in prose and verse, has been trans- 
lated into English, and is one of the choice volumes 
of the world's best literature. But the supreme 
poet of Persia was Shems ed-Din Mohammed, bet- 
ter known by his nom de plume of Hafiz. He was 
born at Shiraz early in the fourteenth century. He. 
too, was a bold free-thinker who worshiped beauty 
rather than the Deity of any creed, and his inter- 
pretations of human sentiment hi its diverse forms 
give him a place among the immortal bards of the 
ages. His tomb is an object of veneration to nu- 
merous visitors, and time only adds to the popular- 
ity of his lyrics. 

Persian literature is also rich in works on morals 
and science, and in prose fictions. "The modern 
Persians," says Palmer, " like other oriental na- 
tions, have been stimulated into intellectual activity 
in recent times by communications with the West, 
and the result has been a number of useful works 
on educational and scientific subjects have been 
translated from the European languages. The old 
standard authors, however, still hold their ground, 
and are studied with as much ardor as ever. Judged 
from a literary point of view, the Persian intellect 
is brilliant, volatile and vivacious, and not unlike, in 
national characteristics, the French." 







ihL 



toll§llill«lllllll**lMiMi«il*»«»"*i'M»«i««i^^ 





J7 



The Pre-eminence op Greece— The General Grecian Peculiarity— The Age of Fable and 
Poetry— Political Divisions op the Territory— Grote and Schliemann— The Heroic 
Age and Hercules— Theseus, the Amazons and Medea— The Trojan Heroes— Homer's 
Portrayal op the Heroic Age— The Siege op Troy— The City Taken— The Wanderings 
op Ulysses — Tim Closing Scene. 




^_ 



_\, 



^2^- 



N the desert of antiquity 
stands that beautiful oasis, 
Greece, forever green and 
fertile in the products of 
genius. We may admire 
the martial splendor of 
Alexander, the dauntless 
heroism <>f Marathon and 
Thermopylae, the statesmanship of Peri- 
cles, and the naval splendors of Salamis, 
but it is to her poets and philosophers, 
her art and her oratoiy,that Greece owes 
the crown of fadeless glory which encir- 
cles the Hellenic brow and makes the 
subject upon which we enter with this 
chapter replete with interest. That 
little rock-bound southeastern penin- 
sula of Europe is linked in proud pre- 
eminence with the civilization of the entire continent. 
For a long time it was the only civilized portion of 
Europe. Everywhere else the barbarian held un- 
disputed sway for centuries after the Hellenes had 
mastered "the wisdom of the Egyptians" and bet- 
tered their instructions. 

Hard by Africa and Asia both, with ample har- 
bors and productive soil, the country was well 
adapted to be the home of a great if not a numer- 




^H 



ous people. The term Greek really includes not 
only the dwellers on that peninsula, as we shall see, 
but numerous colonies establisked on adjacent 
islands and mainland. To trace in detail the growth 
and decay of each petty state in Greece proper, 
even, would be tedious and unprofitable. The aim 
is to make plain the subject in its entirety, and ena- 
ble one to clearly apprehend the place belonging to 
the Greeks in the world of the past. It may be re- 
marked here that the Alexandrian age of Egypt 
was, as has been shown, more Grecian than Coptic, 
and that having once entered the stream of prog- 
ress, the Hellenic waters never ceased to give color 
and character to the whole body, much as the Miss- 
issippi river is essentially the Missouri after their 
waters commingle and flow together into the Gulf 
of Mexico. 

Much which long passed for Grecian history is 
now known to be wildly fabulous, and some things 
gravely condemned as fiction have been shown by 
later research to have been actual. In the critical 
work which exposed the legendary and mythical 
character of supposed history, the late Mr. Grote 
took the lead, and for the rescue of actual facts 
from the reproach of being unreal, the world is 
supremely indebted to Schliemann. Between what 
one tore down and the other built up, — dug up, 



(90) 



s\*~ 



j*K 



_9i> 



GREECE AND HERO WORSHIP. 



9 1 




lather, — the dark places of Grecian history have been 
made bright with intelligence. The first great name 
in Greece is that of Homer, and Schliemann has 
shown that his Trojan 
war was not the vagary 
of inventive genius, but 
the veritable siege of a 
veritable city. How- 
ever much freedom the 
poet allowed his muse, 
his subject was histori- 
cal. Troy was no myth, 
and in monumental 
ruins may be read the 
story of " the wrath of 
Achilles." And if Ho- Homer 

mer had a substratum of history for his heroes, so, 
no doubt, had the great dramatists of Greece whose 
grand conceptions fill a large space in the intellec- 
tual world. It would be vain, however, to attempt 
the separation of truth and fiction, and more prof- 
itable to view all those characters in a poetic light, 
as we do Hamlet, King Lear and Hiawatha. 

From first to last Greece was divided into numer- 
ous states, generally independent of each other, and 
sometimes at war. The union of those common- 
wealths was confederate rather than federal, and 
when brought to its strongest point was really a 
partnership at will. The doctrine of " state sover- 
eignty'" was never disputed. Homer may be said 
to furnish the key of the entire political history of 
the Greeks, when he introduces us to Achilles sulk- 
ing in his tent, and the allies powerless to coerce his 
active co-operation in the war then in progress, and 
for which he had enlisted. It was not until he vol- 
untarily buckled on his shield and drew his rusty 
sword from its scabbard, that he led his terrible 
myrmidons into battle, slew the mighty Hector, and 
paved the way for the fall of Troy. It is, of course, 
idle to speculate as to the probable course of history 
had the Greeks been one nation. Perhaps the glo- 
ries of Greece and Rome would both have unified. 

It may be. on the other hand, that, like the Ger- 
many of the first half of the present century, it 
owes much of its literary importance to its political 
insignificance, and that national greatness would 
have dwarfed the intellectual growth of the people. 
The age of Grecian barbarism, midway between 
primitive savagery and the civilization which could 



produce a Homer and the long line of subsequent 
splendor, is called the Heroic age. Not that it was 
really more grand than any other similar age in 
other lands, but the poets took up the faintly out- 
lined characters, weaving about them ideal person- 
alities, combining the rugged originals with a sub- 
limation purely fanciful. This heroic period is not 
definite in chronology, but generally designates the 
time from B. C. 1400 to B. C. 1200. The first of 
these is Hercules, whose marvelous exploits would, 
if true, prove him to have been indeed a demigod. 
He was a knight-errant, succoring the weak, subdu- 
ing tyrants, and performing labors most prodigious. 
The Greeks of the period before his day are called 
Pelasgians. Hercules was a Phoenician by blood. 




Hercules. 

He was born in Thebes, not the grand old city of 
the Nile, but the town of that name in Greece 
founded by Cadmus the Phoenician. He traveled 
far by land and water. The Straits of Gibralter 
were his pillars. His proverbial labors were under- 
taken in expiation of the murder of his wife and 
children, committed in a fit of rage ; at least, that is 
the more usual explanation of those labors. These 
labors were twelve in number, the chief being the 
slaying of the Nemean lion, and killing the hydra 
with nine heads; cleansing the stables of King 
Augeas who had a herd of three thousand oxen 
whose stables had not been cleansed for thirty 
years; stealing the girdle of Hippolyta, the cpieen 
of the Amazons, and the apples in the garden of 
the Hesperides, the gift of the goddess Earth to 
Juno on the occasion of her marriage with Jove. 



k. 



92 



GREECE AND HERO WORSHIP. 



His final labor was bringing Cerberus, the watch-dog 
of hell, from the nether world. The shirt steeped 
in the blood of Nessus, which caused his death in 
awful agony, was sent to him by his wife, who was 
inflamed with causeless jealousy. The garment 
burned into his flesh and could not be gotten off 
without taking the flesh with it. All these exploits 
and experiences are in constant use for illustrations. 

Next to Hercules in heroic eminence was The- 
seus, the pride of Athens. His name brings up the 
familiar bed of Procustes, or the stretcher. It was 
of iron. All travelers who fell into his hands were 
placed upon it. If they were longer than the bed 
they were chopped off, if shorter, they were 
stretched. This eccentric landlord was placed upon 
his own bedstead by Theseus and made to accept 
his own hospitality. Theseus made war upon those 
illustrious females, the Amazons, as Hercules had 
before him. Greek sculpture was fond of repre- 
senting the battles of the Amazons, and to the end 
of time, women who boldly stand up for their rights, 
undaunted by masculine opposition, will be known 
as Amazons. Theseus has figured more upon the 
histrionic stage than Hercules. We catch a shad- 
owy glimpse of this hero in history. His shade flits 
across the stage of statecraft, but only to disappear 
in the clouds of antique dust. 

The heroic age is, for the most part, the story of 
the Trojan heroes and those associated with them. 
Homer was not alone in treating this subject. On 
the contrary, his accounts are tantalizing, and what 
he omitted the tragedians sought to supply. Ho- 
mer introduces us to the Greeks on the plain before 
the doomed city, and 
during the Iliad never 
once wanders from that 
charmed spot. The 
Odyssey treats only of 
the wanderings of 
Ulysses. Of what went 
before and followed 
after, we know nothing, M 
except as others fur- 1 
nished the information. \ 
Between all, the ac- Meneiaue. 

count is quite full. An attempt will now lie made to 
narrate all the important features of this great pic- 
ture of the heroic age and its apotheosis by genius. 
Paris, the handsome son of Priam, King of Troy, 




paid a visit to Menelaus, King of Sparta. He 
abused the hospitality of his royal friend by eloping 
with his beautiful wife, Helen. The injured hus- 
band sent tidings of his wrong to the different 




Iphigenia. 

chiefs of Greece, inviting them to join in avenging 
the outrage. The appeal met with a cordial response. 
All were willing to go except U lysses of Ithaca. He 
had just married a wife, and still more recently be- 
come a father. Not wanting to leave the lovely Penel- 
ope and the infant Telemachus, he pretended to be 
crazy, but the trick was detected, and the trickster 
joined them in the expedition. A vote was taken 
on the question of who should be generalissimo. 
The choice did not fall upon the venerable Nestor, 
the brave Achilles, or the crafty Ulysses, but upon 
the magnificent Agamemnon. To insure success and 
safety, the commander-in-chief was made to offer 
in sacrifice his own daughter, Iphigenia. A goddess 
interposed and saved the girl, leaving a hind upon 
the altar as a substitute. One may see in this story 
a resemblance to the less tragic incident commem- 
orative of Hebrew substitution of a sheep for a hu- 
man being. But Agamemnon, unlike Abraham. 
supposed his child had perished. So did the mother. 
Clytenmestra, who thereupon conceived deadly ha- 
tred for her husband, a hatred that made her false 
to her marriage vows, and cost him his life upon his 
return from the war. But to proceed. On their 
way to Troy the fleet attacked an innocent people 
and despoiled them. Among the victims taken 
captive was the beautiful maiden, Briseis. The girl 
was allotted to Achilles, but coveted by Agamem- 



*?7= 



IK 1 



GREECE AND HERO WORSHIP. 



93 



noii. The latter, exerting Ins superior authority, took 
her to himself. Thereupon Achilles withdrew from 
the general camp and began his immortal " sulks."' 
The war dragged its weary length, battle after bat- 
tle being fought without decisive advantage on 
either side, until, finally, a friend of Achilles, 
Patroclus, was slain, when the great sulker forgot 
his grievance and made short work of the Trojans. 
The Greeks were still unable to enter the city. 
To drive the warriors within the gates was all that 
they could do. Then it was that the craft of Ulys- 
ses achieved its greatest triumph. At his sugges- 
tion a huge wooden horse was made and filled with 
the flower of the army. The Greeks then set sail 
as if tired of the 
enterprise. Troy was 
exultant over the 
raising of the siege, 
and fell into the 
trap. Sallying forth 
to view the relics of 
the camp, great curi- 
osity was excited by 
the wooden horse. 
The people conclud- 
ed to bring it into 
the city as a trophy. 
A Trojan priest, by 
the name of La- 

ocoOn, tried to dis- site of 

suade them from this madness. " I fear the Greeks," 
he said, "even when they offer gifts." Hardly 
had he spoken thus, accompanied by his two 
sons, when two monstrous sea-serpents came ashore, 
making straight for the priest and his sons, whom 
they strangled, and the popular cry was that the 
gods were angered by his opposition. With enthu- 
siasm, if hard work, the horse was brought within 
the walls. Previous to this, Ulysses and Diomed had 
crept into the town and stolen an image of Minerva, 
called the Palladium, which was the safety of the 
city. The silly Trojans flattered themselves that 
they now had a substitute for the Palladium. At 
night when all was still, the men cut their way out 
of their equine box, set fire to the city, and opened 
the gates to their friends who had quietly sailed 
back. The fall of Troy was thus brought about by 
strategy and not by bravery. The slaughter was 
terrible and relentless. Those who escaped the 




sword were sold into slavery, including the surviv- 
ors of the royal family. A few fled under the lead- 
ership of vEneas, who, according to Virgil, was the 
father of Rome. Helen's crime was condoned by 
her husband with whom she returned to Sparta. 
Throughout, she is represented as passive in the 
extreme. 

Varied were the experiences of the heroes. Achil- 
les had already been slain, shot in the heel (his only 
vulnerable spot) by a poisoned arrow from the 
shaft of the cowardly and mean Paris. The mur- 
der of Agamemnon upon the threshold of his own 
palace was a favorite theme of the tragedians, and 
the sorrows of his children furnished occasion for 

illustrating the piti- 
lessness of fate. But 
Ulysses was the real 
hero after the fall of 
Troy. He wandered 
in many lands. Ho- 
mer represents him 
visiting every land 
known to the Greeks, 
real and fabulous, 
and experiencing all 
sorts of dangers. He 
even went to the 
infernal regions and 
returned. 
troy. The first country 

visited which was purely fabulous and has always 
been fraught with poetic interest was the land 
of the lotus-eaters. The food of the people was 
the lotus-plant, the effect of which was perfect 
contentment with present surroundings. It was 
with difficulty that Ulysses could drag his com- 
panions on shipboard. They next arrived at the 
island home of the Cyclops, — giants who dwelt 
in caves and had a fondness for human flesh. One 
of these monsters, Polyphemus, devoured several 
Greeks. The wily chief got him under the influ- 
ence of wine, put out his eye (for he had only one, 
and that in the center of his forehead). After that 
it was easy to escape from the cave and the island. 
The island of King vEolus was touched upon 
next. This monarch was intrusted with the custo- 
dy of the winds, kept in bags. He treated the dis- 
tinguished traveler with deference and at parting 
srave him a bag of wind. The sailors were so curi- 



— 



94 



GREECE AND HERO WORSHIP. 



cms to know what was in the sack that they untied 
it, whereupon a furious hurricane arose, blowing the 
ship back to the island, ami exposing them all to 
great peril. Not long after the ship came to the 
^Egean Isles, where the daughter of the sun, Cir- 
ce, dwelt. She was a potent sorceress, able by her 
enchantment to turn men into swine. She prac- 
ticed her arts upon a part of the crew. By the aid 
of Mercury, Ulysses succeeded not only in resisting 
her influence but in compelling her to disenchant 
his companions. They were most hospitably enter- 
tained after that, ami it is broadly intimated that 
Ulysses was quite content to stay with the fair en- 
chantress. But dalliance came to an end at last, 
and the crew once more set sail for home. 

The story of the Sirens belongs to this won- 
derful journey, as do Scylla and Charybdis. The 
Sirens were mystic maidens who could sing so 
sweetly that to hear them was to be drawn towards 
them by an irresistible impulse. They were on 
land, and if the sailors and companions of the 




Ulysses Tied to the Mast. 

great Greek attempted to swim ashore, they would 
surely perish. Ulysses, having been warned by the 
goddess Circe, caused himself to be bound to the 



mast, and told his companions to fill their ears with 
wax. Those who did so escaped the enchantment, 
while those who did not lost their lives. Scylla was 
a rock and Charybdis a whirlpool near together, 
between which he was obliged to sail. A slight 
variation either way from the roadstead, and all 
would have been destroyed. 

It was such hairbreadth escapes as these which 
till the pages of the Odyssey, and serve to illus- 
trate the puerility of the early Greek knowl- 
edge of the world. Homer is supposed to have 
been a Greek of Asia Minor, but even those enter- 
prising colonists were illy acquainted with the rest 
of mankind. We cannot stop to tell all the 
prodigious experiences of the wanderer. Reaching 
home as last, after an absence of twenty years, he 
found his faithful Penelope cunningly dodging the 
matrimonial question. A crowd of suitors sought 
her hand (for she was a '"rich widow"). She prom- 
ised to select one among the number as soon as she 
had finished weaving the garment then in her loom. 
By day she worked industriously, and in the silence 
of the night unraveled what she had woven during 
the day. Ulysses pretended to be a beggar, and as 
an old tramp presented himself at the dining-room 
door of his own palace, where the suitors were feast- 
ing at his expense. When they were well plied with 
wine he drew his sword and made terrible havoc 
among them. 

It may be said that the world takes leave of the 
heroic age of Greece with the spectacle of that first 
of Enoch Ardensheaping in indiscriminate slaugh- 
ter the gang who, under the pretext of courting 
his supposed widow, were literally eating him out of 
house and home. One bids farewell to this last of 
the heroes feeling that he was more moved by 
the prodigality of his insolent guests than by 
the constancy of his ideal wife, the ever-praised 
Penelope. 



~7fc 




sfT 



^t 



ik- 




The Actual in Fabulous Wars— Spartans and Messenians— The Four Great Wars or 
Greece — Asia Minor and Cr<esus — The Persians and the Ionians— The Invasion op 
Greece by the Persians— The Glories op Marathon— Thermopyl.e and its Heroic De- 
fense — Salamis and the Flight op Xerxes— Themistocles and the Ingratitude op Repub- 
lics — The Peloponnesian War— The Genius op Pericles— Philip op Macedon— Alexander 
the Great— Roman Conquest op Greece— Siege op Athens— Modern Greek Heroism. 



^*es£ 




f— §^*# 



1 1 US far our history lias 
not dealt very much hi hu- 
man butchery, nor do we 
intend that it shall, except 
as the same may be neces- 
sary to the unfolding of 
the progress of the world 
savagery to genuine civiliza- 
In the case of Greece, her 
historians seemed to think the 
blood-stained footprints of war 
would interest posterity vastly 
more than the domestic life, the 
poetry, the art, the philosophy, and 
r lie social institutions of the peo- 
ple. To find the most elaborate 
details of the almost interminable 
civil wars of Greece, one has only 
to turn to Herodotus, Thucydides or kindred his- 
torians of later date. They tell all about them, but 
the far more important and interesting class of in- 
formation alluded to must be searched for in the 
by-ways of knowledge. The average history of 
Greece is mainly devoted to the exploits of armies. 
The field of real interest is a narrow one, however. 
The Trojan war belongs to history, it is true, in its 
general outlines, but all the surviving details apper- 



tain to the heroic age, the fabulous and the poetic. 
In the gray of the morning all was misty, and 
Homer's blind eyes saw gods watching over and 
assisting godlike men, engaged in the business and 
pastime of cutting each other's throats. 

The first historic war of Greece was waged be- 
tween the Spartans and the Messenians. Around 
that series of struggles, romance and poetry have 
thrown no robe of beauty. For it lias been woven 
no royal purple, no cloth of gold. Many details 
have been preserved, but they add little, if anything, 
to the valuable store of human knowledge. Those 
two peoples dwelt as neighboring states on the 
Peloponnesus. They were of one stock — Dorians. 
But they were unlike by the time they rose above 
the obscuring hills of time. Messenia was a much 
better country than Lacedsemonia. It produced 
better crops and better people. But Lacedasmonia 
had Sparta, and Sparta had Lycurgus. As a mili- 
tary community the Spartans were the superior, and 
with the usual meanness of uncivilized people, the 
stronger continually encroached upon the weaker, 
and provoked war. A chnmicstate of belligerency 
existed between them. Even when the fire seemed 
dead, it only smouldered. There were three Messe- 
nian wars, with the dates, B. C. 743-724 ; 685-668 ; 
464-455, covering a period of about three centuries. 



"7 



12 



(95) 



9 6 



HISTORIC WARS OF GREECE. 



1& 



and active hostilities during forty-five years, all told. 
Finally, in the latest set-to, lasting nine years, the 
Messenians were not only conquered, as usual, but 
wiped out. It was a war of extermination. " When 
Greek meets Greek, then comes the tug of war." 
The better but weaker people were driven from 
Peloponnesus, disappearing forever as a distinctive 
people from the face of the earth, leaving behind 
them little else than the record of their calamity. 

Passing by trivial outbreaks of hostility, we may 
say that the great historic wars of the Greeks, ex- 
clusive of the Messenian, were four, namely, the 
Persian, the Peloponnesian, the Macedonian and 
the Roman. Each one of these had an important 
bearing upon the gr*~at events of world-wide interest. 
We have named t'iem in their chronological order. 
The first began in Asia Minor, but was none the 
less Greek, ai'J ultimately extended to Greece. It 
may be said co have begun with the fall of Croesus 
(B. C. 540), and closed with Cimon's defeat of the 
naval and military forces of the Persians in the 
battle of Eurymedon (B. 0. 466), a period of eighty- 
one years. The Peloponnesian, or great civil war 
of Greece, began in B. C. 431 and continued with 
hardly any cessation of hostilities for twenty-seven 
years. Macedonia began to be a power in the world 
during the reign of Philip, the father of Alexander 
the Great. He began the interference with the 
affairs of Peloponnesus, B. C. 344. His greater son 
closed his prodigious career B. C. 323, and with his 
death terminated the really brilliant military career 
of Greece. The fourth war in the present list, the 
one with Rome, was little more than the gradual 
absorption of Greece and the Greeks round about, 
in the universal empire of the Eternal City. The 
first conflict of Greek and Roman arms was in 
B. C. 214, and in B. C. 146 the supremacy of Rome 
over Greece ceased to be disputed or resisted. Such 
are the boundaries of our present theme. 

The Greeks were a people of wonderful enterprise. 
They sent out colonies without number. The 
population, in excess of what was convenient and 
desirable, "went west," only "out west" was really 
"down east " Unless, indeed, as some think, 
the Greek settlements on the mainland were the 
older of the two. However that may be, it is 
undeniable that crossing to the opposite shore, 
they built cities and developed states with mar- 
velous fecundity. The fatherland laid claim to 



no sovereignty over the swarms which went out from 
the parent hive, and the best of feeling prevailed. 
While these colonies were flourishing in wealth and 
culture, there grew up a somewhat important king- 
dom further inland — Lydia. The colonial cities 
were free marts of commerce, like the cities of Hol- 
land and Germany, which formed the Hanseatic 
League and of which we shall speak at a later 
period. Not content with further enlargement 
toward the East, Lydia, like Russia, was impatient 
for a seaboard. Croesus, the Lydian king whose 
wealth has been proverbial, and is so still, came to 
the throne in B. C. 560. He laid siege to Ephesus, 
one of the Grecian cities of Asia Minor, and soon 
took it. He treated the citizens so leniently that he 
had very little difficulty in extending his sway, in a 
patriarchal way, over the whole of Asia Minor. For 
a tribute, small to those commercial cities, but enor- 
mous to him, he agreed to respect their rights and 
defend them, too. The cities and the monarchy sus- 
tained some such relations to each other as vassals 
and baron in the feudal system. His enormous 
wealth became known and laid him liable to attack. 
About that time Cyrus the Great came on the stage 
of imperial action. He was a Persian, but he held 
the scepter of Medea as well, the latter being a 
great kingdom. Cyrus moved upon Croesus, and 
before the opulent monarch could utilize his re- 
sources Lydia became a province of Persia, and thus 
the Greek and the Persian were brought face to face 
for the first time. Croesus had the means to procure 
powerful if not invincible help. He sent his am- 
bassadors to Sparta and an alliance was formed, 
but before the aid could arrive all was over. 

Cyrus would have had the ready allegiance of the 
Greek cities, had he been content to guarantee the 
continuance of the mild sway of the Lydian sover- 
eign ; but his demand was " unconditional and im- 
mediate surrender. " To this they would not con- 
sent. He deputized his lieutenants to complete the 
subjugation of Asia Minor. It was not a difficult 
task. Nor was the Persian yoke heavy or irksome, 
and the sovereignty of Persia was soon acknowl- 
edged throughout Asia Minor. 

Cyrus was ambitious of bagging larger game than 
Lydia, and as for Greece, he knew no more about it 
than a Tartar does of Australia. He besieged Baby- 
lon, and it fell. The exploits of his successor and 
son Cambyses in Egypt have already been men- 






A 



-U 



HISTORIC WARS OF GREECE. 



97 



tioned. It was not until Darius, the successor of 
Cambyses, came to the throne, that Greece attracted 
Persian attention. A trivial accident was the spark 
which kindled the flame of that great- war. At that 
time Darius had a magnificent empire. It ex- 
tended from the ^Egean Sea to the Indian ocean, 
and from the steppes of Russia in Asia, to the cata- 
racts of the Nile. The idea of his being seriously 
mindful of little Greece, would have seemed to him 
absurd. One day he sprained his ankle wliile out 
hunting. There happened to be a Greek physician 
within call, named Democedes, and he was summoned 
to dress the wound, which he did so skillfully that the 
king insisted upon retaining him as his family doc- 
tor. His favorite wife, Queen Atossa, was treated 
by Demo'cedes, and so satisfactorily, that she con- 
ceived a desire to have Greek maids to attend her, 
comb her hair and make her dresses. To please her, 
the doctor was sent to Greece, under escort, to procure 
the damsels. His companions were instructed to find 
out all they could about the country, and their 
report may be said to have introduced Greece to 
Persia, and been the beginning of the relations be- 
tween those two countries. It was not imme- 
diately productive of results. Had all the states of 
Greece adopted and adhered to the " Monroe doc- 
trine, " as the policy of non-intervention with 
the affairs of other nations is called, they might have 
been spared war with the great empire of Asia. But 
the Athenians undertook to meddle with the affairs 
of that continent, as friends of the Ionians, and to 
resent an insolent threat by Persia. Athens was by 
that time a powerful state with a very formidable 
navy. Sardis, the capital of Lydia, one of the twenty 
satrapies of Persia, was taken by the Ionians and the 
Athenians. Darius was more indignant with the in- 
termeddlers from Athens than with the others, who 
had been gradually drawn into the rebellion by a 
train of circumstances which furnished some excuse 
for their uprising. The success of the combined inva- 
sion and its result loosened the hold of Darius upon 
all Asia Minor. If the victors had been sustained 
by reinforcements, they might have been successful 
in defying the power of Persia. But they were not. 
Athens was content to drop the matter, and asked 
only to be " let alone. " Having made a brilliant 
sortie, for that was about all it amounted to, the 
Athenians were disposed to go home and there let it 
end. But not so with Dariuc. He found it no 



very hard matter to reduce the Ionians and such 
other subjects as had been incited to rebellion by 
their example. It took several years, however, to 
compass that end. When it came, all traces of free- 
dom were obliterated, and those once independent 
cities became in reality subject to a despotic power. 
The king then pursued his revenge to the mother 
country. He sent an army under Mardonius through 
Thrace into Greece. The Macedonians, through 
whose country he had to pass, made it very un- 
pleasant for the invaders. The Persians were so 
crippled that they thought it prudent to go back 
and recruit, especially their losses by sea. That 
was in B. C. 492. 

Two years later a greater force came over. This 
time a far different course was pursued, and devas- 
tating as they went, the Persians steered their way 
by water for Attica. It was a mighty armament. 
Of course the details given are colored, because we 
have only the Greek version of them. The army 
landed on the plain of Marathon, in the bay of 
which the Persian fleet found anchorage. That 
plain is now one of the most memorable spots in all 
history; made so by Greek valor on the present 
occasion. It is one of the few level regious of any 
extent in Attica, being about five miles in length 
and two in breadth. Two days' march and the army 
would be before the walls of Athens, and it is al- 
most certain, that if that march had been made, the 
city which had the honor of being the literary and 
artistic capital of the classic world would have 
fallen, its mission of culture still far from complete. 
It is supremely ridiculous to say of most battles, 
that upon their results the fate of ages and peoples 
was staked, but in this instance such was the case. 
The Athenians were equal 
to the emergency. They 
boldly met the invaders. 
The battle of Hastings was 
a repetition of the battle 
of Marathon, only with 
reversed results. William 
of Normandy conquered 
the Saxons, Harold falling 
with his kingdom, but Mil- 
tiades, the hero of Mara- 
His handful of brave Athe- 
nians rushed forward to the attack so furiously that 
they soon drove the enemy to their ships. Their gal- 




Miltiades. 

thon, was successful. 



;r 



9§ 



HISTORIC WARS OF GREECE. 



lant impetuosity caused a pause and made the victory 
complete. They had no allies. It was Athens against 
the countless hordes of barbarism. About ten thou- 
sand European freemen repelled the attack of at 
least 110,000 of Asiatics. That was the first real 
meeting of the two continents in hostility upon 
a scale of continental importance. The Spartans 
were on their way to Marathon, but Miltiades needed 
no " night or BlUcher " to help him win his Wain 
loo. It is a melancholy reflection that the hero of 
this victory, more brilliant than Waterloo or the 
Wilderness, died in prison not long after, his con- 
finement aggravating a wound he received in an un- 
successful attempt, sub- 
secptent to Marathon, to 
enlarge the dominion of 
Athens. His fate con- 
tributed largely to the 
proverbial idea of the in- 
gratitude of republics. 
The Persians were ex- 
asperated rather than 
discouraged by the for- 
tunes of Marathon. 
Darius resolved to take 
a revenue worthy his 
magnificence. An execu- 
tive officer in distinction 
from a man of war, 
he was equal to great 
achievements, in preparation 
of arms. But before he 




by sending back earth ami water. Several of the 
smaller states complied, and the disjwsition to actu- 
ally resisi was confined to Athens and Sparta. The 
latter seemed to remember the glories of Marathon 
in a noble spirit of emulation, rather than a mean 
spirit of envy. It was in the spring of B.C. 480 that 
I ! reece was invaded, and in a few months, two more 
battles, hardly less memorable than Marathon, were 
fought, one by land and the other on the sea, the 
first, Thermopylae being the everlasting glory of 
Sparta, the second, Salamis, adding another star to 
the Athenian crown. 

Thermopylae was a narrow pass, through which 
the mighty army had to 
march, in gaining a foot- 
hold of advantage. Its 
defense was intrusted to 
Leonidas, king of Sparta, 
and his squad — for it was 
hardly more than that — 
consisted of three hun- 
dred Spartans, with their 
Helots, en- serfs, and 
about twenty-five hun- 
dred men. gathered from 
other cities of Greece. 
The latter proved to be 
of no real assistance. On 
one side was one of the 



Pass of t: 
at least, for a clash 
had completed his 



largest 



necessary arrangements death called him away. 
That was in B. C. 485. Xerxes, the son of the 
favorite wife already mentioned, took his place 
upon the throne. He had other matters of im- 
portance to attend to, and it was four years more 
before the Persians were ready to renew the offen- 
sive. The king proposed to accompany the expedi- 
tion in person. The point of crossing selected was 
the narrow strip of water, the Hellespont, where the 
two continents come nearly together. A bridge was 
built across it. That was a great work, attended 
with exceeding difficulties. The army of invasion 
was provided with a vast fleet, as well as all con- 
ceivable facilities for operation by land. With a 
show of fairness the monarch sent embassadors to 
the different states of Greece to demand submission. 
The expression of compliance with this demand was 



armies ever m 
and on the other 



hermopylse. 

array anywhere or at any time, 
a small battalion. Had the position of the de- 
fenders been approachable only on one side, as 
generally supposed, the resistance would have been 
effectual, but there was a weak point, a secret path. 
b\ which the enemy could flank them. A traitor 
(not a Spartan) betrayed that decisive secret to the 
Persians. When thc\ learned that, the Spartans 
knew that they could not hope to keep back the 
assailing horde. They would not surrender, neither 
would they fly. The post of danger which their 
country had assigned them was held with an unfal- 
tering heroism. Leonidas and his brave three hun- 
dred only. thought of selling their lives as dearly as 
they could. The slaughter which they produced 
was prodigious, for the number engaged in it. They 
fell like the old guard at Waterloo, with their 
faces to the foe, and their swords fairly glutted 
with blood. Xerxes gained possession of the pass, 



i" - 

~7U 



~j v 



?k^ 



HISTORIC WARS OF GREECE. 



99 



and so far as mere men was concerned, had suffered 
no crippling loss. But a grand moral effect was pro- 
duced. The Greeks were fired with a heroic patri- 
otism seldom displayed by any people. The Persians 
marched upon Athens, which they found very nearlj 
deserted, and after a short check, took possession of 
it, and wrought their barbaric will. Fortunately, 
that was before the statesmanship of Pericles, and 
bhe -cuius of Praxiteles and other artists and archi- 
tects, had made it the marvel of the world. The 
people had been removed with all their movables, 
and scattered to places of safety. Thermopylae was 
to Greece at that time much what the battle of 
Bunker Hill was to the Americans of the Revolu- 
tionary War. and the taking of Athens did Xerxes 
no more good than the taking of Washington did 
the British, in the second war between England and 
the United States. 

The decisive battle of the Persian war was still 
to be fought, and that by water. And now the far- 
sighted wisdom of Athens was displayed. Ever 
since the battle of Marathon, the return of the Per- 
sians had been anticipated, and the greatest Athe- 
nian of his time, Themistocles, had been unsparing 
and untiring in making preparation to meet the 
enemy upon the element which separated the two 
countries. The revenues of the state, derived mainly 
from mines, which had been divided among the 
citizens, he induced the people to appropriate to 
the construction of a navy. There were a few 
other Greek navies of small dimensions, but the 
Athenian only was really formidable. Themistocles 
had to use a great deal of diplomacy to get the Per- 
sians to venture everything upon a naval engage- 
ment, but he finally succeeded. The Grecian fleet 
was massed at Salamis, and Xerxes ordered it to be 
surrounded and cut to pieces. That order was pre- 
cisely what Themistocles wanted, for it afforded ap- 
portnnity for doing something decisive. The bat- 
tle was not a long one. The Persian fleet was a 
vast, unwieldy, and soon panic-stricken mob of 
boats, and the well-trained triremes of Athens cut 
them down like grass. It was Marathon upon the 
sea. The terrified monarch, as he beheld the en- 
gagement from a lofty throne on the Grecian shore, 
caught the mania, and fearing that he might be 
hemmed in and lost utterly, made haste to regain 
the Hellespont and recross it. Themistocles secret- 
ly spurred him on by reports sent to him by pre- 



tended traitors. The great Athenian judged thai 
if the Persians fled from the country in terror, t hey 
would never again seriously menace the liberties of 
Greece, and he was right. Some further feeble at- 
tempts were made in that direction, but nothing was 
done having in it any real menace and peril. Never 
again had Greece occasion to fear Eastern enemies, 
and when the two nations next appear before us the 
brave defenders are no less brave if less honorable 
assailants, and Persia is on the defensive. 

The fate of Themistocles was hardly less sad than 
that of Miltiades. He did not die in prison, but lie 
was banished and became a pensioner upon the 
bounty of the son and successor of Xerxes. Artax- 
erxes. Of the three heroes of the Persian war, 
only Leonidas was spared the pangs inflicted by an 
ungrateful people. He fell upon the field of glory. 
The father of the Athenian navy, the Nelson of 
antiquity, in his last days gave still further empha- 
sis to the ingratitude of republics. In all commu- 
nities which are really free, there is a wide range for 
the pendulum of popular favor, and the favor of 
one hour may turn to disfavor in the next. In this 
country this fact is constantly being illustrated. 
But there is this difference in Greek and American 
popular sentiment. Such loss in the former case was 
banishment or death ; in the latter it is merely ad- 
verse criticism, traduction perhaps, and relegation 
to private life. The spirit of party ran higher and 
went further then and there than now and here. 
Even Aristides, surnamed the 
Just, was banished simply 
because the people wearied 
of his monotonous goodness, 
and when the crisis at Sala- 
mis came, he was found with 
his countrymen, working to- 
gether with his old rival, 
Themistocles, for the com- 
mon cause. The glory of 
Greece, and especially of Ath- Aristides. 

ens, would have been more brilliant in all these ages 
if the surviving heroes of the great Persian Avars 
had not suffered the vengeance of party politics. 

The next great war of Greece was the Peloponne- 
sian war. It was entirely Grecian and yet had 
some connection with the Persian invasion. The 
latter developed vast military prowess, for even af- 
ter Salamis it was necessary to keep up a powerful 




~7[t? 



~e> ""V 



il^ 



IOO 



HISTORIC WARS OF GREECE. 



army of defense. It was several years before the 
danger of another invasion was over, and still 
longer before the 'fear of it subsided. To be pre- 
pared for the worst, the Athenians and Spartans 
agreed to live together in peace for at least thirty 
years. That truce was born of fear lest the " bar- 
barian " should again swoop down upon them. It 
was scrupulously observed. In the meanwhile, both 
states flourished and became far stronger than ever 
before. The expiration of the truce found Greece 
on a military footing, for the repulsion of a foe whose 
reappearance had by that time ceased to be appre- 
hended. With nothing 
particular to do (for 
Greecewas not ambitious 
for foreign conquest) the 
two great rival states 
were not long in coming 
to blows after the truce 
had lapsed. There has 
been a great deal of 
learned explanation of 
the causes of the war 
which now began (called 
the Peloponnesian), but 
the real explanation is 
found in the one word — 
jealousy. Athens wanted 
to be, and ieally ought 
to have been, the political 
capital of Greece then, 
as she is now. Sparta 
would consent to nothing 

of the kind, and each had its sympathizers. For 
twenty-seven years the conflict was maintained, and 
it, was as inglorious as the other was glorious. The 
genius of Thucydides as a historian, and especially 
:i- a writer of eloquent orations which were never 
delivered, has thrown around it a halo, and given 
it an undue prominence. It began in the year B. C. 
431, and the Athenians finally, in B. C. 405, submit- 
ted lo terms of peace which left the States of Greece 
sustaining to each other substantially the same "state 
rights " relation as they did originally, except that 
Sparta now claimed a certain supremacy, an advan- 
tage it lacked the statesmanship to retain and turn 
to much real benefit. 

We pass over this period without going into de- 
tails. They are not important enough to justify it. 



The glory of that era was indeed great, but it was 
not military. The civil genius of Pericles and the 
intellectual grandeur of others of whom we are yet 
to speak, have contributed incalculably to the splen- 
dor of classic antiquity. But Pericles died in the 
third year of the war, and Sparta really added no 
luster to the glories of Thermopylae, by preparing 
the way as she did for the subjugation of all Pelo- 
ponnesus, herself included, by the semi-Hellenic 
Alexander of Macedonia, upon whose wars we now 
enter. 

It was not until Greece had been sorely rent by 
inter-state wars and had 
degenerated, politically 
speaking, into a jargon of 
petty and rival national- 
ities, that Mace d o n i a 
came upon the stage. The 
real founder of the Mace- 
donian Empire was not 
Alexander, but his father, 
Philip. The son carried 
out the vast scheme of 
his royal sire. Both died 
young. Philip was only 
forty-seven years of age 
when cut down by assas- 
sination. He had reigned 
twenty-three years, and 
was on the eve of making 
war upon Persia. Begin- 
ning as the sovereign of a 
Alexander the Great. half barbaric kingdom be- 

yond the pale of Greek civilization, he took ad- 
vantage of the divided and hostile condition of 
the different states, also of the extreme bitterness 
of party feeling in the republic, to extend his 
influence. Gradually, by cunning diplomacy, 
downright bribery, and military genius, he ex- 
tended his kingdom until at length he had gained 
ascendancy over all Greece. Some states he treated 
with deferential respect, but all had to bow to his 
sway, or at most, dared not openly antagonize 
him. Then he made known his purpose. He an- 
nounced himself as the champion of the Greek cause 
against Persia. He called for men and means to 
carry on an aggressive war. Great enthusiasm pre- 
vailed. Had he lived he might have achieved uni- 
versal empire. But as he entered a theater, just 




^r 



HISTORIC WARS OF GREECE. 



IOI 



prior to his intended departure for Persia, one Pau- 
sanias, who had a private grievance, cut him down. 

Alexander was then only twenty years of age, but 
he had already distinguished himself in battle, and 
was at once chosen to succeed his father at the head 
of the Grecian expedition against Persia. There 
were some dissenters. His right to the crown of 
Macedonia was not disputed, but his headship of the 
confederate states of Greece was. He had some 
hard fighting on Grecian soil before he could set out 
for Asia. Thebes of Boeotia was the most stubborn 
of the free cities. He had to raze her to the very 
ground. "The boy of Pella." as he was derisively 
called, could not under- 
take foreign conquest 
until he had completely 
established home rule. 
He was not the con- 
queror of Greece, albeit 
the destroyer of one of 
her great cities. He 
made an example of 
Thebes to show what 
he might do, sparing 
Athens to show the 
paternity of his gov- 
ernment, if only firm 
and secure. 

Alexander came to 
the throne in B. C. 
336, and two years later 
set out for Asia, leaving Greece, as it proved, 
forever. He had an army of only 30,000 foot 
and 5,000 horse. With that small band he under- 
took the conquest of the world, for the empire 
which he was to assail ruled the whole civilized 
world, outside of Greece and its offshoots, and the 
Asiatic portion of the latter. It is true that many 
Greeks preferred Persian friendship to Macedonian 
supremacy, and while the great soldier was fighting 
for Greek civilization, as he professed and as the 
event proved, Antipater, who had been left in 
charge of Alexander's affairs at home, found it hard 
work to maintain his ground. But Alexander 
freely supplied him with " the sinews of war " from 
the rich booty of Persian plunder, and so well did 
the vicegerent use his means, that the scepter of 
Maeedon was more potent throughout Greece in 
the absence than in the presence of Alexander. 




To follow the swift course of the warrior who 
ranks with Caesar and Napoleon as one of the 
three greatest soldiers of all time, would be foreign 
to our purpose. Wherever he went victory fol- 
lowed. He met Darius and his army upon the open 
field, and it was Marathon and Salamis over again. 
The vast army was routed in a battle near Issus in 
B. C. 333, and a second and still larger army was 
defeated two years later near Arbela. During the 
intervening two years he had taken Tyre, received 
the homage of Egypt, and cast about " for more 
worlds to conquer." After the second battle he was 
undisputed master of all the Persian empire, but 

not ready by any means 
to stay his victorious 
course. lie pressed on 
to India, everywhere 
victorious. He would 
probably have pushed 
on to the utmost verge 
of the Orient, but final- 
ly he was obliged to 
turn back. The sol- 
diers who were invinci- 
ble in battle were stub- 
born in refusing to go 
any farther. He found 
the hardships f r o m 
thirst and hunger on 
the return inarch more 
terrible than " an army 
witli banners. " When he had returned to Susa. he 
married the daughter of Darius, and then began at 
Babylon the reconstruction of his empire, evidently 
intending to make that city his capital. But hardly 
had he begun this work, when he fell a victim to fe- 
ver. He was only thirty-three years of age, and un- 
like Philip, he had no son old enough to take up and 
complete his designs. His empire fell to pieces, and 
his grand idea of Ilellenizing the East (for he had 
evidently entertained such an idea, even if he had 
formed no definite plan) was never carried out. ex- 
cept in fragments. Alexandria., whose glory has 
been dwelt upon in a previous chapter, may be taken 
as a suggestion of the stupendous scheme which 
would have been undertaken had his life been 
spared. 

It is not too much to say that the premature 
death of Alexander was a greater calamity to Asia 






zr 



102 



HISTORIC WARS OF GREECE. 



than any other event in all history. Greek civiliza- 
tion would have been established from the xEgcan 
Sea to the Indian ocean, instead of being confined 
in its transplanting, to a small area. Not that 
that vast region would have been thoroughly per- 
meated by it, of course, but that the Macedonian 
arms had plowed furrows through Southern Asia in 
which the seeds of civilization would doubtless have 
been planted, and brought forth fruit of incalcula- 
ble importance. But if one were to consider only 
what Alexandria became in the world of thought, it 
must be conceded that Alexander at least doubled 
the power over mankind of the Greek intellect. 

The Roman conquest of Greecewas broughtabout 
largely by the dissensions of the Greeks themselves, 
especially by hostilities between the Achaeans and 
the vEtolians. Philip of Macedonia (the last of the 
line) entered into an alliance with Hannibal against 
the Romans, and shared the fate of Carthage in 
point of subjugation, although the treatment of 
Greece by the Romans was always generous and 
chivalrous. Philip declared war against the Ro- 
mans in B. C. 216, and in B. C. 140 occurred the 
battle of Leucopetra, which completed the dissolu- 
tion of the last of the Greek Leagues, the Achaean, 
and henceforth Greece was under the yoke of 
Rome. The Senate, and afterwards the emperors, 
treated the fatherland of their own civilization with 
exceptional kindness. It was not until the Byzan- 
tine Empire placed its cruel foot upon the Greek 
neck, that all free institutions and popular rights 
were disregarded. As Schmitz well expresses it, 
" Greece, though concjuered by the arms of the Ro- 
mans, subdued them in turn by its vast superiority 
in the arts and in literature. The Romans them- 
selves owned that they were the humble disciples of 



Greece ; and that country in which we first meet in 
its full development, with all that is noble and 
beautiful in man, is still the perennial spring at 
which we and all future generations may refresh 
our minds and drink intellectual inspiration. " 

Such are the really great and historic wars of 
Greece, but struggles of a later date deserve notice. 

Modern Greece achieved independence through 
the sword. After the Turks were defeated by the 
Christians at Vienna in 1683 Greece was ravaged 
by the Venetians under Francesco Morosini. In 
1687 Athens fell into the hands of the Christians. 
Terrible was the destruction incident to that siege. 
The Greeks were hardly a party to the conflict, it 
being a part of the war between the Venetians and 
the Turks, but none the less were Greek statuary 
and architecture the victims of the struggle. The 
Turks stored powder in the Parthenon, which ex- 
ploded with desolating effect. That triumph, so 
dearly won, was lightly esteemed, and soon Greece 
once more groaned under the Turkish yoke. 

The war of Independence began in 1821, and the 
last battle of that war was fought in Bceotia in Oc- 
tober, 1829. In the first battle of this series Prince 
Alexander YpseLantes was defeated, but in the last 
his brother Demetrius won a brilliant victory over 
the Turk. It will be seen from a later chapter 
that Grecian nationality, as it now exists, rests upon 
foreign intervention, but it is none the less true that 
the Greeks of this nineteenth century fought for 
independence with a valor and heroism worthy of 
Marathon and Thermopylae, and that Marco Botzar- 
is. if not Demetrius Ypsilantes, deserves to rank 
with the foremost warriors of that people who could 
boast a Miltiades, a Leonidas, a Themistocles and 
an Alexander. 







i^r 




~fgV'^'''<-^* 



:v/ 



STATECRAFT 




IN GREECE. 



--&>^<&-- 



CHAPTER XVI, 



State Rights in Greece— Ltcurgus and his Laws— The Spartan Monarchy— Republicanism 
and the Laws or Draco— Solon and Athens— The Constitution and its Leadino Fea 
tures — Solon and Ltcurgus Compared — Clenisthenes and Democract — Pericles, the 
Statesman and his General Influences— The Four Leagues and Games— Their Char- 
acter and Influences— The Power of the Leagues— The Delphic Oracle and Pythia 
the Priestess. 




REECE was indeed the vic- 
tim of what in this country 
might be called the Calhoun 
doctrine, but she was not 
withoutgreatstatesmen. The 
science of government was 
carried to a high degree of 
perfection, although upon a 
small scale. A "pent-up Utica" did, 
it is true, contract the powers of the 
lawgivers, but they achieved greatness, 
and deserve the prominence of a chap- 
ter devoted to their exclusive consider- 
ation. 

The first if not 
the greatest of 
the lawgivers was Lycurgus. 
In the Homeric poems we see 
statecraft hardly above tribal 
chieftainship. Lycurgus, who 
had probably been a student -^^ 
i tf law in Egypt, gave to Sparta 
a body of laws, or system of 
government, which ultimately 
raised it to the supremacy, not Lycurgus. 

only over the other Dorian states of Peloponne- 



& 





sus, but over the whole of Greece. It was not 
the aim of Lycurgus to make the people happy 
or virtuous, but the state strong. The date of his 
work is uncertain. Some place it as early as B. C. 
1100, others as late as B. C. 880. The latter is sup- 
ported by the better authorities. The age of Homer 
and Hesiod is from B. C. 900 to B. 0. 800. Obvious- 
ly, then, the name Lycurgus stands rather for a 
body of laws borrowed largely from the Delta, than 
for an individual. Not that it was entirely an exotic 
by any means, but that the indigenous root was fer- 
tilized by the loam of tne Nile. It was claimed for 
the laws of Lycurgus, as for those of Moses, that 
they were the direct gift of Deity, and both were 
written upon tables of stone. Like Moses, too, he is 
supposed to have gone off by himself to die, hoping 
thereby to strengthen the authority of his enact- 
ments. The territory tributary to Sparta, forming 
with it the State of Laconia, was, according to Plu- 
tarch, divided into 39,000 sections, of which 9,000 
were given to as many landed aristocrats of the city, 
and the rest to free subjects of the state ; but these 
details are not historically correct. It is only ascer- 
tainable that the land was divided among the people 
in such a way as to form three distinct castes, name- 
ly, the Dorians of Sparta ; their serfs, or Helots ; and 



VI <r- 



13 



(io 3 ) 



T 



104 



STATECRAFT IN GREECE. 



the subject people, or peasantry, of the provincial 
district,. All political power was monopolized by 
the aristocracy of the city. Deprivation was also 
exemption and privilege to some extent, for the peas- 
antry were also the merchants and manufacturers 
of the country, and were not considered to be in the 
perpel ual service of (he state, as the aristocracy were. 
The latter were wholly given to politics and war. 
The Eelots were treated with the utmost, severity. 
Thev were "fixtures" ami could not be sold off the 



priests and chief justices, but not sovereigns in any 
proper sense of the term. Courage was the one 
virtue held in unlimited esteem. It was the deifi- 
cation of the martial spirit. The story told of the 
Spartan youth who stole a fox, is doubtless fabu- 
lous, but eminently characteristic. Rather than 
disclose what he had done, he allowed the fox, which 
was hidden in his breast, to gnaw his vitals. To 
steal was all right, but to be caught at it or found 
out in it all wrong. The commerce of the country 




OLD ATHENS AS VIEWED FROM PIK.EUS. 



farm or the household. They were serfs, but not 
slaves. A people who were unsparing in rigor to- 
ward themselves, would, as a matter of course, be 
pitiless in their treatment of subordinates. The real 
reins of government were held by the senate, as in 
the republican days of Rome, but royalty was main- 
tained in theory. 

The peculiarity of the Spartan monarchy was, 
that two kings occupied the throne, a custom sup- 
posed t:> have arisen from the fact that Aristode- 
mus left twin sons. These two kings resembled 
the two consuls of Rome. The kings were chief 



was quite limited. Iron was the only currency, and 
it is said that this financial policy was adopted and 
maintained for the purpose of discouraging business 
enterprise. This restriction applied, however, only 
to the higher class and the city. The provincials 
were left free in their traffic. 

Evidently, the spirit of the heroic age was per- 
petuated at Sparta as nowhere else, although in 
the Homeric verse no special pre-eminence wasgiven 
to that state. Helen was indeed the queen of that 
kingdom, but her husband, Menelaus, was by no 
means the hero of the war. His brother, Agamem- 



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19 



sL 



STATECRAFT IN GREECE. 



I05 



non, was the chief , elected to that position by the 
suffrages of his peers. But in historic times the 
heroic; age survived mainly in Sparta, and that, on 
account of the martial character of her constitu- 
tion. In all the states of Greece except Sparta, roy- 
alty was abolished about the same time, and at a 
very early day, and in Sparta even, the semblance 
only remained. By far the most important of these 
states was Athens, or Attica ; the latter being the 
name of the territory. The people arc generally 
called Athenians, sometimes Ionians, but rarely At- 
ticans. Theseus is said to have given the Athenians 
their first political institutions. lie divided the 
people into three classes ; the aristocracy, the hus- 
bandmen, and the artisans, the two latter classes 
having no voice in the government. A new consti- 
tution was given to the state by Draco, B. 0. 024. 
1 1 i< was the first written law of Attica. It is pro- 
verbial for its severity and is said to have been writ- 
ten in blood. The evident design of this conserva- 
tive law-maker was to rejpress the rising power of 
the common people and conserve the "vested rights " 
of the favored few. His personal unpopularity, un- 
der the operation of his code, was such that he had 
to seek safety in flight. The popular discontent 
found expression in sedition and strife. Finally, 
after a turbulent and futile struggle for existence, 
the legislation of Draco succumbed and gave place 
to the laws of Solon, a legislator so wise that his 
name is a standing synonym 
for statesmanship. 

Enriched in intelligence 
and purse by foreign travel 
and commerce, Solon also 
had the advantage of military 
prestige. He called to his aid 
Epirnenides of Crete, a far- 
famed sage. He imposed re- 
straints upon the profuse 
expenses of the temple and 
funeral obsequies. That was 
Epirnenides' part of the reform, but these improve- 
ments did not go to the roots of things. The great 
trouble was the unjust distribution of land. The aris- 
tocracy held the more fertile plains, and derived the 
chief advantage from agriculture, without doing any 
of the work. The unrest was so great, and the dissat- 
isfaction with the code of Draco so general, that in 
B. C. 594, Solon was made Archon with ample 




Solon. 



authority to revise the laws. He was constituted a 
constitutional convention and legislature, all in one. 
lie did not abuse his opportunity. He was the first 
George Washington of history. His first work was 
to abolish imprisonment and slavery for debt. He 
also reduced the rate of interest, and virtually scaled 
down debts by debasing the coin.. Solon was a 
friend of the poor without being a demagogue. He 
abolished capital punishment, except for murder. 
He admitted foreigners to citizenship, lie was, 
perhaps, the father of naturalization laws, the first 
great protector of immigration. He conciliated the 
rich by requiring a property test in suffrage. The 
people were divided into four classes according to 
property qualifications, with a graduated scale of 
rights and privileges. He thus put a premium up- 
on enterprise in business. The property available 
for political elevation, however, was realty. The 
magistrates, to whatever class belonging, were re- 
sponsible to the whole people, and not merely to 
their own classes. There were two legislative bodies, 
one being the Council of Four Hundred, corre- 
sponding to our Senate, and the other, the Areop- 
agus, corresponding to a New England town-meet- 
ing, or Russian Mir. The latter certainly existed 
before his day, however it may have been with the 
former, but it was modified by him, and set in its 
place as one of the institutions of popular sover- 
eignty. The ordinary public assembly was held 
once a month, the number necessary to a quorum 
not being definitely fixed, but six thousand was re- 
garded as a small meeting. 

Solon devised a curious way to supervise and hold 
in check the radicalism or carelessness of the Are- 
opagus. Instead of a supreme bench composed of 
a few elderly lawyers, with the power of nullifica- 
tion by which they could set aside a law as uncon- 
stitutional, he provided a supreme court consisting 
of six thousand, with authority to set aside any pop- 
ular enactment inconsistent with the established or- 
dinances of the state. He did not attempt, how- 
ever, to prevent all alterations. He devised a 
plan for amending the constitution which was sub- 
stantially the same as the one which now prevails in 
this country. At the first popular assembly each 
year, one member of the body politic had a right to 
propose a change in the established laws. At the 
third ordinary meeting the subject was brought up 
again and a committee appointed by lot from the 



■*7TH 



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io6 



STATECRAFT IN GREECE. 



supreme court, or helisea of 6,000, to investigate the 
matter and decide upon its adoption or rejection. 
This variation from the prevailing system of this 
country, does not go to the heart of the matter 
Solon may be called the father of flexible constitu- 
tions. He contemplated no distinctions between 
judge and jury, nor a body of professional law- 
yers. Demosthenes, the greatest of all advocates 
and prosecutors, was a " layman." A body of arbi- 
trators (men over sixty years of age) was created to 
try private law-suits, and from the decision rendered 
no appeal could be taken. For public offenses, 
crimes, the law provided the council of Areopagus, 
and this criminal court was conducted with all the 
solemnities of oaths. A majority convicted, but if 
there was a tie vote, the herald cast " the vote of 
Athena" in favor of acquittal, on the principle that 
the accused is entitled to the benefit of the doubt. 

Lycurgus was far more specific in his code than 
Solon was. The greater of these two statesmen 
left much to the authority of the people. He must 
have been thoroughly democratic, a Jefferson rather 
than a Hamilton. His code began to take cogni- 
zance of the individual at sixteen, but up to that 
age the child was subject exclusively to parental 
authority. From sixteen to eighteen the Athenian 
youth was obliged to submit to the training of the 
gymnasium, a school for both brain and brawn. At 
eighteen he was regarded as having reached major- 
ity, ami was mi" infant "no longer. He could hold 
property and vote, although full citizenship was not 
attained before the twentieth year. Military service 
was required between the ages of eighteen and sixty. 
As regards women, Solon sought to curb licentious- 
ness and extravagance, rather than to elevate the 
sex and enlarge its sphere, in the modern sense of 
the term. His ideal woman was a domestic drudge, 
uure and simple. He was not, however, inclined to 
require the women to stay at home quite so closelj 
as they were obliged to do at a later period in the 
history of Athens. His code was designed to amel- 
iorate somewhat the hardships of a slave. He en- 
couraged the maintenance of a strong navy for the 
protection of commerce. Solon is supposed to have 
died B. G. ."'5'.'. 

Clisthenes introduced some important changes 
in the Athenian constitution half a century later, 
which increased the power of the people, but he 
displayed no genius fur statecraft at all compara- 



ble to that of the great names mentioned. Aristi- 
des and Themistocles were great political lawyers in 
their day, as were Ephialtes, who deprived the Are- 
opagus of a great deal of its power, and Thucydi- 
des, who was the leader of the aristocracy, and 
Aleibiades, a subsequent leader of the popular party. 
But none of these politicians deserve rank with Ly- 
curgus and Solon. The only other name in Greek 
annals worthy of association with them is that of 




ATMCIA 
Pericles and Aspasia. 

Pericles whose name and fame can not be disasso- 
ciated from As2>asia, the beautiful, accomplished 
and brilliant companion of his joys and labors. 
He was not so much a great law-maker as a 
great executive officer. His genius was equal to 
theirs, and was as truly a glory to statecraft. 
Pericles rose to eminence upon the ruin of Miltiades, 
of whom we heard in connection with Marathon. 
Of the hero of that most glorious victory of Grecian 
arms, it is enough to say here that he was inclined 
to absolutism in government, and fell a victim to 
the strength of the doctrine of popular sovereignty. 
Pericles was the acknowledged leader of the democ- 
racy, although of the most aristocratic descent. He 
sought to accomplish two objects : first, to make 
Greece one nation, with Athens as its political and 
commercial capital ; and second, to make the repub- 
lic a government by the people, rather than a gov- 
ernment by and for an oligarchy. He provided 
compensation for public service, such as serving on 
the jury and even for attending the worship of the 
gods. He also gave employment to the jnoor out 
of the treasury of the public. It was in his day 
that Athenian art reached its loftiest heights, and 
the Grecian glory shone brightest. He was the first 



71 



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STATECRAFT IN GREECE. 



I07 



and the last broadly national statesman of Greece. 
Lycurgus was a Spartan. Solon an Athenian, Alex- 
ander a barbarian. Pericles a Greek, in the fullest 
- msc of the term. 

Pericles succeeded in making his views so far un- 
derstood and appreciated at Athens, that he was the 
master spirit of Attica until the day of his death, 
but he could not carry out his general plan. Sparta 
adhered, with the tenacity of South Carolina, to the 
doctrine of state sovereignty and hostility to central- 
ization. War ensued, in the course of which Peri- 
cles died. In that great struggle, the Peloponnesian 
war, Athens stood for the doctrine of the union of 
Greece (not its preservation, but its establishment), 
and in the failure of the national party, a death- 
blc iw was given to the political supremacy of Greece 
in the intellectual world. Pericles sought by state- 
craft, rather than by force, to unify the Greeks. 
What he could not do, Alexander might have done, 
but showed no disposition to do. Had he lived to 
reconstruct Greece, he might have consolidated it 
into one nation, but it would have been on the 
Macedonian, rather than on the Athenian plan. 
His ambition was military and had foreign conquest 
as its chief aim, while the greater Pericles tried to 
develop Greece to the fullest possible extent. A 
higher statesmanship could not be conceived, at 
least no higher ideal has ever been realized. Al- 
though lie failed to carry out his plan in all its 
grandeur, he succeeded in developing at Athens a 
splendor which has never been equaled anywhere 
else in all that makes real culture. To this clay no 
city in literature or art can seek higher honor than 
to be called a Modern Athens. The statesmanship 
of Pericles rendered possible those matchless attain- 
ments in esthetic civilization. 

Looking at the matter from an American point of 
view, there could hardly be anything more incon- 
gruous, than to couple the political associations of 
independent states composed of kindred people, with 
the pastimes of that people. If in writing of the 
United States, one should devote a chapter to " Fed- 
eral Relations and Base Ball," the inference would 
be that the writer was either idiotic or insane. 
They represent the extremes in point of importance. 
With lis, the "National game" has nothing what- 
ever to do with nationality. But the Greeks were 
a very different people from ourselves. Their na- 
tional games were not played by a few hired men, 



gazed upon by spectators who, for the most part, 
would scorn to take part in the game, even though 
assured of the championship. On the contrary, the 
pastimes of the Greeks had a rank and significance, 
giving to them a really first-class position, even in 
universal history. They brought all sections togeth- 
er on a common and really national level. Taken 
collectively, they form the true Panhelleuia (Pan 
being the Greek for all), and to omit them would be 
to overlook a fundamental feature of the national 
life of the Greeks. 

There were four leagues or confederacies in Greece 
at different times: the Arcadian, the Amphictyonic, 
the Aclueau and the JEtolian. The games were also 
four : the Olympic, the Isthmian, the Nemean and 
the Pythian. There were other similar games, only on 
a smaller scale, in other parts of Greece, sustaining 
to the great games much the same relation that a 
county fair does to an inter-state or international 
exposition. 

To these festive occasions, any Greek was welcome, 
and was guaranteed immunity from assault, going 
and coming, however hostile any state through which 
he traveled might be to the state of which he was 
a citizen. None but pure Hellenists could com- 
pete in any of these games. Even Alexander the 
Great was denied the privilege, although in later 
years Tiberius and Nero, Roman Emperors, bore 
off Olympian prizes. The different names of the 
four great games were suggested by their location, 
the first being on the plain of Olympia, the 
second on the isthmus of Corinth, the third on 
the Nemean plain, and the fourth at Pythia. 

The games were all alike in main feature, only 
that the first was the chief. There were chariot 
races, foot races and other athletic sports, literary 
entertainments and music. They blended worship 
with physical and intellectual gymnastics. The 
prizes had no intrinsic value, being a wreath of 
laurels or other leaves, but they were esteemed more 
highly than gold, and proved incalculably stimula- 
tive to the culture of body and mind. The Greeks 
reckoned time by the < >lyinpic games, which occurred 
once in four years. The founding of these games 
dates back of history and is shrouded in mystery, 
but the historic period of their existence extends 
over a thousand years, namely, from about B. C. 
650 to A. D. o'di when the influence of the 
Christian church secured their abolition. They 



I Of 



STATECRAFT IN GREECE. 



had, however, declined seriously before that time. 
Of the leagues of Greece, the most important was 
the Amphictyonic, whose origin was mythical. There 
were several Amphictyons, or conventions, but the 
Amphictyon met at Delphi in the spring, at An- 
thela in the autumn, a town within the pass of 
Thermopylae, where stood a temple of Delmeter. Its 
objects were twofold, — to guard the temple of Apollo, 
at Delphi, and to restrain the mutual violence among 
the states belonging 
to the confederacy. 
The latter object was 
not attained to any- 
thing like a satisfac- 
tory extent. The tem- 
ple, however, was pre- 
served with religious 
sacred ness. Its oracle 
was held in the very 
highest esteem by the 
Greeks everywhere, 
and later, by the Ro- 
mans, but its immedi- 
ate custody was in- 
trusted to the citizens 
of Delphi. The chief 
city of Delphi., Cirrha, 
was utterly destroyed by the allied forces of 
Greece, in the sixth century before Christ, for 
the practice of extortion upon the visitors to 
the Delphic Oracle. For ten years that holy war 
was waged. The oracles were generally couched 
in the most obscure language, and were given out 
by a chief priestess called the Pythia. The temple 
was a vast treasure-house. It was sometimes de- 
spoiled, or in part depleted, but such levies were con- 
sidered as sacrilegious in the highest degree. It was 
not till Christianity displaced the classic superstitions, 
that this oracle ceased to exert a powerful influence. 
The mountain at the foot of which the Delphic 
oracles were uttered is in some respects the most 
famous in the world. It was sacred in the classic 
era to the muses. Thence the sacred Nine were 




View of Delphi and Mount Parnassus. 



fabled to take their flights, and Mount Parnassus 
yielded inspiration to the poet. To climb its 
rugged heights, drink of its springs, and breathe its 
rare and exhilarating air, filled the mind with poet- 
ical fancies. With Helicon, Citlueron and Parnassus, 
it nearly enclosed the Boeotian valley. Not as lofty 
as Pelion and Ossa, nor so august as Olympus, it is 
none the less true that surrounding it cluster asso- 
ciations which render it one of the most memorable 

peaks on the globe. 
One of the so-called 
Homeric hymns gives 
the legendary account 
of the founding of this 
temple : Apollo slew 
upon that spot a ter- 
rible dragon, then 
guided thither a Cre- 
tan ship, directing the 
crew of it to estab- 
lish themselves there- 
"The whole land," 
said they, "is bare and 
desolate, and whence 
shall we get food?" To 
this Apollo replied, 
"Foolish men, stretch 



forth your hands each day and slay each day the rich 
offerings, for they shall come to you without stint 
or sparing, seeing that the sons of men shall 
hasten hither to learn my will. Only guard ye well 
the temple I have reared, for if ye deal rightly, no 
man shall take away your glory ; but if ye speak 
lies or do iniquity, if ye hurt the people who come 
to my altar and make them go astray, then shall 
other men rise up in your place and ye shall be 
thrust out forever." This legend was the strongest 
possible safeguard against personal violence to 
visitors; but so cunningly deceptive were the re- 
sponses of that oracle that Delphic came to be 
a synonym for statements capable of various 
interpretations and utterly elusive of definite un- 
derstanding. 



*7" 




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:iL 




^--§&£=t~-^ 




' HE term " classic " was used 
originally to designate the 
surviving Greek and Roman 
literature. It is oftenusedto 
designate the more perma- 
nent and valuable portion of 
our own or any other litera- 
ture. In attempting to give 
an idea of the subject in hand for 
this chapter, it will be necessary to 
adopt the method admitting of the 
greatest brevity. There are no 
less than one hundred and twenty- 
seven names in the list of Greek 
J !&?\ classics. Some of these authors are 
known to us only in brief fragments, 
quotations found in later writings. 
A few are merely alluded to, and the 
name itself may designate a class rather than an in- 
dividual. There are six which belong to the age of 
fable, and may be as mythical as the Muses, namely, 
Orpheus, Eumolpus, Thamyris, Olen, Ghrysothemis, 
and Philainmon. The fragments which remain and 
are attributed to them may be, and probably are, the 
waifs from a traditional folk-lore. 
The first historic name is that of Homer. For a 



long time his personality was in dispute, and even 
now seven cities claim his birth. He was a native 
of the isle of Scio or Asia Minor, but none the less 
a Greek. He was the father of Epic poetry, and 
paradoxical as it may seem, it is none the less true, 
that an Asiatic wrote the oldest European work 
(prose or poetry) extant. He may well be called the 
father of European literature. For a long time, 
probably for centuries, his Iliad and Odyssey were 
preserved by being memorized and repeated on fes- 
tive occasions. The people held those marvelous 
stories of gods and men mingling in the affairs of 
earth, in much the same reverence that a devout 
worshiper of Jehovah and Jesus does the Old and 
the New Testaments, and we find Plato opposed to 
the reading of Homer in the public schools of his 
ideal republic on that very account. The nature of 
these stories has been stated under the head of the 
" Heroic Age. " St. Augustine well said of Homer, 
" he stands alone and aloft on Parnassus, where it is 
not possible now that any human genius should stand 
with him, the father and prince of all heroic poets, the 
boast and the glory of his own Greece, and the love 
and admiration of mankind. " Some fifty hymns, 
once attributed to him, have been pronounced by 
later scholarship apocryphal. His name will remain 



-?3 



(109) 



*p 



I IO 



GREEK CLASSIC LITERATURE. 



embodied in the hearts of men. to the end of time. 
Another great name in Greek literature is Hesiod. 
Born hiBoeotia, he was an Asiatic Greek by descent. 
He lived about 900 years before Christ. Tie sang 
in dull, prosaic verse, of the evils of his times, and 
the grotesque theogony of Greece was set to music 
in a clumsy fashion. His works are not much read, 
nor do they deserve to be. His " Works and Days" 
is a tedious bucolic. He is classed as the earliest, 
but by no means as the first, of didactic poets. In 
this list of elaborate poets, epic and didactic, figure 
Arctinus of Miletus, Lesches of Lesbos, Agias of 
Tra?zen, Eumelus of Corinth, and Strasinus of Cy- 
prus, whose produi - 



is greatly to be deplored. Her only peer in an- 
cient lyrics was Pindar of 
Cynocephalae, a village near 
Thebes. He was born in B. C. 
51 7. Undoubtedly he was the 
greatest poet in his time of 
antiquity, and it is a matter 
of rejoicing that some of his 
verse is still extant, although 
the greater and probably the 
better part perished utterly. 
We have now forty-five of Pindar, 

his odes. He had sublimity, elegance, energy and pa- 
thos in a high dearee. 




tions have been lost 
Under the head of 
elegiac and iambic 
poets, are mentioned 
eight names, vary- 
ing in date from B. 
C. ;.'0 to B.C. 594, 
nothing remaining 
from any of them, 
of any consequence, 
except ^Esop, who is 
supposed by Plu- 
tarch to have been 
horn in 15. C. 620, 
but who is now gen- 
erally regarded as a 
myth. The fables 
which bear his name 
are believed to have 
been imported from 
India and Egypt, 
for the most part, some few being indigenous to 
the soil. They arc certainly the very essence of 
common sense, generally read in these days in Latin 
or English prose. 

The next order or school of I « reek poetry was the 
lyric. Several names, unworthy of more than mere 
reference, survive in fragments. Two names stand 
out conspicuous, Sappho and Pindar. Only frag- 
ments remain of the former, and a small pari of 
the works of the latter. Sappho was a woman of 
Lesbos, born in B. (J. G10. She had a wonderfully 
gifted mind, and was the first to raise her sex to liter- 
ary eminence. The Lesbian women were much given 
to study and culture. The loss of her writings 




Greeks of the 



We come now to 
the drama. For- 
tunately much more 
of the Greek drama 
remains than of the 
minor poems. Three 
great names stand 
out second only to 
Homer, and among 
the dramatists of the 
world second only to 
Shakspeare. They 
are vEsehylus. Soph- 
ocles and Euripides. 
The others simply 
swell the catalogue 
of Greek authors, 
without contribut- 
ing to the value of 
extant classic litera- 
ture. The drama 
may be called a Greek invention, and it was 
not until Shakspeare's appearance upon the stage, 
that anything at all approaching the original 
models in merit was produced, and the continental 
critics were slow in admitting the "' Bard of Avon," 
because he disregarded the Greek pattern. The 
Semitic families had no drama, proj^erly speaking. 
The Greek drama is distinctively Attic. HCschylus 
and Euripides, Sophocles and Aristophanes, were 
all horn in Attica. The times of Pericles witnessed 
the highest dramatic attainment. 

^Eschylus, a soldier of Marathon and Salamis, 
wrote seventy tragedies, of which seven remain. He 
was the " Father of Tragedy." For his impiety he 



J 



-Ss!s= 



(0 



GREEK CLASSIC LITERATURE. 



I I I 



was banished. Genius is rarely popular when it 
deals with theology, and the Greek drama was es- 
sentially religious. His greatest work extant is 
••' Prometheus Bound." It represents the Supreme 
Being as infinitely indignant at Prometheus for being 
compassionate. Seeing man in his emergence from 
the brute, capable of making some use of fire, yet 
destitute of it, he introduced that primitive element 
of civilization. Zeus had him bound to a rock, and 
every day a vulture gnawed at his vitals, and at 
night they were restored only to keep up the eternal 
procession of agony. There is an awful sublimity in 
this tragedy. It has been compared to the Hebraic 
account of the way man was first set upon the path 
of knowledge by the influence of Satan, who thence- 
forth was cursed with the enmity of the very race 
he had initiated into knowledge. Others have com- 
pared Prometheus in his sublime philanthropy (for 
he knew what fate awaited him) to Jesus on the 
cross. Two of the three original Promethean 
trilogy have been lost. The story of Agamemnon's 
sacrifice of his daughter Iphigenia, the revenge of 
Clytemnestra therefor, and the awful revenge of 
Orestes, the son of Agamemnon, upon his mother, 
for the murder of the great king when he returned 
from Troy, are all set forth by jEschylus. The doc- 
trine of fate, terrible, relentless, and hopeless, is set 
forth with lurid vividness. Sophocles, who was ten 
years the junior of ^Eschylus, was less bold and vig- 
orous, but more beautiful and exquisite. He also 
was a soldier, but his military record was not bril- 
liant. He wrote one hundred and thirteen tragedies. 
Seven only have survived to us. His "' (Edipus Ty- 
rannus " is the most famous of his tragedies, but 
there is a depth of pathos in "Antigone,'' "(Edipus 
at Oolonos," and " Electra," which could hardly be 
surpassed. Euripides, born only five years later, 
was an aristocrat, as his dramas plainly indicate. 
He wrote at least seventy-five tragedies, some say 
ninety-two, eighteen of which are now extant. They 
are mostly devoted to the exploits of the heroic age. 
Tims we have from three dramatists born in Athens 
or its suburbs, within the same generation, at least 
two hundred and fifty-eight tragedies, of which there 
are now extant thirty-two. 

Comedy among the Greeks took the place some- 
what of the press. It was personal and related to 
current men and measures. They pleased the many 
by their flings and stings, directed against the con- 



spicuous few. The Athenians had no newspapers to 
lampoon public men, but they had a vast out-door 
theater which held thirty thousand people. The 
price of admission was seven cents. The theatrical 
season was during the months of December, Janu- 
ary. February and March. The solemn awfulness 
of the tragedies was relieved by the commedians, 
who were the hornets of society, to use an illustra- 
tion suggested by one of the best surviving comedies. 
The list of comedy contains the names of ten dram- 
atists, but no play of any in thejist lias survived, 
except eleven of the fifty-four plays of Aristophanes, 
who was born in Athens B. C. 4-14. About a cen- 
tury before his time, flourished three noted writers 
of comedy : Epicharmus, Phormio and Dinolochus. 
A little later came Chionides and Cratinus. Aris- 
tophanes had two brilliant cotemporaries, Eupolis 
and Crates. In these extant comedies we have 
sharp criticisms of Pericles, broad caricatures of 
Socrates, the first ridicule of woman's rights, and 
revolting pictures of social corruption. 

We turn now to prose. The earliest trace of this 
style of composition is Periauder of Corinth (B. C. 
637). He ruled that city for more than forty years. 
His edicts were, some of them, reduced to writing. 
They were long since lost. The names, and in some 
cases, a few fragments, are preserved of twenty writ- 
ers of Greek prose, during the period from the days 
of Periander to the birth of the drama. Two of 
these, Thales and Pythagoras, deserve mention. 
They wrought grandly in the domain of philosophy. 
The former studied faithfully in Egypt, and may be 
said to have established the connection between 
Coptic knowledge and Hellenic wisdom. There were 
a few historians in that early period, but Herodotus 
was the first to write any- 
thing really worthy that 
designation. He was born 
at Haliearnassus in 484. 
He was a narrator of what 
he saw and heard, credu- 
lous and unsophisticated. 
He traveled almost every- 
where, and in his works, 
happily extant, he dwells 
upon the countries he vis- 
ited, rather than upon per- 
sonal experiences. He was a model pen photog- 
rapher. It is generally supposed that the world lost 




Herodotus. 



H 



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£> 



I 12 



GREEK CLASSIC LITERATURE. 




Thucydides. 



nothing in the extinction of the so-called historical 
works of those who went before him. Indeed, Greek 
prose seems to have been exceedingly fortunate in 
the " survival of the fittest." Next to Herodotus, 
and greater than he in intellectual power and liter- 
ary skill, stands Thucyd- 
ides, the inventor of phil- 
osophical history. He was 
an Athenian of the aristo- 
cratic class. His history 
of the Pelopounesian war 
is a masterpiece, and that 
more from the elaborate 
political speeches embod- 
ied in it than for the his- 
tory itself. It is safe to 
say, that until within a 
hundred years, no superior 
historian was ever produc- 
ed. He preserved the martial exploits and political 
controversies of those times, forgetful of the people 
in the every -day affairs of life. 

A long list of other military historians might be 
given, the wars of Alexander the Great having been 
a favorite theme, but those works perished long ago, 
except only the writings of Xenophon, an Athenian, 

who was born in B. C. 
401 He was a volumin- 
ous writer, a friend and 
disciple of Socrates, his 
productions being of two 
distinct classes, historical 
and philosophical. His 
Anabasis relates to the 
expedition of the Greeks 
of Asia Minor who ac- 
companied Cyrus the 
xenophon. Younger,.in his ill-starred 

expedition to Babylon, and especially of their 
retreat, which his elegant Greek has rendered 
immortal. No classic prose is more widely read 
as a text-book than the Anabasis. Xenophon's 
philosophical works have at their head " The 
Memorabilia of Socrates," a series of dialogues 
between the supreme philosopher and his pupils. It 
is not too much to say that " The Memorabilia," 
"The Economics," "The Banquet of the Philos- 
ophers," and "The Apology of Socrates," all from 
the pen of Xenophon, are to his great teacher much 




what the four Gospels are to Jesus Christ. If Plato 
was his St. Paul, Xenophon was all his evangelists 
in one. Neither Jesus nor Socrates, those great 
founders of distinct schools of thought, ever wrote 
a word, but were particularly fortunate in their 
literary friends. Plato will always stand at the very 
front of philosophical writers. His works were 
voluminous and in the form of dialogues. They 
display the subtlety and power of analysis, for which 
the Greeks were pre-eminent. They are exceedingly 
profound and hard to understand. His ideal re- 
public, " The Atlantis," is the model of all the ideal 
states in literature, and of hundreds of communi- 
ties started by dreamers of Utopia. It is commun- 
istic in its fundamental principle. It makes the 
state everything, the individual nothing. Even the 
family was to be wiped out, and in its place was to 
be sterpiculture, on the same scientific basis as " pedi- 
greed" cattle and horses are raised. It was not until 
two thousand years later that any serious attempt 
was made to carry out the Platonic theory. It was 
with him and his admirers a mere theory, a curious 
speculation. He was born at Athens in B. C. 429, 
making him forty years younger than Socrates, and 
about that much older than Aristotle, who, with 
him and Socrates, rank as the three great philos- 
ophers of the classic age. It was not until Bacon's 
genius dawned upon the world that they had a peer 
in any land or time. A Macedonian by birth, an 
Athenian by education, Aristotle has left us most 
erudite and philosophical disquisitions on logic, 
metaphysics, physics, ethics, rhetoric and poetry as 
an art. 

It remains to speak of only one more branch of 
literature. There are some noted names in philos- 
ophy, which do not belong in a literary resume. 
This remaining branch of prose classics is oratory. 
Eloquence is one of the great features of Greek 
literature. The heroes of Homer, and the politi- 
cians and generals of Thucydides, were all ora- 
tors. Republican institutions favor the develop- 
ment of the art of persuasion. The list of Greek 
orators whose fame has come down to us contains 
eleven names, all except one being Athenians. 
That solitary exception was Dinarchus, a Corinthi- 
an. He was educated, however, at Athens, and re- 
sided there, and is generally numbered among " the 
Attic Canon. " Judging from the few addresses 
preserved, he was hardly deserving the title of ora- 



t?7 



GREEK CLASSIC LITERATURE. 



IJ 3 



tor. Antiphon (B. C. 479) must have been a great 
criminal lawyer, for although there was no distinct 
profession of law, the orators were, to all intents 
.mil purposes, lawyers, as well as politicians. About 
ten years later came Andocides, whose three excel- 
lent orations are admirable in their simplicity. 
A decade later still came Lysias. lie was a very 
prolific writer of public addresses. Mention of him 
is frequently made in ancient writings, and his sur- 
viving orations show him to have been a man of 
marvelous power. Isocrates, twenty years later, 
was a teacher of oratory, rather than an orator. 
He was too timid to exercise his art freely. In this 
connection may be mentioned the fact, that about 
the middle of the fifth century before Christ, the 
first treatises on rhetoric and oratory known to 
have been written in the Greek language, were pro- 
duced in Sicily by Corax, Tisias and Gorgias, the 
latter having transported the art to Athens, and 
founded the first school of eloquence and composi- 
tion in Attica and Greece proper. Besides Isocrates 
there was Issus, who did much as a professor of elo- 
cution. yEschines, of whose orations we have only 
three, was acotemporary and rival of Demosthenes. 
Cicero and Quintilian pronounced him almost equal 
to Demosthenes. Hyperides (B. C. 396) was also 
compared with Demosthenes. We have no speci- 
mens of his eloquence. 

The one supreme name in Greek oratory not 
only, but in the entire art of eloquence, is the one 
last mentioned. Demosthenes was born in the Attic 
town of Paeonia, B. C. 385. He had some seri- 
ous natural defects of speech to overcome. His 
first attempt at oratory was a failure. But he 
was not discouraged. His physical infirmity, stam- 
mering, was overcome, or turned to positive advan- 
tage. His powers of persuasion were almost irri- 




Di'mostheneb. 



sistible, even with a people as intelligent as the 
Athenians. He was a master of invective. His 
orations against Philip, 
the father of Alexander 
the Great, have been for 
more than two thousand 
years, a synonym for in- 
vective discourse. " Phi- 
lippics" is the familiar 
name for that class of 
orations. His series of 
speeches called " Con- 
cerning the Crown," are 
admirably judicious and 
lofty in tone. We have sixty of his addresses, and 
they have been of incalculable importance as mod- 
els of oratory, studied and practised in all civilized 
lauds almost ever since they were pronounced. A 
coward in battle, he was a true hero in debate, and 
a wise counselor. The claims and merits of Demos- 
thenes, as they have come to be estimated by the 
settled judgment of mankind, may be stated thus: 
1. Purity in ethical character; 2. Intellectual 
mastery of the subject in hand ; 3. The magic 
force of felicitous language, thanks partly to his 
own genius, and partly* to the matchless beauty of 
the Greek tongue ; 4. Freedom from all bombast, 
concise, fluent, sweet and impressive. 

Having taken a hasty glance at Greek literature, 
we may sum up by giving the list of extant authors, 
upon whom rests the fame of that literature, and 
who will continue to be read and admired in all 
ages : Homer, Pindar, Jischylus, Sophocles, Eurip- 
ides and Aristophanes ; Herodotus, Thucydides, 
Xenophon, Plato, Aristotle, and Demosthenes. 
They are the immortal twelve of Greek classic liter- 
ature. 




~^k 



u£ 





CHAPTER XVIII. 

The Grebks and Abstruse Thought — Thales and Pythagoras— Socrates and His Philosophy 
—Plato and Aristotle— Their Place in Philosophy— Epicureans and Stoics— The Cynics— 
Pyrbho and Skepticism— Neoplatonism— The Uses of Greek Philosophy— Painting and 
Sculpture— The Laocoon and Olympian Zeus— Praxiteles and Phidias— The Parthenon 
and the Acropolis — The Three Orders op Grecian Architecture— Indebtedness op Rome 
and the Rest of the World to Grecian Architecture— The Elgin Marbles. 




«MH 



1 $$ 1 1# 





^§3xfcf~^ 



T is safe to say that the 
philosophy of the Greeks 
embraces all ancient philos- 
ophy, if not the germs of all 
modern secular speculation. 
The Egyptians and the pro- 
found thinkers of India 
were theologians. Their problems were 
more religious than metaphysical. The 
latest intellectual development in Egypt 
was a growth from Hellenistic seed. In 
treating of Alexandria, some reference 
was made to philosophy and philosophers, 
but in taking a view of philosophy in 
its entirety, it must be conceded upon 
the threshold that the glory and the fea- 
tures of abstract thought belong to that 
marvelous people,the Greeks. It was not 
until Bacon revolutionized philosophy, that any really 
independent and important step was taken outside 
the Greek limitations. Medieval scholastics, Abelard 
the orthodox and Bruno the heretic, were none 
of them philosophers. The more than royal line 
which began with Thales of Miletus, and closed with 
Proclus of Alexandria, held sway in speculative 
thought, unrivaled and almost undisturbed, fading 
out at last through sheer exhaustion. The period 



of this dynasty was about a thousand years, for 
Thales was born in B. C. 636, and Proclus in A. D. 
412. To present within the compass of one chapter 
the history of such a period and phase of intellectual 
activity, is the task now in hand. 

Thales founded a school, or class of philosophers, 
who were determined to solve the mystery of origin. 
He saw in water the all-pervasive element, the sub- 
stratum of things. Some of his disciples substituted 
fire for water ; others air. The greatest of these 
early searchers after the First Cause was Pythagoras. 
He it was, probably, who enriched Greek thought with 
Egyptian science, especially mathematics. It was 
hoped by using " the wisdom of the Egyptians" as 
a ladder, to climb into heaven and discover the 
supreme mystery of earth. Pythagoras taught the 
transmigration of the soul, the eternal procession of 
existence, in ever-varying forms. With all the help, 
however, of Egypt, the Greeks made very little prog- 
ress before the days of Socrates. The enthusiastic, 
persistent, and profound study of abstractions, was a 
wonderful discipline. For that long period the 
Greek mind was being trained in a gymnasium of 
thought. Aside from the mental discipline derived, 
no benefits resulted. The direct fruit of all that 
long labor was sophistry, the use of reason and logic 
as an exhibition of intellectual skill. Had the entire 



(»4) 



<a ^ 



^u 



GREEK PHILOSOPHY AND ART. 



"5 




fruitage stopped there, the Greek philosophy would 
have been an unmitigated failure. But it did not. 
The training of the mind for so long a time 
culminated in producing 
Socrates, who was born 
in Athens B. C. 470. He 
found philosophy a jum- 
ble of negations and 
pretentious assumptions. 
The learned looked down 
with lofty contempt upon 
the common people, who 
saw in occurrences the in- 
terposition of a personal 
deity. As regards the socrate*. 

popular theories of cause and effect, the philosophers 
were infidels. Socrates agreed with them in their 
denials, but was not content to rest in mere nega- 
tion. In the " Clouds," Aristophanes ridicules the 
substitution of " ethereal rotation" for deity, much 
as an orthodox clergyman of to-day denounces the 
substitution of evolution for creation ; but that sub- 
stitution was not the distinctive peculiarity of Soc- 
rates, by any means. He taught, rather, that the 
study of Nature was a waste of time. " Man, know 
thyself," was his motto. He was the father of de- 
ductive philosophy, and with him also began an era 
of accuracy in thought and expression. He was fond 
of leading his pupils to see their ignorance and ap- 
preciate definiteness of ideas. His method was by 
questioning them. The term"Socratic"is suggestive 
of interrogation points. But appreciation of igno- 
rance and a start in the direction of knowledge, had 
for their final object, moral instruction. He was a 
philosophical moralist. So important was this latter 
work that it has been said that " individual con- 
science and personal decision date from the epoch 
of Socrates, and their growth from that time is the 
progress of the world-history." He was a man of 
very marked eccentricities. Plain, ill-shapen and 
outspoken, he was utterly indifferent about dress. 
His wife, Xantippe, had no patience with his 
dreamy indifference to practical matters, and has 
come down to the world pilloried as the great scold. 
No doubt she had cause for her impatience. He 
was too indolent to even write out his views, leaving 
that to Plato and Xenophon, who either contented 
themselves with developing the Socratic ideas, or 
were so very modest that they attributed to their 



teacher ideas which were really their own. In his 
old age, the great teacher was accused pf not wor- 
shiping the popular gods, but instituting a religion 
of his own, and consequently of corrupting the 
youth. He was found guilty and condemned to 
suffer death by poison. A cup of hemlock was pre- 
sented to him. He drank the deadly poison with 
composure, and died in the serenity of an upright 
life. He was seventy-one years of age. His life- 
work had been completed, and the loving and gifted 
disciples who revered his memory embalmed his 
thoughts, and made them the rich inheritance of 
mankind. 

Plato and Socrates are so interlinked, that the 
Socratic and Platonic philosophies are substantially 
one and indivisible, except upon points too minute 
for observation at long range. Of Plato's works, as 
literary productions, this is not the place to speak, 
and the same remark holds good of Aristotle. Both 
are conspicuous in Greek classic literature. Both 
escaped the melancholy fate of Socrates, but neither 
shrank from his conception of truth, while both 
were even more revolutionary than the great mar- 
tyr of pure reason. Plato could 
boast his descent from Solon, and 
his love was so immaculate, his 
philosophy so ethereal and majes- 
tic, that his countrymen came to 
revere him as the son of a virgin 

o 

and a god. The doctrine of the 
immaculate conception has been 
applied to the most illustrious 
men of many lands. He was 
born at Athens in B. C. 430. He 
was said to be the son of Apollo. 
Ariston, betrothed to his mother, 
Perictione, was warned in a dream, to delay the 
nuptials until the birth of the divinely begotten 
child. His life was long and sad, being " sicklied 
o'er with the pale cast of thought. " Aristotle, a 
Thracian by birth, was born B. C. 384. He was 
something of a scientist. He combined ethics and 
metaphysics with physics. The three supreme 
names in philosophy represent a gradual increase in 
the domain of thought. Socrates created moral 
philosophy. Plato inquired into all truth. Aris- 
totle was hardly less anxious in the search for facts, 
as well as for virtue and truth. He saw in knowl- 
edge the basis of wisdom, and had some apprecia- 




Plato. 



_ o 



_« s> 



Uh 



116 



GREEK PHILOSOPHY AND ART. 



tioii of the relations of the tangible to the intan- 
gible. He was the tutor of Alexander the Great, 
and the especial object of study by the scholastics 
of the medieval age. 

The most practical phases of Greek philosophy 
are suggested by the terms Epicurean and Stoic. 
These contrasting views or theories of wise living 
were and are practical. The exact statement of 
Platonic and Aristotelian philosophies, would lead 
one to an illimitable plain, abounding in incompre- 
hensible subtleties. But the distinctive ideas of the 
Epicure and the Stoic are easily stated and under- 
stood. The former has been somewhat misrepresent- 
ed, still, the popular notion of epicureanism is sub- 
stantially correct. To make the most and the best of 
this life by the enjoyment of its good things, is the 
highest wisdom, according to the epicurean school, 
while stoicism teaches that the best way to avoid 
misery is to be indifferent to the happenings of life. 
One sees the wisdom of making the most and the 
best of the positively good, while the other sees the 
wisdom of being so fortified against the inevitable 
evil as to endure it with calmness. Both are right 
in what they teach directly, while both are wrong 
in the denials into which they naturally drifted. 

The founder of epicureanism, Epicurus, was born 
B. 0. 342, died B. C. 272. He was a noted teacher 
in Athens. His voluminous writings have per- 
ished, but his doctrines are known. He believed 
in moderation and sobriety, but happiness was 
his highest ideal. Philosophy he regarded as the 
art of life, not the art of truth in the abstract, 
herein differing from botli Flato and Aristotle. 
The founder of the sect of Stoics, Zeno, was a na- 
tive of Cyprus. The date of his birth is not kuown. 
He became a lecturer on philosophy at Athens, late 
in life, the spot where his pupils gathered being 
the stoa or porch, whence the name. He fixed his 
thoughts on virtue as the supreme good. " Be vir- 
tuous and you will be happy"" is stoicism ; " Be 
happy and you will be virtuous," epicureanism. In 
their determination to avoid effeminacy the stoics 
affected stolidity. The Romans had no taste for 
the metaphysics of the philosophers, but the prac- 
tical issue raised by these conflicting theories, ap- 
pealed to the Roman mind, and the great thinkers of 
Rome were either Epicureans or Stoics, mostly the 
latter. From the days of Brutus to those of Mar- 
cus Aurelius, the austerity of stoicism met with es- 



pecial favor in Rome. Its ideal man was the typi- 
cal Roman. In other words, if one were to picture 
to one's self the realization of Zeno's philosophy, he 
would be " the noblest Roman of them all. " 

Another famous sect of philosophers at Athens 
was the Cynics. The term has come to mean any- 
body who has become soured and disgusted, critical 
and weary of life and all its belongings. The rep- 
resentative Cynic was a Stoic who made an ostenta- 
tious show of contempt for the world. Virtue was 
a sort of warfare carried on. by the mind against 
the body. Serene contempt was intensified into 
virulent hatred. Diogenes with his tub, and grim 
sneer at everybody and everything, was the typical 
Cynic. To make a virtue of insolent criticism and 
censure, was cynicism two thousand years ago, as 
now. It was Diogenes who, being seen with a lighted 
candle at noonday, was asked what he was looking 
for and answered, " I seek an honest man." But 
the Cynics did some good. They attacked all with 
indiscriminate rancor, and some of the absurdities 
of the philosophers received beneficent excoriation, 
especially the theories of the skeptics, who placed 
abstract logic above the demonstrations of facts. 

Mention has now been made of the more illus- 
trious philosophers of the classic age, and their 
distinctive ideas presented. Century after cen- 
tury, the incomparable intellect of the Greek 
nation sought the solution of life's deeper prob- 
lems, without the aid of either religion or science. 
There was a little faith and a very little science, 
but not enough of either to be perceptible in 
influence. At last the effort was given up. 
Various changes of base were made, but all to 
no purpose. From Thales down, all failed to arrive 
at conclusions which were really satisfactory. Even 
Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, failed in giving per- 
manent satisfaction. At last the Greeks became 
utterly tired of the whole domain of philosophy, 
and in place of this or that belief, came to almost 
total disbelief. Skepticism prevailed over all. 
" There is no absolute criterion of truth," said 
Pyrrho, the father of the skeptics. Socrates ad- 
mitted his ignorance, but was confident that the 
search for knowledge would be richly rewarded ; 
Pyrrho, who, as a soldier of Alexander the Great, 
had been in India and Egypt, and knew something 
of all philosophies, pronounced the riddles of 
philosophy insoluble. There was much reluctance 



*7[? 



3 \ 



GREEK PHILOSOPHY AND ART. 



II' 



to accept his views, but finally, in what was 
called the New Academy at Athens, of Arcesilaus 
and Carneades, agnosticism prevailed. Arcesilaus 
was a disciple of Aristotle, as was Carneades a 
century later, having been born in B. C. 313. With 
him the race of philosophers seemed to become 
extinct. And so far as Greece was concerned, it 
died forever. 

Greek culture, however, saw a rival of the spirit 
of philosophy in Alexandria. In that intellectual 
capital of the world, an attempt was finally made to 
solve the problems of philosophy by the aid of 
religion. Philo is the most prominent name in this 
connection. Neoplatonism it was called. Accept- 
ing the doctrine that reason is impotent to meet the 
demand, Philo and 
his school offered 
the aid of faith, 
especially the in- 
tense piety of t':e 
Hebrew nation. He 
was a Jew of Greek 
education. He be- 
lieved he saw in 
the "thus saith the 
Lord" of his people 
the missing link in 
Philosophy. lie was 
born a few years be- 
fore Christ. It was 
not long before 
Neoplatonism and Christianity were jostled against 
each other, both eager to turn to advantage 
the confession of philosophy that it could not solve 
the mystery of truth. Plotinus is the great name 
in this conflict. In the Gospel of John with its 
deification of the " Word," may be seen the influence 
of Neoplatonism upon the church, especially in 
the doctrine of the Trinity. The last of the Neo- 
platonists, Proelus, was born A. D. 413. He showed 
the power of Christianity more than Protinus did. 
He tried to save philosophy by liberal concessions ; 
but to no purpose. It was doomed, and with his 
deatli was buried, ceasing to be a real power in the 
world, until Bacon gave it a scientific tendency. 

It was, then, the province of the Greeks to show 
that philosophy cannot produce satisfactory results 
upon any other than a scientific basis. It tried 
every conceivable theory, and whatever the dis- 




tinctive idea, and alike witli and without religion, 
it fell short of producing intellectual content, and 
its grand glory is the claim it may justly lay to the 
high honor of having stimulated inquiry. 

The Greeks were no less prominent in art than 
in philosophy. They excelled equally in painting, 
sculpture and architecture. From the nature of the 
case the works of the painters have perished. Apelles, 
whose portraits were the admiration of his country- 
men, was a cotemporary of Alexander, whose por- 
trait he painted. Nothing remains to testify, first 
hand, to the merit of Greek art with the brush and 
easel. But what Greek genius wrought in stone has 
not wholly disappeared. 

Praxiteles, who flourished at Atheus late in the 

fourth century be- 
fore Christ, has been 
called the head of 
the Attic school. He 
worked in marble 
and bronze both, 
chiefly in the for- 
mer. His subjects 
were mythological. 
Venus, Cupid and 
Apollo were favorite 
subjects with him. 
He has been called 
"the sculptor of 
the beautiful." As 
the sculptor of the 
grand, the highest honor belongs to Phidias, who 
flourished in the splendid era of Pericles and his 
no less brilliant Aspasia (B. C. 500). The colossal 
statue of Zeus at the temple of Olympia, in Elis, 
classed as one of the seven wonders of the world, 
was the work of his brain and hand. It was in gold 
and ivory. It occupied its more than royal throne 
until A. I). 475, when il wn- destroyed by lire. An 
imitation of the head is preserved in the Vatican 
museum, and that is all that remains to us of that 
prodigy of art. Phidias put the best work of his 
life, however, into the Parthenon and the other 
temples of the Acropolis of Athens. That citadel 
was not only adorned with the temple of Athena, 
but of the Erechtheum and other temples. It was 
lii i less the treasury of Greek art than the strong- 
hold of the capital. Speaking of Phidias, Mr. 
Frothingham remarks: "He was a man of loftv 



polls at Athene as it was 



~7F 



ite. 



iiS 



GREEK PHILOSOPHY AND ART. 



soul, majestic intellect, consummate knowledge of 
the principles of his art, and wonderful skill in de- 
sign. The buildings that crowned the Acropolis at 
Athens arc believed to have been erected under his 
direction, and much of the work— how much can- 
not be known — may be ascribed to his hand. The 
great statue of Athena in the Parthenon, of gold, ivory 
and precious stones, was, there is little room to 
doubt, executed by him." Numerous bronzes of great 



Ionic order was somewhat ornate. It dates as far 
back, probably, as the Doric, but seems to have been 
less used. The third and most elaborately carved 
order was the Corinthian, which was not introduced 
until the Alexandrine ago. It was never the pre- 
vailing order in fashion in Greece, to which rank it 
rose, however, in Rome. " The Greeks," says Mor- 
gan. " were not great builders, but they were supreme 
architects." It is equally true that the Romans were 




THE PARTHENON. 
Constructed of Pentelic Marble, under the direction of the celebrated sculptor Phidiaa, dedicated to Minerva. 43JS B. 



merit are traditionally associated. with the name of 
Phidias. 

The term architecture is derived from the Greek, 
and means " chief art," and such was the Grecian 
estimate of the building art. The supreme edifice 
of antiquity, in beauty if not in sublimity, was the 
Parthenon, which is conceded to be the type of per- 
fection in construction. It was not a large building, 
being only 228 feet long and 101 feet wide. The 
material used was the finest white marble. It was 
painted within and without. It dates from 15. C. 
440. The architects were Ictinus and Callicrates. 
It belongs to the Doric order of architecture. Ruins 
of Greek temples show three orders, the Doric being 
the most common and most severely simple. The 



not great architects, but magnificent builders. The 
Greek ideas of architecture were carried to grander, 
if less exquisite results, in Rome than in Athens, and 
the Pantheon, built at Rome about thirty years before 
Christ, was not only Greek in name (Pantheon 
meaning in that language a temple for all the gods) 
but it was Grecian in its essential characteristics. 
Indeed, almost all public architecture in Europe and 
America, except the Gothic, may be said to attest 
the excellency of Greek genius in that department 
or art and industry. 

The Parthenon was despoiled from time to time, 
but much of its statuesque wealth survived until a 
comparative late day, in the ruined temple, but was 
at last carried off to England by Lord Elgin, and 



s<T 



\Q 



GREEK PHILOSOPHY AND ART. 



II 9 



deposited in the British museum. Those treasures 
of art are known as the "Elgin Marbles." and in 
them may be seen the subtle and refined artistic 
ge.iius of the Greek civilization. 

One of the best known and most remarkable 
pieces of statuary in the world is the Laocoon of 
three Rhodian artists, Agesander, Achenodorus and 
Polydorus. It is based on a Trojan tradition, best 
told by Virgil in his /Enead. A priest of that city 
opposed the introduction into Troy of the wooden 
horse, when he and his 
two sons were slain by 
two great serpents from 
the sea, which the Trojans 
seeing, accepted as a sign 
from Heaven that the 
priest had given unright- 
eous counsel. It might 
lie noticed that the cen- 
tral figure is much larger 
in proportion than the 
sons. The former is the 
chief merit of this incom- 
parable work of art. 

In his history of art, 
De Forest characterizes 
Greek art as follows : 
" The first plastic works 
of Greece were undoubted- 
ly marked with a strong 
Oriental impress. They 
were the creations of the 

artisan rather than of the artist, and consisted of 
sumptuous decoration applied to armor, household 
utensils, and the like. The description of Achilles' 
shield in the Iliad gives us an idea of the splendor 
of this kind of work. The first representations of 
the gods were symbolic, a stone or a piece of wood ; 



and the earliest complete images were of wood. 
These wooden idols were very rude, but were con- 
sidered specially sacred, even in later times. They 
were supplied with elaborate wardrobes, and were 
dressed and washed by regular attendants. Metal 
statues and clay images of the gods were introduced 
toward the close of the archaic period of Greek 
art," 

For the benefit of those who are interested in the 
techniques of architecture we append what De 
Forest says in his history 
of art about the lintel or 
entablature of a Greek or- 
der. " It has," he observes, 
"three members, — the 
architrave, or principal 
beam, which rests directly 
upon the capital of the col- 
umns ; the frieze, or orna- 
mental band ; and the pro- 
jecting cornice which pro- 
tects the frieze and archi- 
trave, as the capital j>ro- 
tects the column from the 
inclemencies of the weath- 
er. The column is also 
divided into three parts, — 
the base, which is an ex- 
pansion of the shaft, hav- 
ing the same relation to 
it that the foot has to the 

GROUP OF THE LAOCOON. ^^ g^ . ^ ^ 

or upright support ; and the capital or bearer, 
which has been likened to a hand spread out 
to receive the weight of the architrave. The 
pediment or gable is the triangular space at either 
end of a building between the cornice of the 
entablature and the cornice of the sloping roof." 





f 




Greek and Roman Names— The Origin op Classic Myths— Jupiter and Celestial Herediti 
-War in Heaven— Division of the Spoils— The Amours op the Gods— The Chief Divin- 
ities AND THEIR ALLOTMENTS— MlNOR DUTIES— OLYMPUS— TlIE MYTH AND DETAILS OF CRE- 
ATION and the Fall of Man— Classic Story of the Deluge— Phaeton and his Presump- 
tion—Deification of Love— Pegasus and Poetet— Centaurs and Other Monsters— The 
Riddle of the Sphinx— Orpheus and Eurydice— Ignorance, Credulity and Skepticism. 



►*— §**f*^s 




N nothing else are Greek 



and Roman annals and 
ideas so similar as in my- 
thology. Nearly all the 
deities of Roman idolatry. 



as known to 
us through 
Latin liter- 
ature, were 
transferred 
from Ath- 
ens to Rome 
with hardly 
any other 
change than 

that of names. Cro- 
nos was called Saturn ; 

Zeus, Jupiter or Jove ; 

Poseidon, Neptune; 

Ares, Mars ; Hephses- 

tos, Vulcan ; Hermes, 

Mercury ; Hera, Juno ; 

Athena, Minerva ; Artemis, Diana ; Aphrodite, Ve 



nus ; Hestia, Vesta ; Demeter, Ceres ; Dionysius, 
Bacchus ; Phoebus, Apollo ; Letus, Latona. The 
Roman names are commonly used and will be em- 
ployed usually in this chapter. 

It has been said that with Homer and Hesiod the 
f irmation of the myths 
was finished, and that 
with the drama and 
philosophy, desintegra- 
tion and unbelief be- 
gan, the personalities 
vanishing into the thin 
air of symbols of ideas. 
It has been claimed by 
some that the old 
myths were born of nat- 
ural phenomena, and 
designed to teach les- 
sons in natural history. 
Others again insist that 
moral ideas underlie 
the stories of the gods. 
These theories are often 
advocated with great 

MOUNT OLYMPUS. gkm ;UK 1 ingenuity. It 

is obvious, that natural and ethical meanings can be 




-r <r 



(120) 



-BV 



^J5 

81 



GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 



12 I 



=£l£- 



put into them, and the myths made to do important 
service by way of illustration ; but there is no good 
reason to suppose that any philosophical basis can 
be discovered historically for the gods of Greece and 
Rome. They grew up gradually out of the 
ooze of ignorance and superstition, and all attempts 
to etherealize that mud are futile. As well try to 
establish the identity of the alluvia of the Nile and 
the manna of the wilderness. The home of the 
gods was Mount Olympus and their king was Jupi- 
ter. He was elected to that position by the suf- 
frage of his brothers and sisters. The Greek mind 
would not allow the doctrine of " the divine right 
of kings,'' even in heaven. Jupiter was indeed called 
" the father of gods and men," but it was no such 
paternity as the Jews attribute to Jehovah, and the 
Christians to the Deity of their worship. Jupiter 
was surely the elder son of Saturn, and the latter 
the youngest son of Uranus, or Heaven, who was 
the son of Earth, eldest child of Chaos, the latter 
being the real father of gods and men, the great 
First Cause. Thus we see that Jupiter was the 
great-great grandson of the divine parent of all 
things. The ancient Creeks and Romans caught a 
faint glimpse of a celestial chain of heredity. 

The first active display of heavenly energy defin- 
itely conceived in this mythology bears a striking 
resemblance to the war in heaven, described so 
minutely by the greatly praised and sometimes read 
" Paradise Lost," of Milton, only the rebels of the 
old myths won the battle. Jupiter, his brothers and 
sisters, so runs the story, rose in rebellion against 
their father and the older deities, called Titans. The 
battle was fierce and desperate. At last the Titans 
were vanquished, and cast down into hell, or Tar- 
tarus, from which they will emerge in some remote 
future, something as Satan is promised release from 
the same place of torment, for the space of a thou- 
sand years. 

Having won the world by conquest, the victors 
divided the spoils. Jupiter took heaven, or Olym- 
pus, where the gods reside, Neptune the ocean, and 
Pluto, Hades, the home of departed spirits. Un- 
fortunately for the peace of mankind, the Earth 
was what is called a free zone, — a vast common 
held by the gods in sociage. The principle of evil, 
the Ahriman of the Persians, the Satan of the 
Jews, the Siva of the Hindoos, and the Loki of 
the Scandinavians, does not appear in classic my- 




thology. Any such deity would be superfluous. All 
the gods are bad, differing more in capacity than in 
disposition. Jupiter's high domain was no less tur- 
bulent than the ocean, and there was not repose 
even in the dreary desolation of the nether world. 

Jupiter was a notori- 
ous rake. His life, as 
written by the poets, was 
that of a divine Don 
Juan. His wife, Juno, 
was jealous, constant- 
ly watching him, and 
wreaking revenge upon 
the victims or fruits 
of his amours. The de- 
tails of ancient mythol- 
ogy are too vile 'to be 
read, especially as portrayed by the Latin ]K>ets. The 
older Greeks were less indecent in their narrations. 
But at its best, the mythology of the Greeks and 
Romans was a seething caldron of impurity. Nu- 
merous were the demi-gods, or semi-gods, as they 
might better be termed, for in Greek myths, as in 
antediluvian times, "the sons of God" made love 
to the " daughters of men." Among the Greeks and 
the Romans religion and morals had no connection. 
That feature of religion so very prominent in 
Christianity and Buddhism is almost entirely want- 
ing in classic mythology, this deficiency showing 
itself with especial emphasis in the love intrigues of 
the Olympic deities. 

The rank and sphere of Jupiter, Neptune, and 
Pluto, have already been stated. Apollo was the 
god of music, physics, poetry, and the arts. The 
nine Muses, the especial patrons of poetry, were un- 
der his rule. The chariot of the sun was his, and 
he alone could guide it, Mars was the god of bat- 
tle. Vulcan was the blacksmith and general arti- 
san of heaven. Mercury was the messenger of the 
gods, also the deity of commerce and thievery. 
Bacchus was the god of wine. Venus was the god- 
dess of love, and a female of decidedly loose morals. 
She was wedded to Vulcan, who was lame and unat- 
tractive. Minerva was the goddess of wisdom, espe- 
cially in war. She sprang full armed from the 
brain of Jupiter. Diana was the goddess of the 
chase. iEolus was the god of the wind, Momus of 
laughter, and Ceres of fruit and grain. Vesta was 
one of the older goddesses, and was the guardian of 



v V 



122 



GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 



domestic virtue. She was rather Roman than 
Greek in her origin, and the same is true of Janus, 
who had two faces and was the deity of peace. 
His temple at Rome was always open in time of 
war, and was closed only three times during a pe- 
riod of seven centuries. Latona was the goddess 
of night, and Aurora of morning. The Earth was 
sometimes personi- 
fied as Cybele, some- 
times as Rhea, and 
sometimes as Ops. 
Themis was the god- 
dess of law and jus- 
tice, and Nemesis of 
retribution. These 
were the principal 
deities and their sev- 
eral allotments. Be- 
sides these there 
were the gods of the 
rivers, the woods, and 
1 he rural deities wit h- 
out number. Pan 
was an illustrious 
woodland deity, in- 
terested in s h e p - 
herds, fishermen and 
fowlers. He was half 
man and half goat. 
He was a famous 
musician. The sa- 
tyrs were also half 
man and half goat. 
Nymphs were beau- 
tiful female attend- 
ants upon the great 
goddesses. They 
were sometimes call- 
ed Naiads or Nere- 
ids. Echo was one 
of their number. 
The Fates were three sisters, daughters of Chaos, and 
presided over the destinies of mortals. The Furies 
were also three sisters, and were employed in making 
both the living and the dead miserable. Pluto, the 
god of Hades, has been mentioned. There were three 
Judges of the dead, Minos being chief justice. In 
passing from Earth to Hades, the soul had to cross 
the river Styx in the boat of a miserly old ferry- 




TIIK ASSEMBLY OF THE (JODS. 



man called Charon. The Christian conception of 
a heaven for the good and a hell for the bad was 
only dimly outlined in classic mythology. Hades 
was the place of all departed souls, but some found 
existence there pleasant, or at least free from pain, 
while others were subjected to different degrees of 
unhappiness. The abode of the gods was on the 

summit of Mount 
Olympus, in Thessa- 
ly. The deities had 
their individual 
homes, but all, when 
convened by their 
sovereign J u p i t e r, 
repaired to the pal- 
ace of his celestial 
highness,\vhere there 
was feasting and 
merriment. 

Ambrosia was 
their food and nectar 
their drink. The 
cup-bearer was the 
lovely goddess Hebe, 
or the beauteous boy, 
stolen for that pur- 
pose from Earth, 
Ganymede. Apollo 
twanged his lyre 
amid the feast and 
the nine Muses sang 
responsively. At 
sundown the deities 
retired to their own 
respective abodes. 
Their houses were 
of brass, built by 
Vulcan. 

Among the Titans 
was Epimetheus. In 
accordance with au- 
thority given him from on high, he created the ani- 
mals of the earth. Man was his last and favorite 
work. He asked his brother Prometheus, who had 
some supervisory connection with creation, to help 
him secure to man supremacy. Thereupon the 
daring Titan lighted a torch at the sun and gave 
fire to men. That supreme gift greatly incensed the 
gods, but none the less proved an inestimable boon 



GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 



I2 3 



to the human family. For his impiety, as it was 
called, Prometheus was bound to a rock where a 
vulture ate his ever-renewing vitals. This myth 
furnished the groundwork of the highest tragedy 
of Greek literature. 

The story of Pandora and her box is a variation of 
the Promethean story. It is said that to furnish the 
first woman, Pandora was made of material contrib- 
uted by each god, and corresponding to the charac- 
teristics of each. She seemed a perfect being. Epi- 
metheus was delighted with such an addition to the 
world. But Prometheus warned him that Jupiter 
meant mischief by his seeming fair bounty. And 
so it proved. In his work of creation Epimetheus 
had carefully rejected all 
bad material, and put it 
in a refuse box. To keep 
that closed forever, would 
protect man from evil, 
but to open it, would be 
to let loose upon the 
world all evil. Of course 
Pandora was so very cu- 
rious to know the con- 
tents of that box that one 
day she lifted the lid, 
when out flew the con- 
tents, to torment and 
distract mankind. 

The story of the fall 
of man, not only, but of 
the flood, is clearly trace- 
able in classic mythology. The 
that deluge were Deucalion and 
a pious and God-fearing couple. 
had subsided they proceeded, in 




DEUCALION AND PYREHA 

only survivors of 
his wife Pyrrha, 



After the waters 
obedience to an 
oracle, to people the world by casting stones behind 
them, those thrown by the man becoming men, 
those thrown by the woman becoming women. 
The new race was hardy, but far inferior to the 
antediluvians. 

The passion of love is variously brought out by 
mythology. Venus was the goddess of love in its 
fullest sense, but besides her were Psyche and Cupid. 
The former was the goddess of the spiritual ele- 
ment in love, without its physical expression. Cupid 
was the son of Venus, a mischievous boy, roaming 
about with his bow and arrow, shooting whom he 
would, and whom he wounded was sure to fall in love 



with the next person met of the opposite sex. Thus 
his own mother one day wounded herself with one of 
Cupid's arrows, and in consequence became so enam- 
ored of an earthly boy, Adonis, that she found no 
pleasure in heaven, but wooed the unresponsive lad. 
He was unmindful of all her charms, being wholly 
given to the pleasures of the chase. At last a wild 
boar ended the life of Adonis. 

" The Muses nine " were not the only mythologi- 
cal embodiment of the classic idea of the poetical 
faculty as a divine gift. Those famous sisters dwelt 
on Mount Helicon, and drank of the fountain Hip- 
pocrene. Minerva presented to them the winged 
horse Pegasus, upon which, if one rode, he would 

soar aloft among the 
creations of fancy. This 
horse appears in several 
myths, especially in the 
slaying of the Chimaera. 
That horrid monster 
breathed fire and raised 
havoc in Lycia. Beller- 
ophon, mounted on the 
winged horse, undertook 
to slay the ravaging drag- 
on, and did so. But when, 
later, the slayer of the 
Chimaera attempted to 
fly upon Pegasus to heav- 
en, Jupiter sent a gad- 
fly, which so worried the 
horse with wings that he 
threw his aspiring rider, who became lame and blind 
from the fall. 

The centaurs were monsters with the heads of 
men and the bodies of horses. They were sometimes 
admitted to the society of men. On one occasion 
they were invited to a marriage feast, and when 
under the influence of wine offered violence to 
the bride. A fierce combat followed, known in 
sculpture and poetry as the battle of the Lapithse 
and Centaurs. But one of the Centaurs, Chiron, 
was renowned for his wisdom and goodness. At 
death Zeus placed him among the stars. Chiron 
was famous for his skill in prophecy, poetry and 
medicine. Apollo is said to have intrusted to his 
care the infant ^sculapius, who stands in le- 
gendary annals as the great physician. 

The Pygmies were a nation of dwarfs. They 



I2 4 



GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 



once came upon Hercules asleep, and prepared to 
attack him as if he were a city with walls. The 
Griffin, or Gryphon, was a monster with the body of 
a lion, the head and wings of an eagle, and a back 
covered with feathers. It was the guardian of hid- 
den treasures, especially of the gold of India. The 
Sphinx of Greece was a cruel monster with the body 
of a lion and the head of a woman. It infested the 
highway near Thebes. All passers-by were asked 
by the Sphinx, " What animal is that which in the 
morning goes on four feet, at noon on two, and in 
the evening on three?" None could guess the riddle 
until (Edipus replied," Man, who in childhood creeps 
on hands and knees, in manhood walks erect, and 
in old age with a staff." Her 
riddle guessed, the Sphinx 
plunged into the sea and 
was seen no more forever. 

Phaeton was ambitious 
to drive the chariot of the 
sun, his father, Apollo, or 
Phoebus. The sire finally 
consented. The carof day 
made aperiloustriparound 
the world, inandout among 
the heavenly bodies. For a 
time all went well. The 
horses darted up the vault- 
ed sky at a furious rate. In 
a luckless moment Phae- 
ton glanced down to earth 

and lost self-control. The "phaet 

reins fell from his hands. The horses darted madly 
off into space, setting fire to mountains, cities and the 
world generally. Had not Jupiter taken pity on the 
earth, utter ruin would have been inevitable. He 
launched a thunderbolt at Phaeton, hurling him to 
earth, sacrificed to save the world which was being 
destroyed for his folly. The ambition of the youth 
was noble, but it was none the less necessary that he 
should pay the penalty of his presumption. 

Orpheus and Enrydice are familiar mythological 
characters. Orpheus was the son of Apollo and the 
Muse Calliope. He could play the lyre so very charm- 
ingly that he drew to him the very beasts of the field, 
who were softened and made gentle by the influence 
of his music. He was wedded to the nymph Enryd- 
ice. Soon after their marriage, which was pre- 
sided over by Hymen, the god of wedlock, she 




was wandering with her sylvan companions in the 
woods when a serpent bit her foot. She died of the 
wound. The disconsolate husband sought his love 
in Hades. He sang his grief in tones so melancholy 
that the spirits of the dead shed ghostly tears, and 
so did even the Furies. All the regions below were 
stirred with sympathy. Finally Pluto consented 
that the tender Orpheus should take back his bride, 
but on one condition — he should not look back in all 
his ascent to the upper world. In a moment of for- 
getfulness he turned to look at his fair companion 
limping along behind him. That moment she van- 
ished into thin air, saying, " Farewell, a last fare- 
well." In vain he lingered and sought for Eurydice. 
At length he returned to 
earth alone and disconso- 
late. All thoughts of love 
were now abhorrent to him, 
until in death he was re- 
united to his lost wife. 

The common people of 
Greece always had confi- 
dence in the national dei- 
ties as actual personages, 
and the stories told about 
them were implicitly be- 
lieved. But the educated 
class seems to have seen 
in the popular mythology 
a series of allegories or 
downright fables, more cu- 
rious than solemn. In 
Rome, even the common people came to doubt 
the reality of their religion, and the educated 
class looked upon it as the invention of 
their ancestors, and more especially of the Greeks, 
whose intellectual superiority was held in highest 
respect. . Actual faith in the myths of the old 
Greeks, fading out, left a blank in which Chris- 
tianity could inscribe its tenets without the ne- 
cessity of first eradicating deep-rooted theologi- 
cal convictions. Mythology may be called the 
half-brother of the heroic element in Greek his- 
tory. 

It is a curious fact that Christian Europe culti- 
vated belief in the classic deities as spiritual reali- 
ties, only they were held to be demons, or devils. 
This was the general opinion of Christendom, until 
about a century ago. 



** 



\ 




jaaaaxAtia* 



The Senility of the World— Outer Greece — Rhodes and its Colossus — Halicarnassus and 
its Mausoleum — Diana op Ephesus — Syracuse and Archimedes— Ionian Islands — Crete 
—Cyprus— From Mauritania to Albion— Scandia, Sarmatia, Dacia and Thrace — Scythia 
and India— Arya, the Cradle of Civilization — Ptolemy and his Geography — The Ptol- 
emaic System, or the Three-fold World of the Ancients. 



«aaaaiaaaa 




•£ 



^ 



& 



HE lands thus far visited 
in the course of this histo- 
ry form very insignificant 
parts of the present world. 
Some of the nations have 
disappeared altogether, liv- 
ing, if at all, only in " a 
good diffused," or in a de- 
spitude which is a living death, 
it Rome, with all its vicissitudes, 
a very important part of the ac- 
al life of to-day. Standing, there- 
re, at the division line between the 
1 nations which have upon them 
ery mark of senility, if they are 
not actually in the grave, and the 
one nation of antiquity which re- 
newed its youth at the fountain of 
ecclesiastical authority, it may be well to pause for 
a survey of the world of the ancients. 

This old world contained many Greek cities and 
colonies, some of which have thus far escaped the 
attention to which their importance entitles them. 
We will visit those places of interest and then fur- 
nish a key to the accompanying map. 

Within ten miles of the Asiatic coast lies the 
island of Rhodes, with an area of 420 square miles, 
with a population of 35,000. Its main town bears 
the same name. That city dates from B. C. 432. 



At the entrance of one of its harbors once stood the 
Colossus of Rhodes (see frontispiece) one of the 
seven wonders of the world. It was a brazen statue 
of Apollo, supposed to date from B. 0. 280. It was 
105 feet in height. Tradition says that ships 
in full sail passed between its huge legs. It could 
be ascended by a winding staircase. In B. C. 224 
an earthquake overthrew it. Its fragments were 
still preserved as late as A. D. 672. The execution 
of that stupendous work of art is attributed to 
Charus of Lindus. 

Not far from Rhodes, upon the mainland of Asia, 
stood the Greek city of Halicarnassus. It was 
thoroughly Greek in language and culture, but truly 
Persian in political character. It was ruled for a 
long time by a line of princes who were loyal to 
the Persian crown. The most noted of these 
was Mausolus (see frontispiece) whose tomb is an- 
other of the seven wonders of the world. It was 
erected by his widow, Artemisia, in B. C. 353. Pli- 
ny described it minutely. Like the Colossus of 
Rhodes, it was the victim of an earthquake, but 
that elemental destruction was far from complete. 
In the fifteenth century the Knights of Rhodes took 
possession of the city and desecrated the tomb. 
Later the Turks used the stones for other purposes 
to such an extent that for a long time the very site 
was in doubt. 

Passing northward from Halicarnassus, one ar- 



(125) 



>£. 



126 



THE WORLD OF THE ANCIENTS. 



rives at Ephesus, one of the must important of the 

historic cities of the Ionian Confederation. It was 
the supposed birthplace of the goddess Diana. 
and there stood still an- 
other of the seven wonders 
of the world, the temple 
of Diana (see frontispiece). 
According to Herodotus, 
Hercules founded the city 
B.€. 1250. That wondrous 
temple was fired in B. C. 
356 by Erostratus,the youth 
who had an insane thirst 
for notoriety. The actual 



Diana of Ephesus. 

destruction of the temple, 
and the consequent decay 
of the city, was the work 
of Goths in A. D. 262. Re- 
cent excavations have dis- 
closed the foundations 
of three distinct temples 
built upon the same site. 
The last temple of Diana 
was 104 feet wide, 343 
feet long, with 100 mas- 
sive columns, some of 
which were carved most 





SYRACUSE. 



ornately. A Christian 
church was established at Ephesus in the apostolic 
age, to which St. Paul addressed one of his most 
characteristic epistles, and it was there that the 
great apostle narrowly escaped being mobbed for 
preaching the gospel, the cry of the mob being, 
•• (ireat is Diana of the Ephesians!" 

Syracuse was once a very flourishing Creek city 
of Sicily. Its prosperity began when the Romans 
gained possession of the rest of the island, which 
had been settled largely by the Phoenicians. That, 
change in the condition of Syracuse grew out of 
the first Punic war. which settled the question of 
supremacy between Rome and Carthage. Without 
anticipating the chapter devoted to that struggle, it 
may be said that in B. C. 275 the Roman power es- 
tablished the rule in Syracuse of Hiero II., an 
ally of Rome, and that under this king the city 



prospered greatly. Its population was immense and 
its public buildings magnificent. But in the second 
Punic war Syracuse sided with Carthage, a fatal 
mistake. The city was besieged. For a long time 
the defense was impregnable, thanks to Archimedes, 
that prodigy of mathematics and mechanics ; but 
in B. C. 212 the city fell, Archimedes himself being 
slain in the wild havoc of the sack. It is now a 
city of imposing ruins. 

Along the western and southern coast of Greece 
extends a chain of islands, containing in all 1041 
square miles. They are called the Ionian islands, 
of which the largest is Corfu. From immemorial 
time the people were Greeks. The total population 

of the cluster is about 
two hundred and fifty 
thousand. Politically they 
have been subjected to a 
great many vicissitudes, 
but finally, in lsiil, they 
were annexed to Greece, 
much to their satisfaction. 
Crete, or Candia, is one 
of the more famous is- 
lands of the Mediterra- 
nean. It is 150 miles long 
and from 6 to 35 miles in 
width. In the midst of 
it rises Mount Ida, famous 
in classic mythology as 
the retreat of the Mino- 
taur. It is supposed to have contained a popula- 
tion of over a million at one time, but has now only 
about 200,000. From 1866 to 1869 the Cretans 
were at war with the Turks, demanding annexation 
to Greece. They were subdued after a most des- 
perate struggle. It is supposed by some that Crete 
was the very cradle of European civilization. 
Tradition makes Minos its ruler at one time. It 
was a part of Phoenicia once, but a Greek colony 
was early planted there, which entirely supplanted 
the Phoenician settlement. 

Cyprus is another Greek island of about the size 
and population of Crete. It is 44 miles south of 
Cape Annonone, in Anatolia, and about the same 
distance west of Syria. As a naval point it is of 
very great importance. The Turks took possession 
of it in the sixteenth century, keeping it until the 
present decade, when the "Sick Man" was compelled 



THE WORLD OF THE ANCIENTS. 



I2 7 



to surrender it to England, Cyprus has almost 
always been under foreign rule. It is rich in 
ruins and its mines of relics have been very indus- 
triously worked, yielding prolific stores of coins, 
pottery and other evidences of buried civiliza- 
tions. These relics attest the existence, under 
Phoenician, Assyrian, Greek, Persian, and, later, 
Egyptian rule, of great wealth and high culture. 

We turn now from Outer Greece, as it might be 
called, to the large divisions of the world of the 
Ancients. The map which accompanies this chap- 
ter will be our guide in what remains. 

The term Mauritania was used to designate the 
little-known northwestern portion of Africa, 
as Libya Interior, 




THE ANCIEMTS 



Ethiopia Interior, 
Ethiopes, Hesperia 
and Fortunate Isles 
were names for un- 
explored and dimly 
conceived portions 
of the same conti- 
nent. It will be 
observed that the 
Ancients had no 
idea whatever of 
Southern Africa, 
and none of any 
real intelligence of 
any portion of Af- 
rica outside of Ethiopia proper, Egypt, and the 
southern shore of the Mediterranean sea. If their 
ships passed beyond the pillars of Hercules the 
prows were turned northward rather than southward. 
Hibernia, the present Ireland, was mentioned by 
Aristotle, Pliuv, Ptolemy aud some others, but none 
of them seemed to have any real information in re- 
gard to it. Albion (England) signifies " White 
island," suggested, perhaps, by the Cliffs of Kent. 
No doubt the Phoenicians knew something of En- 
gland, but no part of the British Islands came into 
any vital relations to the rest of the world until 
Agricola established there the rule of Rome. 

Scandia, or Scandinavia, derived no prominence 
whatever until the medieval age. Those bold pirates 
of the northern waters never entered the Mediterra- 
nean in aucient times, nor were they disturbed in 
their own homes by men from the civilized South. 
The vast resrion between the Baltic and the Black 



Sea, and from the Vistula to the Volga, called Sar- 
matia, was also an almost wholly unknown laud, 
even to the Romans of the declining empire. It ex- 
tended southward to Dacia, the home of the Daci, 
a warlike people who are supposed to have gone from 
Thrace northward as early as the time of Alexander 
the Great, but of whom we really hear nothing un- 
til about the time our Christian era began, when 
the Romans undertook their conquest. It was over 
a hundred years before the Uaci were really subdued. 
Thrace was the border-land between Greek aud bar- 
barian, or rather, the barbaric and thoroughly non- 
Hellenistic portion of Greece. The Macedonians 
were only semi-Greek, and the Thracians had no 

part or lot in that 
superb civilization. 
At the present time 
Thrace is infested 
by a people nearly 
as rude and uncul- 
tured as their an- 
cestors of the re- 
motest day. 

Germania, Gaul, 
Italia, and Hispa- 
nia are, as the read- 
er readily recogni- 
zes, the Germany, 
Fiance, Italy, and 
Spain and Portu- 
gal of to-day. They were inhabited by the rudest 
of savages all through the old-world period. 

Turning to Asia, we find, besides Asia Minor, Ara- 
bia. Media, Persia and Syria (of which we have heard 
or will hear distinctively, aud which were, in time, the 
seats of great civilizations), India, Soythia and Ana. 
The former tempted Alexander, through whom some 
very slight knowledge of the country was derived 
by the Greeks, but for nearly all purposes of 
definite knowledge and real communication it was 
an unknown world, and one to which the historians 
of antiquity very rarely so much as refer. Scytbia 
was the original name for the indefinite region 
north, east and south of the Caspian Sea and the 
Sea of Aral. It was hardly a geographical term, 
being vaguely applied to the hives whence swarmed, 
from time to time, hordes of barbarians. Much 
of Russia, especially iu Asia, was vaguely desig- 
nated Scythia, aud if a band of savage raiders in 



^k 



128 



THE WORLD OF THE ANCIENTS. 



old times could not be otherwise identified, they 
were called Scythians, or Gauls, according to the 
direction from which they came. 

From a strictly ancient point of view, no'name 
on the map referred to (given on the preceding page) 
would be less important than Arya ; but in view of 
modern philological discoveries it assumes very 
great importance. It was the home of the Sanskrit- 
speaking people of India, the Ayran race, from 
which has sprung the Indo-Germanie races, or 
nearly the entire civilized world of to-day. The 
higher classes of India are Aryans, and so are the 
Persians, and, as has been well remarked, " also the 
whole of the extensive family whose forefathers 
once inhabited central Asia, whence they migrated in 
search of pastures new, some going southeast to 
India, some northward or northwestward to Russia, 
and others westward to Asia Minor, thence to 
southern and central Europe. " It will be seen that 
according to this opinion, based on a scientific study 
of comparative philology, Arya was the cradle of 
the Greek, the Roman, the Brahmin and the 
Yankee. In the Sanskrit tongue, Arya means 
" agricultural, " " respectable, " and " honorable." 

Such was the ancient knowledge of geography. 
The wisdom of antiquity on that subject was 
summed up by Ptolemy of Alexandria, not one of 
the thirteen kings of Egypt who had their capital 
there, but Claudius Ptolemasus, who flourished in 



the middle of the second Christian century. His 
Geographicc represented that a great inland sea was 
formed by the coast of Africa, extending eastward 
until it joined the coast of Asia. He thought the 
world extended east and west 170°, instead of 120°. 
Geography was largely a speculative instead of a 
scientific study, from the earliest time until after 
the globe had been circumnavigated. Ptolemy 
set forth what had been known for centuries, and 
it was not until the fifteenth century that his work 
became antiquated. 

To the ancients the earth was the center of the 
universe. Their idea of astronomy, called the 
" Ptolemaic system," was that the sun aud moon 
revolved around # the earth, and that beneath this 
world of ours were the infernal regions of gods and 
spirits, while in the azure above were lands fairer than 
the eye of man ever beheld. In a word, the World 
of the Ancients was a vast edifice with three stories. 
There was no uniformity in the ancient ideas of the 
world below and above us. The modern distinctions 
of hell and heaven were not sharply and uniformly 
outlined. To Homer and the Greeks the nether 
world was gloomy and painful ; to Virgil and the 
Romans it was not wholly so. In a general way, 
however, it may be said that the ancient theory was 
that this earth was intermediate, in happiness 
or misery, as well as in position, between the two 
spiritual worlds of their imaginations. 




JaS 



1<U 




MODERN GREECE 



:|AND THE 



iiii 




GREEK CHURCH. 



sX^bs^bz. 



'g^, ^gy >g^y ^ sy 



CHAPTER XXI 



Decay or the Destructible— From Greece to Achaia— Corinth, Ancient and Modern- 
Byzantine and Moslem Rule— The Venetians and the Parthenon— The Greek Revolu- 
tion, Byron and Botzaris— Intervention op the Great Powers— The Monarchy Estab- 
lished — Kings and the Constitution— Present Government op Greece— Condition op 
the Country — Greek Church and Greece— Greek Church Elsewhere— Characteristics 
op this Church— Farewell to the Greeks. 





N eminent historian has well 
remarked that "there seems 
to be something in the Ro- 
man rule which brought 
death to the Greek spirit." 
,~p£ When, therefore, in tracing 
'•JKltlie historic wars of Greecewe 



K-^OD^*^ 



im 



followed the fortunes of the 
Greeks to the period of Roman conquest, 
we may fairly he said to hate reached the 
end, in an important sense, of Ancient 
Greece. From that time until our own 
century, that unhappy country was the 
prey of misery and oppression. There 
was no Medieval Greece. For two chil- 
iads the land was obscured. Its history 
could be written with minuteness, but with no profit. 
Greek thought permeated, if itdid not dominate, the 
intellectual world, but apart from philosophy, includ- 
ing speculative theology, poetry and general litera- 
ture, all was blank. Modern Greece is indeed insig- 
nificant, still it is a distinct national entity. To 
trace in outline the course of events, from a Gre- 
cian point of view, from the great conquest to the 
present day, and then set forth the actual condition 
of Greece now, together with an account of the 
Greek church, will be our object in this connection. 



The original policy of Rome was to respect, to a 
most remarkable degree, the political sentiments of 
the Greeks. In B. C. 190, Flamiuius proclaimed the 
liberty of Greece. Nine years later, after some fur- 
ther conquests, rendered necessary, from the Roman 
standpoint, by rebellion, the Achaean League was 
crushed, but in B. C. 147, Sparta and Corinth were 
allowed independence, but still there was no con- 
tentment. Such was the state of things at Corinth 
that the Roman policy was suddenly and radically 
changed. The year B. C. 146 saw that superb city 
laid in ashes, its treasures of art scattered and de- 
stroyed, and Greece blotted out, to be, henceforth, 
merely the Roman Province of Achaia. To Cor- 
inth may thus be attributed the dubious honor of 
occasioning the great calamity of Greece. For 
this reason specific mention of that city has been 
reserved for this chapter. 

Corinth is situated fifty miles from Athena, on 
the isthmus bearing the same name. The place on 
which it is located is sterile and volcanic, but the 
city commands all the passes between the Pelopon- 
nesus and Northern Greece, making it an excellent 
point for commerce, especially in ancient times. It 
was the gateway of the two seas, Ionian and iEge- 
an, the emporium of Eastern and "Western traffic. 
The city of Corinth usually allied itself with the 



~?\~< 



(129) 



s*r 



-a >> 



130 



MODERN GREECE AND THE GREEK CHURCH. 



Spartans as against the Athenians, but some time 

'after the Peloponne- 
sian war it took up 
the sword against 
Sparta in what was 
called the Corinthian 
War, which ended in 
the renewal of friend- 
ly relations. Its wealth 
made it a great cen- 
ter of art. The mer- 
chant princes were 

Corinthian Capital. liberal patrons of 

sculpture and painting. If Boston is the Athens 




than five thousand inhabitants. When the Ro- 
man Empire fell asunder and the Byzantine Em- 
pire rose to supremacy in the East, Greece 
became a part of it, remaining under the sway 
of the Emperor at Constantinople until the 
fifth Crusade (1203), when it fell to the lot of the 
Frankish princes. For two centuries and a half 
the Dukedom of Athens was a speck on the map 
of the East, and hardly more. 

On the fall of Constantinople (1453) Greece 
passed under the Moslem rod. In 1687 the Chris- 
tian League, under Venetian leadership, besieged and 
took Athens. A few years later the Venetians 
were driven out, and the Moslem once more had 




ANCIENT CORINTH. 



of America, Corinth was the New York of Greece. 
Besides sculpture and painting, the city was no- 
ted for the splendor of its architecture. Indeed, 
the most elaborate order of ancient architecture was 
the Corinthian order, especially the capital. Numer- 
ous temples and palatial residences embellished the 
city until Roman vandalism laid them low. The 
principal monument now remaining is the citadel, 
situated on the hill Acrocorinthus. The view from 
that citadel is one of the most magnificent in the 
world. A few columns exist in ruins in other parts 
of the city, mournfully elegant in their tale of fall- 
en grandeur. The present city is a village of less 



possession of Greece. From that time until the 
successful termination of the Greek rebellion the 
despotism of the Turk kept the country in a most 
deplorable condition of subjugation. 

The war for Grecian independence began in 1821. 
It was a remarkable struggle. The sympathies of 
the civilized world were enlisted in behalf of the 
country which had been so long the garden of civ- 
ilization. Money and men were contributed from 
far and near. The most notable volunteer from 
without was Lord Byron, the poet. He had drunk 
deep at the fountain of Greek inspiration, and 
thither lie went to help in the deliverance of Mod. 



*71- 



f 



MODERN GREECE AND THE GREEK CHURCH. 



J3 1 



em Greece from Turkish tyranny. He repaired to 
one of the Ionian isles, and met his death at Misso- 
longhi, January 5, 1824. 

During the year 1822 the island of Scio witnessed 
a most horrible massacre by the Turks, the popula- 
tion being reduced from 120,000 to 80,000 inhab- 
itants. The Greeks achieved some brilliant victo- 
ries by sea, and the next year a small band of Greek 
patriots fell upon the Turkish camp at Carpenesion, 
putting to the sword 800 Turks, with a loss on their 
side of only 50, but among the number was their 
gallant leader, Marco Botzaris, whose heroism was 
the final glory of the historic wars of Greece. 

But in 1825 the superior numbers of the Moslem 
forces, led by the indomitable Ibrahim Pasha of 
Egypt, crushed out the revolution, for the time. 
Finally the Great Powers, England, France and 
Kussia, interposed by diplomacy. The Allies pro- 
posed that Greece should constitute a tributary 
province, with the right to choose its own govern- 
ors. Greece was willing to accept these terms, but 
the Ottoman Empire rejected them with scorn. 
The war then became a naval one between the Al- 
lies and the Turks, resulting, as was inevitable it 
should result, in the almost total destruction of the 
Turkish fleet. It may be said that from this time 
the Sultan has been, in the full sense of the term, 
" The sick man of the East." The " Eastern ques- 
tion" became a troublesome problem at once. It 
was not desired to weaken the Turkish Empire too 
much. For two years the Allies were uncertain 
what to do with their "white elephant." In the 
meanwhile there continued to be some fighting be- 
tween the original belligerents. 

In 1828 the Allies decided to create Greece an in- 
dependent kingdom, offering the crown to Prince 
John of Saxony. He declined to accept it. The 
offer was then made to Prince Leopold of Saxe- 
Coburg. He accepted conditionally, the conditions 
not being satisfactory to the Guardian Powers. He 
was nominal king of Greece, however, until 1830. 
Otho, second son of Louis of Bavaria, was ten- 
dered the crown, after much delay and negotiation. 
In 1833 he assumed the reins of government, nom- 
inally, for he was only eighteen years of age at the 
time. The capital at that time was Nauplia, a 
small and inconsequential Peloponnesian city. In 
1835 the capital was removed to Athens, where it 
has ever since remained, and of right belongs. At 



of 



the same time Otho assumed full control 
the government. The people demanded a con- 
stitution, with all the popular rights implied. 
This demand became so imperious and menacing that 
in 1844 the king complied. That was an important 
revolution, achieved without bloodshed. Affairs 
moved on with tolerable smoothness, the kins 
yielding partial obedience to the constitution, until 
one day in October, 1862, when he and his queen 
returned from a short excursion among the islands 
of the iEgean sea, the royal yacht was met at Sala- 
mis by a deputation of citizens, and the king in- 
formed that his services were no longer needed. 
He took passage in a British man-of-war for Yen- 
ice, and thence proceeded to Bavaria, to be lost 
henceforth from public view. 

The people held an election for king, resulting 
in the choice of Prince George of Denmark, a 
younger brother of Alexandria, Princess of Wales. 
He accepted on condition that the Ionian Islands, 
which had constituted a nominal republic, under 
British protection, since 1814, should be an- 
nexed to the kingdom. This condition was accept- 
able to all the parties in interest. The new king 
was crowned George I., and assumed the reins in 
October, 18G3, proving an acceptable sovereign. 
He may be said to have established a dynasty. 
His queen, Olga, is a member of the royal fam- 
ily of Russia. 

The population of Greece in 1879, was 1,679,775. 
The legislative power is vested in a representative 
chamber called The Boule, elected by manhood suf- 
frage for the term of four years. The Boule meets 
annually. The number of this body varies with the 
population. Under the present census it is 1S8. In 
the exercise of executive functions the king has a 
cabinet of eight responsible ministers. Ministerial 
changes are frequent, for popular favor in Greece is 
precarious. The education of the peo2de is receiving 
considerable attention, but the masses are still 
densely ignorant. Not half the men can read, nor 
more than one-tenth of the women. All the able- 
bodied young men are liable to military service, as in 
Germany. About one-half of the people are agri- 
culturists, and yet not more than one-sixth of the 
area is under cultivation, and agriculture is in a very 
backward state. Greece has now (1886) 210 
miles of railroad, 3720 miles of telegraph. 
The country is almost roadless, and com- 



r 



l 3 2 



MODERN GREECE AND THE GREEK CHURCH. 



munication exceedingly difficult, except by water. 
The principal production is currants, which are 
dried and exported in large quantities; certainly a 
most " lame and impotent conclusion " of Grecian 
greatness. 

The Greek church is indeed the church of Greece, 
but the two terms are widely different, in import ; 
Greece sustaining to the church named in its honor 
no such relation as Rome does to the Roman hier- 
archy. The modern Greeks are, for the most part, 
members of the orthodox branch of the Greek church. 
The papists and other Christians in the country 
number only a few thousand ; the Jews about 2,500, 
and the Mohammedans less than a thousand. Re- 
ligious toleration is guaranteed by the constitution. 
Nominally the Greek clergy owe allegiance to the 
Patriarch at Constantinople, but practically the 
control of ecclesiastical matters in that kingdom is 
vested in a permanent council, called the Holy 
Synod, consisting of the Metropolitan of Athens, 
and four archbishops and bishops, who during office 
reside at the capital. It is, virtually, a strictly na- 
tional church. 

The full name of the Greek church is " the Holy 
Oriental Orthodox Catholic Apostolic Church, " the 
term " Catholic " being alike claimed by the Greek, 
Roman, and English churches, although usually ap- 
plied only to the Roman. The Greek church has 
no unbroken history with sharply defined outlines, 
as the Roman and the Protestant churches have. It 
may truly be called the mother church. Nearly all 
the region visited by the Apostles belongs to it, so 
far as it is Christian at all. The language of the 
creeds, liturgies and theological literature of this 
community is the Greek, whatever the popular lan- 
guage of the laity may be. The numerical strength 
of this church is estimated at 80,000,000, or about 
one-half that of the Roman or the Mohammedan 
churches, and nearly the same as that of the Pro- 
testants. It is divided into three branches — the Or- 
thodox, under the Patriarch of Constantinople, with 
the subordinate patriarchates of Alexandria, Jeru- 
salem and Antioch ; the orthodox church in Rus- 
sia, under the Permanent Holy Synod of St. Peters- 
burg and the Czar ; and third, the church in Greece. 
There is a very considerable portion of the church 
which acknowledges the authority of the Pope of 
Rome, which yet clings to Greek church usages and 
ideas. They are called United Greeks, and are 



scattered through Turkey, Hungary, Galacia, Tran- 
sylvania, and found even in Russia. The Nesto- 
rians, Jacobites, Armenians, Maronites and other 
Eastern " heretics," are the Protestants of the Ori- 
ent, in an ecclesiastical point of view. 

We will quote on this subject from that very 
learned scholar, Philip Schaff : " The history of 
the Greek church," he says, " is not disfigured by 
bloody tribunals of orthodoxy like the Spanish in- 
quisition, nor systematic and long-continued perse- 
cutions, like the crusades against the Waldenses, Al- 
bigenses and Huguenots, with the infernal scenes of 
St. Bartholomew's massacre. Yet the Greek church 
of old has mercilessly expelled and exiled the Arian, 
Nestorian, Eutychian and other heretics, persecu- 
ted the Paulicians, and modern Russia rigidly pro- 
hibits secession from the orthodox national church, 
and all the children of mixed marriages where one 
parent belongs to it, must be baptized and educated 
in it. " He might have added that there was 
never, anywhere or in any age, more cruel and 
heartless persecution than that practiced by the 
Greek Church of Russia during the present genera- 
tion, in the treatment of Roman Catholic nuns in 
Poland. Dr. Schaff characterizes the Greek church 
as " a Patriarchal oligarchy in distinction from the 
papal monarchy. " Instead of being forbidden to 
marry, as in the Romish communion, the Greek 
priests are compelled to marry. There are some 
Greek monks, like the community at Athos, but 
monasticism is not a prominent feature of the 
church. So there is oracular confession of the laity 
to the clergy, but not so markedly as in the Papal 
church. Baptism with the Greeks is by immersion, 
and that three consecutive times. The old Greek 
calendar, which is eleven days behind the new style 
introduced by Pope Gregory XIII., is still retained, 
notwithstanding the serious inconvenience of thus 
differing in the computation of time from all other 
Christian countries. The late Dean Stanley char- 
acterized the Greek worship as " a union of barbaric 
rudeness and elaborate ceremonialism." 

And now we take our final leave of the Greeks to 
enter upon the career of the great nation of anti- 
quity which alone can be compared with the Gre- 
cian in importance to the world. Fundamen- 
tally and essentially unlike, they have such fellow- 
ship in pre-eminence that each may Well be called 
the counterpart of the other. 



*r 






:k 





ANCIENT ITALY AND PRIMITIVE ROME. 






Bird's-eye View of the City of Rome— The Peninsula of Italy— Mountains and Rivers 
—Races and Cities — Latium and Alba Long a Coxpared— Legends and History— 
jEneas and the Famous Twins — The Founding of Rome— The Rape of the Saeines— 
The Reign of Numa— The Tarquins— Etruria— Primitive Agrarianism— Lucius and Tul- 
lia— Roman Colonial Policy— The Public Highways— Tarquin the Proud and the Le- 
gends of his Day— The Last of the Legendary Kings. 




— §*•*€--* 



E have been picking our way 
through the intricacies of a 
history which is the record 
of one people and many 
states ; now we enter upon 
a history which is the rec- 
ord throughout of one 
state and many 
peoples. The states 
of Greece at many 
points of time were 
literally innumer- 
able, and to follow 
the political divis 
ions of Greece, not 
to say the Greeks, 
would be both impossible and 
unprofitable, but Rome grad- 
ually grew from a little vil- 
lage to an intercontinental 
Empire. From the days of 
Homer, whose grand epic has 
a historical basis and value, 
down to the mergence of 

Greece in Rome, is about a ancient 

thousand years, and Roman history covers sub- | 
stautially the same length of time, as does also 
the history of philosophy and many other ejjochs. 
Without magnifying fanciful resemblances, we may 




ask the reader to note the apparent tendency of 
mankind to run in cycles of a chiliad, or in mil- 
lenniums. The empire of Rome, from its inception 
to its fall, stood a little longer than that, but not much 
longer, and the same is true of the second empire, 
at Constantinople, sometimes called the Greek or 
Byzantine Empire, but which was. in point of fact. 
acontinuation of the Roman. 
Pliny justly observed, 
" Rome is the mistress of 
the world and the metropolis 
of the habitable earth, des- 
tined by the gods to unite, 
civilize and govern the scat- 
tered races of men." With- 
out anticipating events and, 
as it were, taking off the 
edge of the reader's appetite, 
it may be well to make a geo- 
graphical study of this seat 
of empire. 

The site of Rome is these 
seven hills : Palatinus, Ger- 
malus, Velia, Fagutal, Op- 
pins, Cespius, Subura. There 
were four parts, or wards, from the earliest time, 
namely, Esquihna, Ccelina, Palatina and Suburbana. 
Three times was it nearly destroyed by fire, — first, by 
the Gauls ; second, under (if not by), Nero : and third. 



ROME. 



033) 



134 



ANCIENT ITALY AND PRIMITIVE ROME. 



during the reign of Titus, — each time being rebuilt on 
a grander and better scale. The population amount- 
ed to 2,000,000, at times. The Tiber flows through 
it from north to south, and empties into the Medi- 
terranean sea fourteen miles below the city. Five 
bridges span it. A wall twelve miles long encircles 
the city. The present city is mostly on the plain 
known as the Campus Martius, the hills being 
nearly deserted. It is safe to say that the original 
Romans knew very little of the world beyond their 
rustic burg. They were rude barbarians. Gradu- 
ally, as their early traditional history shows, the hor- 
izon of their knowledge broadened, and the penin- 
sula of Italy became known to them. They traced 
geographical lines with their swords, learning of 
other tribes and states as they came into hostile 
contact with them. The army of the Potomac, 
under the late Gen. Burnside, was sometimes called 
"Burnside's Geography Class," and every Roman 
army was in effect a class in geography, teaching 
the whole city as well as learning themselves, prac- 
tical lessons in that branch of study. And theirs 
was not a mere seaside knowledge. Thorough and 
practical was the information gained. 

The peninsula of Italy has an area of about 
93,600 square miles, including all the country south 
of the Alps. The Greeks called the land Hespe- 
ria. The Apennines are a chain of mountains ex- 
tending almost the entire length of Italy. The 
Alban Hills have been called " the central sanctu- 
ary of the Latin nations." Mons Sacer was a hill 
near Rome. Vesuvius is the most famous peak in 
Italy. That volcano was in a quiescent state many 
centuries, but in the year 79 occurred the terrible 
eruption which whelmed in utter ruin two magnifi- 
cent cities, Pompeii and Herculaneum, and a 
smaller town, Stabise, still more remote. Besides 
the Tiber, Italy has her famous rivers, the Po, the 
largest of the peninsula, and the Rubicon, the 
northern boundary of Italy proper, rendered im- 
mortal by Caesar. Along these and other rivers are 
fertile plains, and in some of the mountains rich 
deposits of minerals. 

The different races of old Italy were five, not 
counting the Romans, who absorbed them all : the 
Pelasgi, the Osci, the Sabelli, the Umbri and the 
Etrusci. The first dwelt in the southeast and may 
have come originally from Greece ; the second were 
central ; the third spread over the western slopes, 




Vicinity of Rome. 



and included the powerful Sammtes ; the fourth 
held sway from the Adriatic to the Tyrrhene Sea, 
and from the mouths of the Po to those of the Ti- 
ber ; the fifth, the Etruscans, were a distinct and 
powerful nation who made encroachments upon all 
the others and built up a powerful state, possessing 
many attributes of true greatness. Our informa- 
tion in regard to them, however, is mainly confined 
to such fugitive glimpses as Roman history affords 
in its early and uncer- 
tain period. We know 
that Etruria was a con- 
federacy of twelve in- 
dependent states, Tor- 
quinii, Veii, Volsiuii, 
and Clusium being the 
more important. To 
conquer these states and 
destroy the cities, was 
the work of centuries. 

Latium was the old term applied to a region 
bounded on the north by the Tiber, east by the 
Marsi and Samnium, and southwest by the Tyr- 
rhene Sea. Besides Rome, it included Tivoli, Ostia, 
Tusculum and Alba Longa, the latter being the 
parent city of Rome. 

Of Magna Graecia and the Italian islands known 
to the Greeks, an account has already been given, 
and we are now prepared to explore the archives of 
the Rome of traditional kings. 

The story elaborated by Virgil, of the founding of 
what became the Roman state by a band of Trojan 
refugees, may have some truth in it. There was 
certainly nothing improbable in the supposition, but 
it has no place in actual history. The founding of 
Rome as a city by Romulus and his brother 
Remus is hardly less poetic and fauciful than the 
exploits of ^Eneas, but until a comparatively recent 
date, it was supposed that a veritable history of 
Rome existed from the birth of those wolf -suckled 
twins to the extinguishment of the Western Em- 
pire. The truth is, however, that for about one- 
half of that period, the history is legendary. 

The more notable persons and events in Roman 
history 'have been so critically investigated that 
there is hardly the shadow of a shade of real fact 
left. It is not until we come down to Scipio, mid- 
way between the two ends, that we encounter a fa- 
mous Roman of whose actual life we have historic 



ANCIENT ITALY AND PRIMITIVE ROME. 



r 35 



data. Early Roman history has a deep interest, 
nevertheless, and an inestimable value, for with all 
its untrustworthiness in detail, it fairly represents 
the spirit of early Rome, and explains the phenom- 
enal growth of a small town into the most far- 
reaching empire the world ever saw. It will not be 
our purpose to point out the probable history, in 
distinction from romance, in the records of those 
times, for it could not be done with any degree of 
accuracy, and if done, would be unsatisfactory. It 
is enough to call attention to the general fact at the 
outset, partly to guard against attaching too much 
importance to details, and partly as an explanation 
of the proposed disregard of all the details given of 
that period, except 
those which possess 
value in throwing 
light upon the Roman 
character. A pure 
fiction often has a 
positive and great im- 
portance in a histor- 
ical point of view. 
The story of William 
Tell, for example, may 
be, as now claimed, a 
myth, but it none the 
less fairly represents 
the Swiss struggle for 

DO 

liberty. Again, George 
Washington's "little hatchet" never cut down a 
parental cherry-tree, but the story none the less 
fairly illustrates the truthfulness of " the father of 
his country." With this much prefatory to our 
narrative, we proceed. 

iEneas, having finally reached Latium (Italy) 
notwithstanding the buffetings of Juno, had the 
good fortune and consideration to marry a royal 
maiden, and so became a ruler in a small way. His 
son, Ascanius, or lulus, founded Alba Longa, and a 
dynasty which held sway for three hundred years, 
without traditions, till two brothers of the royal 
household, Numitor and Amulius, quarreled. The 
successful brother thought to perpetuate his family 
title by committing the only child of his brother, 
Rhea Silva, to a nunnery. She took the veil, as we 
would call it in our day, as a vestal virgin, by which 
vow she bound herself to perpetual virginity. But 
in those far-away days, fate was not balked by any 




The Wolf-6uckled Twins. 



little thing like that. The god of war, Mars, visited 
her by night, and the result of that divine favor was 
the ever-famous Romulus and Remus. Of course 
the royal uncle was horrified, and had no idea of ac- 
cepting the theory of the immaculate conception. He 
caused the twins to be exposed, and, as he supposed, 
cut short in their career at once. But the friendly 
Tiber bore them to the foot of the Palatine in safety, 
and a she-wolf nourished them. With the blood of 
Mars and the milk of a wolf coursing through their 
veins, they were in a fair way to become good 
fighters, as, indeed, befitted the founders of a 
mighty empire. 

The king's shepherd, all unconscious of the ori- 
gin of the foundlings, 
took them home and 
reared them as his 
own. In due time 
they became leaders 
of petty clans among 
their fellows, and their 
prowess came to the 
knowledge of their de- 
throned grandfather. 
The mystery of their 
parentage was also 
ascertained. Then the 
young men rallied 
their associates, made 
war upon the usurper, 
slew him, and received from their grateful grandfa- 
ther a tract of land. The legend runs that Romulus 
built a wall for a city, and that Remus, in derision, 
jumped over it, whereupon the irate brother slew him. 
When the Romans were in deep affliction, ages later, 
they remembered with unavailing horror, that the 
foundations of their city were cemented with frater- 
nal blood, albeit Romulus tried to carry it off 
bravely by exclaiming, " So perish all who dare to 
climb these ramparts." 

Having a city, he wanted inhabitants. The out- 
laws and desperadoes of the vicinity gathered within 
the iuclosure. It was a cave of Adullum. The 
gang (for such they really were) soon felt the need 
of female society, and their chief tried to negotiate 
for wives, but to no purpose. The outlaws who had 
rallied about his standard were not looked upon 
with favor as sons-in-law. Not to be baffled by re- 
fusal, he hit upon a ruse. He announced a public 



TT1 



i 3 6 



ANCIENT ITALY AND PRIMITIVE ROME. 



festival in honor of a god, a sort of pagan camp- 
meeting, and invited his neighbors. They came, 
bringing their families with them, suspecting no 
treachery. At a given signal, the bachelors of 
Rome seized every man a woman, and fled within 
the inclosure. That was the famous Rape of the 
Sabines. It was not long before the outraged com- 
munity rallied to the rescue and revenge. They 
made good headway, and would probably have de- 
stroyed the city at one blow had not the women 
themselves interfered. Having found that the " in- 
tentions" of the robbers were "honorable," they 
rushed between the combatants and made peace 
between them. The Sabines seemed quite ready to 
ratifv the enforced nuptials, since those most inter- 
ested were satisfied with the arrangement. Hence- 
forth the Sabines and Romans became one people. 

The next king after Romulus was Numa Pom- 
pilius, a Sabine. He has come down to us in tradi- 
tion as a real statesman and philosopher, a man of 
learning, albeit not above practical deception. To 
give the laws which he promulgated special sanc- 
tion., he pretended to have received them by divine 
inspiration, the nymph Egeria having been con- 
sulted by him in her grotto. To him are ascribed 
the religious institutions of the city. It is claimed 
that to him belongs the honor of putting an end to 
human sacrifices at Rome. His successor was Tul- 
lius Hostilius, a Roman chosen by the Sabines. 
His career was one of carnage and strife. For 
something over one hundred years, the monarchs 
were elected by the senators, and by slow degrees 
the territory tributary to Rome was enlarged. 

The first real dynasty was the house of Tarquin. 
The founder of it, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, is 
represented to have been an adventurer, the son of 
a Greek father and Etruscan mother, the tutor or 
guardian of the infant son of the fourth elective 
king. He abused his position to supplant his ward. 
Rome is supposed to have been one hundred and 
thirty-eight years old when Tarquin came to the 
throne. From his reign date the earliest public 
buildings and works. Etruria was the first Latin 
state to acquire some civilization, and when Rome 
had advanced far enough to be a little civilized, the 
inference was that an Etruscan king had done it. 
To him is attributed that gigantic sewer, Cloaca 
Maxima, which is still extant. Many of the cos- 
tumes and customs of Rome are said to have been 



introduced at this time from Etruria, including 
the triumph, lictors, fasces, chairs, curule, and per- 
haps the toga. 




UJOaca Maxima (in its present condition, 1881). 

Tarquin was succeeded by his son-in-law, Servius 
Tullius. To him is accredited the honor of en- 
larging the city to the full size it maintained 
during the days of the republic, a city indeed, 
with its four quarters, the Palatine, the Suburban, 
the Goehne, and the Esquiline, and as many tribes 
or wards. The outside territory he divided into 
twenty-four tribes, or townships. These in turn he 
divided into classes and centuries. He was a friend 
of the people, especially in the distribution of the 
land. And now for the first time crops to the sur- 
face the jealousies and animosities between the ple- 
beians and the patricians, the great division-line 
between the parties during the era of the republic. 
From the first, the land question, or agrarianism, as 
it was afterwards called, was the great issue at 
stake, much as the relative powers of the United 
States and the several states have been funda- 
mental to the politics of this country from Wash- 
ington's administration down. The good king was 
not allowed to finish his career in peace. He was 
ruthlessly slain, and in his place was installed Lu- 
cius, his son-in-law, a tool of the aristocracy. The 
reader will not fail to note the prominence given to 
sons-in-law in primitive Roman traditions. 

This Lucius seems to have had an atrocious wife. 
She first slew her husband and sister that she might 
marry her brother-in-law, and then, when the ill- 
gotten husband threw the aged king down the pal- 
ace stairs, she drove her chariot over his prostrate 
body. This monstrous dame bore the mild name 
of Tullia. She must have been the Eve of the 
Borgias. Lucius found Rome one of the forty- 
seven petty Latin states, which met together on the 
Alban Mount to worship Jupiter, having the slight- 



ite- 



ANCIENT ITALY AND PRIMITIVE ROME. 



!.37 



est possible bond of union. To his reign is assigned 
i hr supremacy of Home over all of them, besides the 
extension of Roman sway to some other parts of 
Italy. Lucius is supposed to have come tc the 
throne when the city was two hundred and twenty- 
years old, B. C. 534. 

He was the first to establish a Roman colony. By 
his day the city began to be troubled with an excess 
of population, and very likely the popular clamor 
for land had a good deal to do with the coloniza- 
tion policy. Greek colonies were bound to the 
mother country by no political ties, but the colo- 
nies sent out by Rome were an integral part of the 
nation itself. They were subject and provincial, but 
as much a part of the Roman kingdom, republic or 
empire, as the case might be, as the states of this 
Union are which have been admitted since the fed- 
eration of the original thirteen states. The people 
were Roman citizens as truly as if they lived on 
Capitoline Hill. The principle of representation 
was not allowed in the Roman government, and 
consequently the communities liv'ug in or near 
Rome had a decided advantage. J; is as if an 
American citizen were obliged personally to appear 
at Washington city to have a vote in national poli- 
tics. This advantage was not great, but the colo- 
nies remained loyal to their national allegiance, and 
thereto may be attributed in a very large measure 
the expansion of the little village of outlaws into a 
nation, extending from the British Isles to the far 
Orient. 

Intimately connected with the political constitu- 
tion which bound the parent city and her colonial off- 
spring together, was the road system, which was as 
old apparently as the first colony. Between the 
city and the colony was built a broad and perma- 
nent highway, having for its primary object the 
establishment of military connection. Either 
could readily come to the assistance of the other in 
case of attack. Some of those old roads are still 
extant, and almost intact. They bespeak a very 
considerable degree of civilization. These roads, if 
not a fortunate accident, attest a prescience in 
statecraft unparalleled in all history, prior to the 
British policy by which a small island became the 
supreme empire, and of which we shall have occa- 
sion to speak hereafter. 



Tradition presents only one more royal name : 
Tarquin the Proud. Many curious romances clus- 
ter around his name, or rather his supposed reign. 
He was not a romantic character himself. Brutus, 
who espoused the cause of the people, and who was 
the pride of the illustrious family who disappeared 
with the assassination of Csesar, or rather the battle 
of Philippi, simulated idiocy to escape the mur- 
derous enmity of Tarquin. The immediate occa- 
sion of the uprising of the people was the pathetic 
tragedy of Lucretia. She was compelled at the 
point of the sword to submit to the lust of Sextus> 
the son and heir of the king. She was the fairest 
and most virtuous of wives. She made a statement 
of the case the next day to her husband and father, 
and then stabbed herself in their presence. Her 
dead body was carried to the Forum, her tale of 
wrong insufferable rehearsed, and the people ad- 
jured to rise against the tyrant. The appeal was 
successful and the dynasty overthrown, never to be 
restored. That was B. C. 509, and for nearly five 
centuries thereafter Rome was a republic. All in 
vain the dethroned Tarquin sought to recover the 
kingdom, assisted by Etruscan intervention. Lars 
(King) Porsena of Clusium tried to crush the free- 
dom of Pome, but he signally failed. He marched 
his soldiers to the Tiber, and thought to cross the 
bridge which would have made him master of the 
situation, but Horatius Codes defended it so gal- 
lantly, that the Romans had time to cut it down 
before the enemy could cross. After staying an 
army in its course, this prodigy in arms plunged 
into the river and safely swam to the oppo- 
site side. 

Porsena's ineffectual efforts were not exhaustive. 
Servius Tarquin seems to have been able to rally 
other Latin allies. The noted battle of Lake Re- 
gillus, near Alba, belonged to this struggle. We are 
told that the Roman general, Valerius, vowed a 
temple to Castor and Pollux in the crisis of this 
battle, and that presently two youths of eminent 
beauty and stature were seen fighting on white 
horses in front of the Romans, and turning the 
enemy to flight. Finally Servius was slain, and his 
uncrowned father eked out a miserable old age at 
the court of the tyrant of Cuma?. We hear no more 
of the Tarquins nor of crowns until the Caesars. 



J±l 



^ 




: ^>j^j^|^^>^>^xj^xj^>j^x^^^x^>|^^>^^ 






m 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

A Republicanism in Rome — First Consuls— Rivalry of Classes — Establishment op Tribunate & 
— Agrarianism and the Plebs— Cincinnatus and Dentatus— Virginius and Virginia — 
Coriolanus and his Pride— Greek and Roman Ideals Compared — L a tium— Invasion of 
the Gauls — The Gauls and Latins— Rome and Italy. 




- 



\g?% 



> E shall hear no more of kings. 
That grandest of all Ro- 
mans, Julius Caesar, was 
'assassinated on the mere 
suspicion of kingly ambi- 
tion. In the popular mind 
of to-day, emperor is a 
more imposing title, sug- 
gestive of more real power, than that of king, 
but originally, it was little different from 
consul or president for life. The strug- 
gle through which Rome passed in displac- 
ing monarchy with republicanism, must 
have been a loug and desperate one, more 
terrible by far than the legends represent, 
else the entire people, from patrician to ple- 
beian, would not have had such profound and lively 
repugnance to monarchy. That repugnance was 
the one bond of fellowship among all classes. How- 
ever high party spirit and animosity might run, there 
were no royalists in Rome. Civil wars, dictators, 
and every possible experience came, without so 
much as suggesting, apparently, a resort to mon- 
archical institutions, and the first serious apprehen- 
sion of such a resort did not come until some four 
hundred and fifty years after the last of the Tar- 
quins. The principle of republicanism could hard- 



ly have a firmer hold upon a nation than it had 
upon Rome during the consular period. In this im- 
mediate connection, it is jjroposed to bring out the 
more interesting and important facts and legends 
of the republic during the centuries of merely tra- 
ditional history, from the expulsion of the Tar- 
quins to the first Punic war. 

The first Consuls of Rome were Junius Brutus 
and Tarquinius Collatinus. The name given to the 
latter shows the shadowy uncertainty of the history 
of that day, and suggests that perhaps, the over- 
throw of monarchy was gradual. There had by that 
time grown up some considerable commerce, and 
commercial law began to be a prominent feature. 
Evidently the early Romans had no pity for insol- 
vent debtors, and enacted rigorous penalties for the 
enforcement of business contracts. The rich and 
the poor formed the two parties in the state, during 
the misty morning hours of the Republic. The 
patricians tried to perpetuate themselves as a landed 
aristocracy, while the plebeians insisted upon a fair 
share of the realty, and less severe penalties for un- 
fortunate poverty. Twice during the first half cen- 
tury of the republic it was necessary to appoint a 
dictator, or absolute autocrat of the state, to con- 
centrate the entire force of the nation as against 
hostile neighbors. In all such emergencies, the 



-7T 



(138) 



\ 



SEMI-HISTORIC ROME. 



J 39 



rivalries of parties and factious were forgotten, but 
only to revive as soon as the military necessity for 
harmony was removed. 

The first noteworthy romance (for such it must 
be called) of the Republic occurred in the year 
B. C. 495, wheu the first Appius Claudius was one 
of the consuls, and the popular Servilius the other. 
By that time the party feeling was so strong that 
the plebs refused to take up arms to repulse au in- 
cursion of the Volsci, until solemnly promised the 
redress of their wrongs. The enemy having been 
driven back, the senate refused to carry out the 
agreement. Another dictator was appointed to 
negotiate terms of reconciliation, for the plebeians 
threatened civil war, and the senate was frightened. 
This dictator sent Menenius Agrippa to negotiate 
peace. He is said to have narrated to them the 
famous fable* of the mutiny of the eyes, ears, 
hands, etc.. against the belly, which finally termin- 
ated in the conclusion by all the members, that each 
was necessary to the whole. This view seems to have 
been shared by both factions at Rome, for the Sen- 
ate made liberal concessions to the common people, 
and henceforth there was a gradual enlargement of 
popular rights, with only rare, infrequent and tem- 
porary reactions in favor of the aristocracy. 

It was perhaps as the result of this popular up- 
rising, sometimes called " the secession of the Mous 
Sacer," that the institution of the Tribunatus was 
established. The tribunes were magistrates charged 
with the duty of conserving and advancing the in- 
terests of the common people. The two consuls 
were supposed, originally, to represent both parties, 
but the aristocratic element having gained the con- 
sular ascendancy, the plebeians insisted upon hav- 
ing two tribunes. The first selections were Sicinius 
and Brutus (the frequency of the latter name being 
suggestive of the legendary character of our in- 
formation). The office of tribune survived and had 
its uses in accordance with its original plan, long 
after the expansion and wealth of Rome had ena- 
bled all classes of the citizens to be patricians. 
" When," says a great Roman historian, " after the 
vast conquest of Rome, the struggle of classes lay 
no longer between patricians and plebeians, but be- 
tween the aristocracy, or the nobles, and the hetero- 
geneous populace which constituted the mass of the 
citizens, this institution supported again the cause 
of the multitude, and secured its final triumph in the 



establishment of the empire. The emperors them- 
selves assumed the name and office of the tribunes, 
and as such claimed a legal prerogative for the pro- 
tection of popular rights, and they, in their turn, 
converted their prerogative to an instrument for 
admitting the provinces into the privileges of the 
city, and transforming all the subject races of the 
empire into Roman citizens." Surely the seces- 
sion of the sacred mountain was one of the most 
important revolutions of all history, however in- 
significant it may have seemed at the time, and 
however legendary may be our information as 
to its details. 

The land question assumed especial prominence 
in the infancy of the Republic. Agrarian laws were 
passed during the consulate of Spurius Cassius, 
B. C. 493, amid great opposition from the patricians. 
The great excitement on this subject was much la- 
ter, however, when the Gracchi came forward as the 
leaders of the popular cause. There were two kinds 
of land held by the aristocracy, and none by the 
poorer class. What was called Quiritary land be- 
longed to the occupants in fee simple, but much of 
the territory round about was public domain, the 
title being in the state. This part of the Agar Ro- 
manus was monopolized by the patricians on the 
payment to the state of a nominal rent. The plebs 
insisted upon having a share of the state lands, not 
as tenants at the will of landlords, but as citizens in 
the enjoyment of a political right. The conflict 
must have been sharp, bitter and protracted. The 
plebeians seem to have gained much in theory, but 
little in fact. The legislation secured, amounted to 
hardly more than a " barren ideality." More than 
once the common people, when brought face to face 
with a foreign foe, seized the opportunity to exact 
concessions from the senate, a body composed of 
the higher class, but there were other interests which 
came to the front. 

The agrarian laws of Spurius Cassius required 
the state to divide among the poorer class a 
portion of its own actual property (the primitive 
homestead act), and at the same time to ex- 
act strict payment by the patricians of the rents 
due the state, the same to be appropriated to 
the support of the citizens when called to arms. It 
was about this time that the tribunes of the people 
were invested with a veto power upon the enact- 
ments of the Senate, and given personal inviolabil- 



-a*T 



140 



SEMI-HISTORIC ROME. 



ity. Gradually they gained ground, and when 
above the reach of patrician bribery or intimidation, 
they were very useful. But neither consuls nor 
tribunes were allowed to wield the superior power of 
the state with regularity. 

In the period under consideration dictators were 
numerous. The names of no less than seven appear 
in a period of twenty-seven years. As modern states 
under constitutional government, whether republics 
or monarchies, feel obliged under emergencies to 
suspend the writ of ha/was corpus, or even to declare 
martial law, so the Roman Republic frequently del- 
egated absolute power to some eminent citizen, usu- 
ally a great soldier. The 
most illustrious of these 
dictators was Cincinna- 
tus, the ideal patriot of 
ancient history. He is rep- 
resented as a pure-minded, 
unambitious farmer, qui- 
etly following the plow, 
except when the necessi- 
ties of the state impera- 
tively called for his servi- 
ces. All classes had un- 
bounded confidence in 
him. A patrician of the 
bluest blood, he was no 
less a man of the people. 
Nature came the nearest 
to realizing that lofty 
ideal citizen when it pro- 
duced a Washington. Without being a reform- 
er, he was in the grandest sense of the term, a 
conservative. He flourished about three hundred 
years after Romulus, and four hundred and fifty 
before Christ. 

Among the tribunes, the most illustrious name 
is that of Dentatus. He was the soldier par ex- 
cellence of legendary Rome. As brave as Achilles, 
he never " sulked in his tent," nor was he in- 
vulnerable except in his heel. Had he been, he 
could never have been wounded, for he never re- 
treated. He boldly met every danger. His sears 
were numerous, and all in the front. He seemed to 
bear a charmed life, but fell at last on the field of 
battle, not however, a victim of the foe, his death- 
wound being the result of treachery. The Consul, 
Appius Claudius, a name already odious, but ren- 




dered doubly so by this later bearer of it, deter- 
mined to get rid of the dauntless champion of popu- 
lar rights. He gave secret orders that Dentatus 
should not be allowed to come out of the battle 
alive. The fact that the chief hero of the Romans, 
a people that fairly worshiped personal bravery, was 
believed to have sprung from the plebeian ranks, 
and had been assassinated by the orders of a haughty 
patrician while fighting the common enemy, shows 
the strength of the class prejudice. 

Another noted plebeian of that period was Virgini- 
us, the father of Virginia whose story, like that of 
Lucretia, has ever served as a monument to female 

virtue. Vinjinius was 
also a Tribune. While 
he was upon the " tented 
field," Appius, who was 
as lustful as he was proud, 
saw the daughter, who 
was just then ripening 
into womanhood, on her 
way to school attended by 
her nurse. He conceived 
an unhallowed passion for 
her, and set about grati- 
fying it. A supple tool 
pretended that Virginia 
was his long lost slave. 
A trial was had, and false 
witnesses proved the claim. 
The court as well as the 
witnesses were bribed. 
But tidings of the horrible fate that awaited the 
virgin were brought to the father just as he was 
mourning the death of Dentatus (not yet aware of 
the real cause of the old soldier's death). He has- 
tened home, too late to save his daughter, except by 
plunging his dagger into her breast. This one rem- 
edy he applied, and as Lucretia was enshrined in 
the Roman heart as a martyr to matronly virtue, so 
Virginia is the ideal of virginal purity. " Death 
before dishonor," was the sentiment in both cases. 
It is not too much to say that the modern world, 
as well as Ancient Rome, is the better for these two 
legends, for such they undoubtedly were. Taken 
together, they point a most impressive moral. As 
in the case of Lucretia, so in the case of Virginia, 
" the blood of the martyrs was the seed " of reform, 
anil contributed powerfully to the popular cause. 



Death of Virginia. 



■a V 



SEMI-HISTORIC ROME. 



141 



Another noted character of the period under 
consideration was Coriolanus. He was quite as 
proud as Appius Claudius, but his was the pride of 
personal character. He scorned to stoop, and is 
the typical aristocrat. For his valiant services in 
battle, and his nobility of character, he was the 
pride of the city. All classes were disposed to do 
him reverence. By the exercise of the least degree 
of the arts of a politician, he could have been the 
pet of all the people, but he despised the plebeians. 
In him centered all the prejudice of the patrician. 
Scorning "the vulgar herd," he let it be known 
perfectly well that he would not, literally speaking, 
turn his hand over to gain the favor of the multi- 
tude. The re- 
sult was that he 
was bauished, 
and in bp'iish- 
ment offered 
his services to 
the Volscians, 
against whom 
he had recently 
led the Roman 
legions in tri- 
umph. His per- 
sonal prowess 
turned the scale, 
and Rome was 
at his mercy. 
Deputations be- 
sought his pardon and his leniency. To them all 
he turned a deaf ear, until at last his own wife, 
mother and child came out to him. Then anger 
melted into love and gentleness. 

Such were the ideals held before the Roman gaze 
for generations, as typical characters, ideals of the 
more pronounced Roman characteristics. Others 
followed at a later date, but of more historic ac- 
curacy of outline. The heroes of legendary Greece 
seemed wholly deficient in moral stamina, or even 
the conception of morality. Herein Rome shows 
a very marked superiority, although far less civil- 
ized in intellectual culture. 

Besides the struggles between patricians and ple- 
beians, relatingto civil rights and privileges, in which 
the lower classes made some gains, and numerous 
petty conflicts with neighboring states in which the 
whole people shared in an inconsequential way, 



there were several really gr^at wars, culminating, 
notwithstanding some serious disasters, in mak- 
ing Rome master of Italy, the position it occupies 
when brought into conflict with Carthage. It is 
evident from glimpses caught here and there, that 
Etruria was long the most civilized state in Italy, 
not counting the few Greek colonies in the south. 
Etruscan art was very considerable, and there is 
good reason to believe that a valuable Etruscan lit. 
erature once existed. There were other states in 
Latium, which were somewhat more advanced than 
Rome, but the Romans were desperate warriors and 
had a colonial policy which gradually helped extend 
the state. The conquest of Etruria seems to have 

been a very close 
contest. If not, 
t he Romans 
were tempted to 
abandon their 
own rude and 
un who le some 
town (for Rome 
was never a 
good city, from 
a sanitary point 
of view) and set- 
tle in the Etrus- 
can city of Veii, 
which was about 
twelve miles be- 

Relief on an Etruscan Tomb. yQQd ^ Tiber _ 

It took thirty years to capture the city ; that is, 
thirty years from the time the first attempt was 
made until the last one, which culminated in suc- 
cess. Camillus was the General under whom the 
capture was made. That was in B. C. 396. That 
year was memorable for the fall of Veii, which 
Camillus is said to have torn down, removing the 
building material to Rome, lest the party favoring 
the transfer of the capital should finally carry the 
day. 

But the year was still more memorable for the 
raid of the Gauls. Now, for the first time, we con- 
front the aborigines of France, a people with which 
Rome had a great deal to do through many centu- 
ries. The Gauls, who came finally to be subjects of 
imperial Rome, came upon the stage of history as 
wild marauders. In their savage enterprise, they 
had crossed the Alps, and penetrated southward, 




V 



•Mo- 



142 



SEMI-HISTORIC ROME. 



desolating Italy as they went. Among the places 
which they ravaged was Rome, which must have 
been a feeble town, although nearly four hundred 
years old. Their march was victorious. Brennus, 
their leader, was a " mighty man of war, " not 
covetous of lands, but greedy-eyed for personal 
property of all sorts. It is by no means certain 
that the Romans do not owe the fall of Veii to these 
barbarians rather than to their own prowess. Be 
that as it may, they were an overmatch for the Ro- 
mans. On the banks of the Allia, eleven miles from 
Rome, the two armies met, the representatives of the 
peoples destined to many a desperate encounter in 
coming ages. The Gauls utterly routed the Romans 
and drove the few survivors into the city in head- 
long haste, boldly pushing their way within the 
walls, the people taking refuge in the Capitol. In 
after times the Romans pictured the senators calmly 
pursuing the business of legislation when the Gauls 
camo upon them. This of course was a preposter- 
ous invention. The indubitable fact is, that Rome 
was at the mercy of the Gauls, who pillaged and 
sacked until their greed was glutted. The Capitol 
escaped the ravages of flame, but not the city. The 
proud Romans attributed its salvation to divine in- 
terposition. The horde glutted their barbaric lust 
for spoils, and left the city, which never suffered like 
disaster again until the Goths and Vandals took it 
at the final fall of Rome. 
Besides the Etruscans were the Samnites, a Latin 



people of great military strength, as compared with 
the Rome of that day. For a long series of years 
there was war between the two peoples. Saninium 
had the alliance of Etruria, and is said to have se- 
cured aid from the Gauls. But all things have an 
end, and the Samnite war or wars (for there were 
three of them) which began B. 0. 343, closed B. C. 
282. There were several famous names in connec- 
tion with these wars, Manlius Torquatus, Valerius 
Corvus, and others, but none of the details are 
worthy of record here. It is enough to say, that 
by the time Rome had stood four hundred years, it 
was the master of Italy, except the Greek cities, 
and the citizens of Latium became citizens of 
Rome, only with some restrictions in their rights. 

That consummation, so gradual, but all the more 
secure, put an end to the struggle between the pa- 
tricians and the plebeians. Henceforth, urban in- 
habitants or citizens of the city were aristocrats. 
To have ancestry strictly Roman, was enough. 
"The first families" joined in asserting superiority 
over the Latin citizens, as in later centuries all the 
Latin citizens accounted themselves vastly superior 
to the outsiders, however complete their citizenship. 
Rome, in brief, is now the capital of Italy, and 
proud alike of her Dentatus and her Coriolanus, 
and the terms patrician and plebeian came gradu- 
ally to designate the inevitable social distinctions of 
a large community, rather than distinct factions 
and castes. 



■7fF=^ 





CHAPTER XXIV. 

Pyrrhus and his Elephants — Carthage and its place in History— The First Punic War— a 
Hamtlcar and Hannibal — The Second Punic War— Hannibal Crosses the Alps— The Si 
Battle op Cann-e— The Fabian Policy— Scipio and the War in Africa— The Further 
Conquests op Home— The Third Punic War and the Fall of Carthage. 





H^-^od^^H 



HAT an arena do we leave 
for the Carthaginians 
and Romans to contend 
on!" Such 
is the excla- 
mation at- 
tributed to 
Pyrrhus of 
Epirus, cousin of Alexander 
the Great. The remark is 
no doubt apocryphal, as are 
the details given of the war 
which Pjirhus made upon 
Rome. But it is highly 
probable that he foresaw a 
desperate conflict between 
them. At the time at which we have 
arrived, Rome is master of Italy, ex- 
ce]}t the Grecian towns on the coast, 
and they dared not trust to their own 
valor. They induced the king of 
Epirus to come to their defense. He 
brought a few Epirotes with him, and 
a kind of cavalry heretofore unknown Pyrrhus of 

to the Romans, namely, elephants. Greek and Ro- 
man arms were thus brought into conflict, and in the 
first engagement Pyrrhus was victorious. His own 




losses, however, were heavy. " One more such vic- 
tory," he said, " and I am ruined." He did' not care to 
follow up his advantage, and tried the virtue of nego- 
tiation, and if we may believe Roman 
tradition (for our facts are still shad- 
owy) the Greek was profoundly im- 
pressed with the incorruptibility, hero- 
ism, and manliness of the Romans. 
He moved on without accomplishing 
anything decisive, going to the help 
of some Greek colonists against Car- 
thaginian interlopers. It was not long 
before he returned and had another 
battle with the Romans. This time 
he was thoroughly beaten, and re- 
turned to his own country in disgrace. 
That was the last aggressive war on 
Rome by the Greeks. It served as a 
prelude, and hardly more, to the 
Punic wars. Acquaintance witli 
the elephants of PjTrhus prej^ared 
the legions to meet the shock of 
Hannibal and his elephants. Pyr- 
rhus was actuated, apparently, by 
no settled animosity, nor did he have any con- 
ception of Roman destiny. He must have seen 
in the citizens of Rome a community of rather 



Epirus 



(H3) 



-s K 



+2te 



H4 



ROME AND CARTHAGE. 



li 



interesting barbarians, and that is about all. The 
Carthaginians may be said to have been the first 
people, beyond the narrow limits of Italy, to resolute- 
ly attempt to thwart the " manifest destiny " of Rome. 
Carthage was the capital of a republic of the same 
name, on the southern shore of the Mediterranean 
Sea, near the site of the modern Tunis. It was a 
Phoenician city, an offshoot of Tyre, founded B. 0. 
850. It had a vast commerce and a splendid civili- 
zation, including a literature, but the final success 
of the Romans in destroying it involved the loss of 
that literature. Consequently we know very little 
about Carthage, except as it is derived from Roman 
sources, and from 



Polybius, a Greek, 
who was present at its 
destruction, as the 
friend of the victori- 
ous Scipio, and whose 
work lias been all lost, 
with the exception 
of a few chapters. 
The Carthaginians 
were called Pu/m, 
hence the three wars 
with Rome were called 
the Punic wars. They 
were a very enterpris- 
ing people. Their 
commerce extended 
wherever ships sailed 

in those days, and a vast inland trade was 
carried on with the Numidians, and other 
African and nomadic tribes. The population of 
the city is supposed to have been about 700,000. 
The government seems to have been quite sim- 
ilar to that of Rome ; an aristocratic republic. 
In carrying forward commercial enterprise, it 
was necessary to establish trading-posts here and 
there. For that reason Carthage long enjoyed 
the control of a very considerable amount of foreign 
territory, not acquired for the ordinary purposes of 
conquest and dominion, but for the uses of traffic. 
According to Polybius, all the islands of the western 
Mediterranean belonged to Carthage, besides much 
territory in Spain. At the time the first Punic 
war began, B. C. 264, a very considerable area of land 
about the city was under a high state of cultivation. 
The nobility took delight in agriculture, and the me- 



chanical arts were not neglected. At that time they 
were a far more civilized peojole than the Romans, 
and they might have well looked down with lofty 
scorn upon the rude barbarians of the Tiber. 

The immediate occasion of the war between the 
two republics was the attempt of Carthage to gain 
possession of Sicily, an island about the size of the 
State of Maryland, and the most important in the 
Mediterranean. It contained a flourishing Greek 
colony. It is worthy of remark that although Ath- 
ens was a great commercial center, a little passi 
then, but long prominent, it never came into con- 
flict with Carthage. Sicily was too near Italy to 

make the establish- 
ment there of a Punic 
stronghold tolerable 
in the eyes of Rome, 
which by this time 
had become master of 
Italy, and was in no 
mood to brook in- 
tervention from the 
Southwest. Seeing 
that two great powers 
were thus brought 
into conflict, Pyrrhus 
may reasonably have 
withdrawn, in the 
hope of a life-and- 
death struggle be- 

CABTHAGE. tween thege twQ re _ 

publics which should pave the way for the Epi- 
rotes to ride in triumph over both. If lie held 
any sucli theory lie was destined to disappointment, 
the real disaster of the war being confined to one of 
the combatants, the other gaining in proportion to 
its rival's loss. 




The Romans were successful in driving the Car- 
thaginians from Sicily, or rather, they and their 
allies were successful, for in the beginning of the con- 
flict Rome was not single-handed by any means. 
The Carthaginians were compelled to give up their 
enterprise. They would have been content, proba- 
blv, to go on with their commerce without further 
combat witli the Romans. They do not appear to 
have seen a rival on the Tiber, but the Romans 
were not content to let the matter rest there. They 
carried the war into Africa, assuming the aggres- 
sive. A naval battle was fought not long after, in 



;pr 



ROME AND CARTHAGE. 



H5 



which, to let them tell it, the Romans performed 
prodigies. They weie not sea fighters, but they 
grappled the enemies' ships, boarded them and 
waged a hand-to-hand fight, for which the Cartha- 
ginian mercenaries were not prepared. The victory 
of Mylse was the Trafalgar of the Punic war, and 
the Romans never wearied of boasting of it. They 
took from Carthage several outlying posts, but on 
the continent of Africa they experienced terrible 
disasters. Regulus, the hero of the first Punic war, 
as conducted by land, was not properly supported. 
His army was terribly defeated 
and himself taken prisoner. He 
was sent as an envoy of peace 
to Rome, where he had the hero- 
ism to advise the senate to reject 
the terms offered, and then bore 
back the refusal of his country 
to entertain the idea of a cessa- 
tion of hostilities, while under 
the cloud of disaster. His patriot- 
ism cost him his life, but the 
persistence of Rome was reward- 
ed. After dragging along twenty- 
three years the first Punic war 
ended in an agreement on the 
part of Carthage to give up all 
claims to Sicily, restore her pris- 
oners and pay to Rome a consid- 
erable indemnity. The losses 
on both sides had been large 
without being at all decisive. 
It may be said that both were weary and took 
with no thought of permanent peace. 

Twenty years elapsed between the first and the 
second Punic wars. To Carthage those were years 
of wasting civil strife. The unhappy republic was 
the prey of party conflicts, involving serious loss. 
One faction was in favor of strict attention to busi- 
ness, the other, insisting that a more military char- 
acter must be given to the state, and that the war- 
like power which had arisen in Italymust be crushed 
before commerce could prosper on a solid founda- 
tion. The leaders of the two parties, Hanno and 
Hamilcar, when the issue was raised, died during 
the cessation of hostilities, and Hannibal, son of 
the great soldier Hamilcar, came to the front as 
the worthy successor of his martial father. At 
the age of twenty-six, he became the General of 



swear 
If he 
right 




Hannibal. 




season 

fighting was necessary 



Some 



Hannibal's Vow 



a rest, 



the Carthaginian army in Spain, for in Iberia, as 

the ancients called it, Carthage 

had very important possessions. 

Tradition has it, that at the age 

of nine his father took him to 

the temple and made him 

eternal enmity to Rome. 

did take such an oath, 

loyally did he observe it. 

Turning now to Rome, we find 
that the interval of peace with 
Carthage was a 

of preparation. 

to main- 
tain the supremacy of Latium, 
and hold the Gauls in check. 
Sardinia and Corsica were con- 
quered and a large part of Illyria 
overrun. Rome asserted herself 
in the affairs of Greece. The 
famous Flaminian Way, from 
Rome to the Gallic frontier near 
Ariminum, was constructed, giv- 
ing the consul Flaminius a 
reputation second only to Ap- 
pius, who built the Appian Way. 
Marcellus, a plebeian, yet a noble- 
man, carried the Roman arms 
to triumph over an alliance of 
Gauls and Germans. The Car- 
thaginians had indeed gained 
much in Spain, but the extension 
of Roman power was far the greater of the two. The 
second Punic war began, however, with great advan- 
tage on the part of Carthage, from the fact that it 
had the services of one of the greatest warriors of 
history, for Hannibal ranks with Alexander, Cajsar, 
Napoleon and Grant. 

The summer of B. C. 218 witnessed the begin- 
ning of the second Punic war. The young Cartha- 
ginian General crossed the Ebro with a hundred 
thousand men and thirty-seven elephants, resolved 
to enter the Roman territory by way of the Pyrenees 
and the Alps. The undertaking was one of the 
most difficult ever planned, the distance being eight 
hundred miles. The very fact that he must subsist 
off the tribes along the route, made the entire march 
the invasion of a hostile country. He left detach- 
ments behind at several points, to hold in check the 



146 



ROME AND CARTHAGE. 



,k 



enemies he had made and subdued. He turned the 
Pyrenees by taking the coast line, and probably in- 
tended to outflank the Alps also. The Romans 
were expecting nothing of the kind. They had de- 
signed sending Scipio to attack Hannibal in Spain, 
and Sempronius was to march upon Carthage it- 
self. The latter had set sail before the news of this 
aggressive movement was received. Scipio was di- 
rected to intercept Hannibal at the Rhone, but he 
was too late. The great soldier had got beyond 
him. Looking back upon it all, one is surprised 
that Hannibal did not await the attack, being far 
better prepared to meet it then than later ; but he 
evidently misjudged the nature of Roman rule in 
Italy. Thinking it like Carthaginian rule in Afri- 
ca, he supposed that he had only to reach Latium 
to have the alliance of the Latins, and so he avoid- 
ed an engagement by trying one of the most diili- 
cult passes of the Alps, probably the Little St. Ber- 
nard. The sufferings of his men were terrible*, and 
the losses immense, so late was the season. When 
at last the army of invasion came down into the 
sunny valleys of the Cisalpine, it had dwindled 
to twenty thousand foot, six thousand horse, and 
seven elephants. Worst of all, there were no allies. 
He was in the enemy's country in an unexpected 
sense. And now the genius of Hannibal was put 
to the test. Appreciating the situation, his first 
care was to gain a victory, however small the scale, 
in the hope of thus winning allies. He succeeded. 
The skirmish of the Ticinus brought him thousands 
of Gauls, and now he was eager for a battle with 
Scipio, especially as the latter would soon be rein- 
forced by Sempronius. The battle of Trebia was 
fought, Scipio having been joined by Sempronius, 
and the latter being in command. The result was 
a great victory for Hannibal. Early the next year 
he crossed the Apennines and tried to provoke an- 
other battle there. Failing in this, he pushed on 
into the heart of Italy, the very valley of the Tiber. 
It was theu necessary for the Roman legions to fol- 
low him. Another battle was fought, this time b\ the 
waters of Lake Trasimenus, and again Hanni- 
bal was victorious. By this time the Roman sen- 
ate was seriously alarmed. The crisis of Rome had 
come, and the nation was threatened with disintegra- 
tion. A victorious foe was devastating the country 
with impunity. To fight, was to run the risk of more 
defeat, and to avoid conflict, was to encourage 



devastation. Finally, a conflict became inevitable. 
In B. C. 210 was fought the immortal battle of 
Cannaj, on the borders of Apulia. Both sides were 
gathered there in full force, as if the fate of Rome 
were in the balance. Again Hannibal was victori- 
ous. The slaughter was terrible. Forty-live thou- 
sand Romans were lost, including a large number of 
senators and the Consul Paulus. Polybius puts 
the loss at seventy thousand. But all was not lost. 
Cannae was two hundred miles from Rome, separa- 
ted from it by mountains and rivers. Then, too, the 
conquerors must needs gorge themselves with plun- 
der. " To the victors belong the spoils." Had the 
army of invasion been content to take advantage 
of the success, even Rome would have been laid in 
ruins. Once before the Gauls had devastated it, 
but Camillas restored it. Had the Carthaginians 
razed the walls, no third Romulus or second Ca- 
millus would have appeared. The destroyer would 
have looked carefully to that. But what the brav- 
ery of Roman arms could not do, the richness of 
Italian spoils effected. It is said that three bushels 
of gold rings were taken from the fingers of the 
fallen legionaries. However that may have been, it 
is cei-tain that the mercenaries and allies of Car- 
thage gave themselves up to rapine and plunder, 
thus throwing away the opportunity of final victory. 
To follow the fortunes of the second Punic war 
in its details, would be uninteresting. Henceforth, 
the policv of Rome was to detach the allies from 
Hannibal, and worry him out by delays. Fabius 
was the consul who advised this course, and from 
that day to this the " Fabian jiolicy " has been a 
proverbial term. Every nerve was strained to 
maintain the Roman army. Debtors, criminals and 
slaves were enlisted. Hannibal kept up the devas- 
tation, and even appeared before the walls of Rome. 
But the Romans all this while were busy in Spain 
and Carthage, also at Syracuse. Their aim was to 
so harass and punish the Carthaginians that they 
would recall Hannibal before he had executed his 
full purpose, and in this they were successful. By 
carrying the war into Africa they so far, alarmed 
the citizens of Carthage that they felt compelled to 
abandon the aggressive policy, and in a republic not 
even a Hannibal can defy the popular voice. While 
Fabius kept up just enough of activity to prevent 
the fall of Rome, Scipio " pushed things'' in Africa 
so vigorously that in B. C. 201 Carthage sued tor 



lli 



ROME AND CARTHAGE. 



HI 



1 iL'itcu and submitted to ignominious terms. Han- 
nibal had inspired such terror that when he set sail 
from Crotonia, in the fall of 303, Rome felt infinite 
relief, and when Scipi > wrung from the enemy hu- 
miliating concessions, I'oman joy knew no bounds. 
He was held in the highest repute as the savior of 
his country and the great ist of warriors. Carthage 
was at his mercy. He c.mld have razed it to the 
ground, but he was not in favor of any such policy. 
He did not demand the surrender of Hannibal, now 
in disgrace, although it was not his fault that Rome 
was not at the mercy of Carthage. It was a test of na- 
tional character, of popular endurance ; Roman hero- 
ism was an overmatch for Carthaginian civilization. 

The victory of Zama near the city of Carthage 
had effaced the memory of Tarentum and Cannas. 
Scipio Africanus, as he was now called, might 
doubtless have been consul for life, but he was a 
true patriot. As his humanity saved Carthage from 
destruction, so his patriotism saved republicanism 
at Rome intact. 

Rome was now the foremost military power in the 
world. The empire of Alexander had fallen to 
pieces, and the greatest of the fragmentary king- 
doms, Egypt, had developed a more wholesome am- 
bition than lust for dominion. The Roman legions 
were soon recruited and turned eastward. With the 
subjugation of Carthage all the region west of Rome 
was under Roman dominion, except the barbarians. 
To reduce Greece, was an easy task. Macedo- 
nia was feeble, and the various confederacies of 
Greece illy prepared to cope with the great and cen- 



tralized republic. From Greece the victors passed 
to Asia, and made serious inroads into the empire of 
Antiochus. In fine, the Roman conquests of this 
period, without being brilliant, were decisive, and 
as rapid as could be desired. Rome adhered to her 
original policy of digesting her conquests. In the 
meanwhile Carthage was slowly dying, suffering the 
agonies of mortification. Hedged about and de- 
prived of commerce or mercenaries, it was the mere 
shadow of its former self. Hannibal was the most 
unpopular and unhappy of men, and finally died in 
sorrow and exile in the year B. C. 183. In that 
same year Scipio died also. 

It was not until B. C. 140 that Carthage was de- 
stroyed. The third Punic war was hardly a war at 
all. The party led by Cato, the pedantic censor, in- 
sisted that Carthage must be destroyed, seemingly 
afraid that something might transpire to renew its 
lease of life. The senate became tired of the de- 
mand for its destruction, and ordered it, more to 
stop the annoyance of Cato's harsh croak than from 
any real fear of its former rival. The Carthagin- 
ians made a brave but ineffectual resistance. An- 
other Scipio led the Romans in this inglorious war. 
And now, after an illustrious career of seven centu- 
ries, Cartilage was literally wiped from the face of 
the earth, and henceforth, until her final fall, Rome 
is destined to meet no really formidable enemy. 
Whatever combats she may have waged in the leg- 
endary days of youth and infancy, it may be said, 
that within the purview of history, Carthage was 
the only actually dangerous rival of Rome. 




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LAST CENTURY 



^aaft-a-gga^ 




ROMAN REPUBLIC. 





OF THE^j^. 





YYVY 




CHAPTER XXV. 

A Century of Blood — The March of Conquest — The Harvest of Power — Area of the Re- 
public — The Catos; the Censor and the Younger — The Gracchi— Caius Marius— Sulla 
and Marius— The Unification of Italy— Sulla Supreme— Burning of the City— Latiuji 
no More— Sulla the Dictator— Sulla's Character and Work— Pompey the Great— He 
Suppresses Piracy — Judea and Spain Taken — Pompey and Cesar— Cicero and the 
Conspiracy of Cataline — .Julius Cesar in the West — His First Consulate— Froude's 
Cbsak 



HEN the second Punic war 
closed, there existed no 
nation which could stay 
die inarch of empire up- 
on which the Eternal City 
then entered. From the 
failure of Hannibal's plan 
of conquest, to the return 
of Caesar from the subjugation of Western 
Europe, including England and a large 
part of Germany, a period of something- 
over a century, the world was fairly 
drenched with blood. Frequent were the 
civil wars of Rome, and almost constant 
were her aggrandizements. 

It would be easy, but unprofitable, to 
tracj the details of that gory century. A great deal 
of historical space has been devoted to it, but there 
were no really great battles fought. The gradual 
expansion of the Roman Empire was as much due 
to its political constitution as to the heroism of its 
soldiers. It was the policy of Rome to make her 
victims her partners in the fruits and honors of 
victory, to an extent wholly unknown to the world 
before her day. It is true that no such policy was 
pursued toward Carthage, but that was an excep- 
tional case. This peculiarity of Rome has been 
pointed out before. It antedates authentic history, 



and was adhered to with a steadiness of purpose 
which is the proudest monument to Roman genius. 

It may be well, first of all, to point out the terri- 
torial limits of Rome in its glory. The little vil- 
lage of Romulus had, by the time at which we have 
arrived, attained to such dimensions, that it could 
defy all human limitations to its expansion, and 
while it took a century to actually acquire world 
domain, it is true that when Carthage passed under 
the yoke, the whole world was at its mercy. It re- 
quired a period of one hundred years to harvest the 
field, but the real credit of it all dates back to the 
calamity of Carthage. 

The Roman Empire, as now gradually developed, 
was tri-continental. In Africa it stretched from 
the Straits of Babel-mandel, on the south point of 
the Red Sea, westward through the Straits of Gib- 
raltar, and then southward to the desert of Sahara, 
including part of Abyssinia, all of Egypt, Barca. 
Tripoli, Algiers and Morocco. In Asia, its main 
possession was Asia Minor or Turkey, with a part of 
Arabia and Persia. Julius Caesar contemplated in- 
roads into the far Orient, but he was cut off before 
carrying out his Eastern project. In Europe, it in- 
cluded all the continent except Russia, Northern 
and Western Germany, and Scandinavia. 

For the most part, the interest of this period clus- 
ters about a few names, and in the careers of Cato, 



-*i 



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LAST CENTURY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. 



I 49 



the Insignificant and Rome the Magnificent. 



the Gracchi, Marius, Sulla, Cataline, Cicero, Pom- 
pey and Caesar, may be read the progress of Rome 
towards its manifest destiny. A great deal of in- 
terest centers in Cato the Censor. His figure is 
sharply defined in historical outline, and he stands 
out upon the page of Time, the very ideal of auster- 
ity. The Roman virtues -he exemplified to perfec- 
tion. He was incorruptible. Penurious to the last 
degree, nothing could induce him to acquire wealth 
illegally, or contrary to his views of honor. Car- 
thage in ruins was his monument. He was a pa- 
trician who looked upon the enlargement of citi- 
zenship, and the outgrowth of provincialisms, as 
degeneracy. He failed to see in that enlarge- 
ment the necessary condition of imperial growth. 
He was a chronic grumbler. As events swept on in 
an ever-widening stream, he stood upon the shore 
and railed. He was greatly esteemed, and it was 
quite the fashion to admire his Romanesque virtues, 
but he can hardly be said to have exerted much real 
influence. The stream would not reverse its course 
and flow up hill to please even Cato the Censor. 
When he died the last link was broken between Rome 

There 
were two Catos, the 
younger being a cotem- 
porary of Csesar, one 
standing at the begin- 
ning, the other at the 
end of the period under 
consideration. They are 
so similar in character, 
that one suspects the 
younger must have sat 
for the picture painted 
of the elder. The eld- 
er Cato was a prolific 
writer on agriculture and 
cato the Younger. other " topics of the 

times. " He died at last by his own hand, unwilling 
to survive the ascendancy of Julius Caesar, whom he 
looked upon as a demoralized and 
demagogue. 

There were two Gracchi of note, Tiberius and 
Caius. "The mother of the Gracchi" is a prom- 
inent figure in Roman records. It is of her that 
it is reported, that when the matrons of Rome 
were summoned to appear in public with their jew- 
els, she came simply dressed. Being reproved for 




demoralizing 




disregarding the order, she pointed to her sons, 
saying, "These are my jewels." Later, Rome 
loved to hold Iter up as the 
model matron, a worthy com- 
panion-in-honor of the chaste 
Lucretia and Virginia. The 
name of this greatly venerated 
matron was Cornelia. Tiberius 
renewed the agrarian agitation, 
carrying it much farther than 
it had been carried before, and 
his brother continued the agita- 
tion. Alarmed at the growing 

depopulation of Italy, he COIl- Tiberius Gracchus. 

ceived the project of raising the condition of the Ro- 
man commonalty. He was the son of a Consul, and 
his mother, Cornelia, was the daughter of the Elder 
Scipio Africanus. Plebeian yet noble was the blood in 
his veins. He espoused the cause of the oppressed and 
the impoverished. He was the O'Connell and Parnell 
of his day. The aristocracy took alarm, and spared 
no effort to thwart his laudable purpose. He was ir- 
repressible, and no allurements of office could turn 
him aside. He tried to revive the Licinian law. 
aud made progress, being elected a Tribune. His 
term of office expired before his work was complet- 
ed, and he insisted upon re-election, which would 
have been illegal. as the constitutional lawyers of the 
day claimed. A riot occurred, and Tiberius was slain. 
That was in B. C. 133. A few years later his 
brother Caius took up the cause of the landless 
against the landlords, and he too was slain. 

The nobles seemed to be all-powerful The rich 
became immensely more wealthy, and the poor sank 
into hopeless poverty. Henceforth there was a vast 
body of the peoj>le dependent upon the spoils and 
largess which the conquests of the period provided 
on a liberal scale. With the failure of the Gracchi 
Rome lost forever the opportunity to escape from 
the constant menace of a mob, and the very triumph 
of the aristocratic senate paved the way for the ulti- 
mate subjugation of that body to the behests of an 
emperor. That victory was a century-plant which 
flowered in the subversion of the Republic and tin- 
establishment of the Empire. 

Caius Marius, one of the greatest names in the 
military annals of Rome, was a, Volscian. He began 
life a farm-laborer. By his courage and genius he 
rose to eminence as a soldier, and then aspired to 



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LAST CENTURY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. 




a political preferment. He was a successful politi- 
cian, aided largely by alliance with the illustrious 

family of the Cae- 
sars, one of the 
first families in 
the state, long be- 
fore Julius made 
the name immor- 
tal — and typical 
of imperialism. 
In Africa he dis- 
tinguished him- 
self not only at 
Zama, but by the 
conquest of that 
troublesome en- 
Marius. eniv. the Xumid- 

ian Jugurtha, whose wars have been preserved to 
mankind by the pen of Sallust. 

His lieutenant in the 1 itter war was Cornelius 

Sulla. He did 
great things for 
Rome in Africa. 
He returned the 
hero of a glorious 
campaign, a n d 
seven times the 
consular p o w e r 
and honor was a- 
warded him. In 
the Northwest he 
-trengthened and 
enlarged the Ro- 
man Empire, and 

Cornelius Sulla. was the idol of 

the people. The Cimbri made a desperate at- 
tempt to break the magic spell of Rome. Marius 
saved his country. But his star finally waned. Sul- 
la belonged to a younger generation, and succeeded 
in supplanting the veteran. In their day, the Ital- 
ian nationalities, still cherishing jealousy of Roman 
supremacy, rose in rebellion. The Social or Mar- 
sic war was a very formidable uprising, and for its 
suppression Sulla won the highest credit. When 
that struggle was over and the republic needed a 
general to put down insurgents in Asia, and enlarge 
the empire eastward, he was chosen for the position, 
to the chagrin and discomfit of Marius. The latter 
was about seventy and the former twenty-one years 




younger. They were very different types of men. 
Marius was a rough and unlettered barbarian ; Sulla 
was in education a Greek. 

There had arisen " a mighty man of war " in 
Asia, Mithridates, and when Sulla had departed for 
his overthrow, Marius set about organizing the Ital- 
ians into a political party, and had himself ap- 
pointed to the Eastern command. Sulla had not 
left the country, and promptly returning, entered 
Rome as a eonqueroj\ Marius was not prepared for 
this emergency, and was obliged to seek safety in 
flight. He fled to Africa. A warrant for his arrest 
was issued. The officers dogged his steps, and it is 
reported that when they found him, they were so 
awed by his presence and name that they shrank 
from arresting him. When they asked him what 
answer he had to make to the summons, he replied, 
•' Tell the Roman Senate you found Cains Marius 
sitting upon the ruins of Carthage." lie h; d then 
been Consul six times. He finally returned, and 
raised an army to fight the blue-blooded aristocracy 
of the senate m the interest of the common people, 
lie was successful, and for the seventh and last time 
was elected consul, with Caria as his colleague. He 
died during the year, the revolution which he aimed 
at, namely, the thorough enfranchisement of the 
Italians, incomplete ; but his colleague was able to 
obliterate all remaining distinctions between Italians 
and Romans. To Marius, therefore, belongs the 
honor of vastly extending the area of the republic, 
and of unifying Italy under the Roman name and 
constitution. 

Sulla had departed on his mission to the East, 
while Marius was a fugitive. He stormed and sacked 
Athens, and the Roman soldiers sent out b\ Marius 
to light against Sulla had the good sense to join 
him in marching upon the common enemy. His 
career was a glorious one, from a military point of 
view, and ho returned to Rome laden with military 
spoils. Marius was no more, but the Marian party 
was .till powerful, and hostile to Sulla. His mili- 
tary prestige, and the spoils with which he could en- 
rich his followers, made him master of the situa- 
tion. He was not slow in taking advantage of his 
position. The opposition came out to meet him 
with an army, but his course was not seriously 
stayed, and he wrought his will. 

It was about this time that the capital was burned 
(B. C. 83) and the Sibylline oracles perished with 



LAST CENTURY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. 



A - 1 - , 



I5 1 



it. The loss of state papers was certainly very 
great, and throws a cloud of uncertainty over all 
the historical records previous to this time. Hence- 
forth minute documentary records were kept, on 
which subsequent history is supposed to rest. 

Sulla, to return to our narrative, allied himself 
with the aristocracy. He was a born autocrat. 
The common people were odious to him. Besides, 
the popular party had been resolutely inimical to 
his claims as a military hero. After much civil 
war and political intrigue in desolating 'Italy, 
Etruscan civilization had not been obliterated, but 
he finished it. Out of his rivalry with Marius 
grew a desolating war upon Etruria not only, but on 
the Samnites, and when he sheathed his sword they 
were no more. In these latter days, some relics of 
that early civilization of Italy have been unearthed, 
just enough to attest the greatness of the destruc- 
tion effected. Sulla was appointed Dictator. That 
was in B. C. 82. Proscription and massacre were 
the order of the day. Marius had thinned the 
ranks of the senate by his high-handed and bloody 
line of policy, and now came retaliation. Sulla de- 
termined to restore the reign of the oligarchy, and 
crush out the rising power of democracy. Some of 
his methods were peculiar. He enfranchised at one 
stroke ten thousand slaves, whose masters he had 
executed or driven into banishment. They were 
registered as members of the Cornelian clan, of 
which the Dictator was the head, and thus was his 
power consolidated, as he supposed. He divided 
public and confiscated private land among Ids 
legionaries on a liberal scale. He reconstructed 
the senate at his sovereign pleasure. When he 
had, as he thought, rendered secure the ascendancy 
of the oligarchy, he voluntarily abdicated and re- 
tired to his suburban estate to enjoy the luxuries of 
private life. He survived about twelve months, dy- 
ing at the age of sixty. Between hard campaign- 
ing and unbridled debauchery, he was literally 
used up. 

Sulla was a Bourbon, as we use that term m 
these days. Blind and deaf to the demands of na- 
tional growth, he determined to restore the ancient 
landmarks, and compel the great empire to run po- 
litically in the same old grooves which were the 
ruts of Rome as an insignificant city, great only in 
its possibilities. He went to his grave, serenely 
confident that he had undone the gradual work of 



centuries, and especially the violent reform of the 
Marians. But it was all a mistake. Chaotic civil 
war soon broke out, and the state seemed threatened 
with suicide. Blood flowed freely, and the shadow 
of anarchy constantly hovered over the republic. 

There was really no peace until the empire became 
imperial in government, as well as in area. But it 
took only ten years to undo what Sulla had done 
as Dictator. What lie had done as Proconsul in 
the East, was the salvation of the empire. Mithri- 
dates, King of Parthia, was a great military genius, 
and came very near building up a vast kingdom in 
Asia; one which would have overshadowed and 
dwarfed Rome. The victory which Sulla won at 
Chserona, decided the day forever as between Rome 
and its last real rival. Henceforth, the Romans 
had only the rude barbarians of the Northwest to 
fear. The East was powerless. The civilized world 
had only one political capital, the really half -bar- 
baric " Eternal City." This world-conquest may be 
said to have begun with the first Punic war, and 
ended with the stamping out of the great uprising 
in Greece, Asia Minor and the East generally, un- 
der the leadership of Mithridates. The subsequent 
wars in those quarters involved no real peril to 
Rome. 

Among those who rose to some eminence un- 
der Sulla, as adherents to his political fortunes, 
was Cnseus Pompeius ; and among those who suf- 
fered persecution for the cause of the people and 
progress, was Julius Caesar. The former would 
have been a minor character in Roman history, had 
his career ended with the retirement of his chief, 
while the latter would have been wholly forgotten, 
but for subsequent events. Pompey was the first, 
after Sulla, to rise to an eminence entitling him to 
conspicuous notice. He was not a really great, nor 
a bad man. He was a patriot of much more than 
the average virtue, and a trifle more than the aver- 
age ability. His great achievement was the sup- 
pression of piracy. Rome had become the center 
of commerce, simply because it had the power to 
compel all commercial peoples to pay tribute. To 
secure the largesses of corn and wine, and all pre- 
cious or useful merchandise, it was necessary to 
have immunity from the pirates who infested 
the Mediterranean. They had become very for- 
midable and impudent. They had no idea of being 
suppressed, but Rome set about the task, B. C. 67, 



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LAST CENTURY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. 



and was entirely successful. Pompey's commission 
was virtually the absolute sovereignty of that sea for 
three years, together with its coast for fifty miles 
around, which in many cases was about as far in- 
land as actual Roman authority penetrated. It was 
a right royal commission. The authority was not 
abused. 

He was then appointed governor of the East, and 
did much to consolidate and perfect the empire. 
Syria and Phoenicia 
yielded unconditionally 
to his sway. Now, for 
the first time, Jewish 
and Roman history be- 
gin to have points in 
common. It was sixty 
years before Christ that 
he laid siege to Jerusa- 
lem and took it. It was 
not destruction, but 
subjugation, which he 
sought and obtained. 
His exploits won him 
great popularity at Rome. 
His next field of glory 
was Spain, where he was 
invested with supreme 
authority. 

Pom joey's glory was 
his weakness. He was a 
member of the conserva- 
tive party, and its lead- 
er, without being fully 
e^ual to the tasks in- 
volved. In the mean- 
while, Julius Caesar had 
developed into the lead- 
er of the opposition, and lie was a man of com- 
manding genius. Without going now into the gen- 
eral career of this greatest of all Romans, it may be 
well to dispose of his relations to Pompey. Gener- 
ally hostile, they were sometimes friends and co- 
workers. At one time they were knit together by 
ties of marriage. In those days of easy divorces, 
matrimonial alliances for political reasons were not 
uncommon. But on the principle of " natural 
selection " the two men were not adapted to a " co- 
parceny." Caesar was a thorough Marian. Pom- 
pey, without being a consistent party man, was, on 




Colossal Statue of Pompey, Rome. 



the whole, a Bourbon of the Sullan school. Then 
each would naturally be somewhat jealous of the 
other. Caesar seems to have been spared any very 
intense jealousy by his consciousness of superiority, 
and for a long time Pompey was spared it by the 
possession of inordinate self-conceit. But finally, 
all makeshifts and devices of compromise being ex- 
hausted, each recognized in the other an implacable 
enemy, and they came to sustain to each other much 

the relation Carthage and 
Rome had sustained. 
One or the other must 
perish. Civil war was 
inevitable, and culmin- 
ated in the battle of 
Pliarsalia, fought in 
June, B. C. 48. Both 
armies were large and 
well-officered. It was a 
complete victory for 
Caesar. The vanquished 
warrior fled with a small 
remnant of the army, 
and in his flight he was 
assassinated by false 
friends. At the age of 
fifty-eight he fell, the 
hero of three triumphs 
over the three continents. 
Long the foremost man 
of Rome, Pompey fell 
while seeking asylum in 
Egypt, where he had 
hoped to recruit his 
forces and make one 
more stand against the 
inevitable. 

Between the glory of Pompey and the eclipsing 
splendor of Caesar, there intervened the conspiracy 
of Cataline, an episode of the republic rendered im- 
mortal by Cicero. Cataline was a spoilt child of 
fortune. Noble in blood and great in intellect, he 
was ignoble in spirit and unscrupulous in the use of 
means. He aspired to the consulship. Failing to 
reach the goal by fair means, he conceived the des- 
perate purpose of raising a conspiracy. It was an 
age of blood and horrors, and that Aaron Burr of 
Rome resolved to achieve command by arming the 
lowest and most desperate class of citizens. His 



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LAST CENTURY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. 



J 53 




Cicero 



plot was disclosed, and Cicero, then the foremost 

orator at the Roman 
bar and in the senate, 
undertook to thwart 
him by prosecution for 
treason. The orations 
he delivered are preserv- 
ed, and rank second on- 
ly to the Philippics of 
Demosthenes. The great 
orator secured the ban- 
ishment of the conspira- 
tor, and was hailed as 
the savior of his country ; 
and so perhaps he was. Cicero was a most accom- 
plished man in every way. He was the ripest fruit 
of civilization produced by the Roman republic. 
His weakness was vanity, and as a man of public 
affairs he was not the equal of Caesar, but in schol- 
arship and superb statesmanship he was unrivaled. 
His is one of the most august figures in all history. 
A philosopher and a statesman, he contributed more 
to the literature of his country than to its political 
destiny, while yet pre-eminent in affairs of state. 
The consulship was attained by him. He was not a 
strong partisan, nor was he a thoroughly great poli- 
tician in any point of view. His powers were a lit- 
tle too diversified to admit of the very highest achiev- 
ments. He sought to preserve the good in old 
forms and ideas, while appreciating the advantages 
of progress. He seemed somewhat vacillating, but 
it was the vacillation of intellectual breadth rather 
than cowardice. He enjoyed the popular favor, ami 
escaped the perils of civil war until the great crisis 
of the state culminated in the assassination of Ju- 
lius Cfesar, when not even a Cicero could maintain 
a neutral position. He fully identified himself with 
the party of Brutus, incapable though he was of act- 
ual participation in the assassination. When C33- 
sarism won the day and retribution came, Cicero 
was one of the victims. He was murdered by order 
of the victorious Octavius, B. C. 43. But his fame 
and his writing remain a vital part of the world, 
and will survive to all time. 

Julius Caesar belongs in part to the period of this 
chapter, and in part to the next. Although he 
never wore a crown, he justly stands as the typical 
emperor. Imperialism and Caesarism are synony- 
mous terms. Yet he was a democrat, in distinction 



from an aristocrat, and throughout his political ca- 
reer was the unvarying and indomitable foe of 
the aristocracy. His blood was noble, none more so, 
and he could have been the pet of the senatorial 
aristocrats. But following the fortunes of the Ma- 
rian party, to which he was bound by family ties, he 
championed the cause of the populace. Cautious 
and far-seeing, he did not blurt out his plans, and 
spoil all by wearing his heart on his sleeve. He en- 
tered public life early, and yet was deliberate and 
prudent in pushing to the front. He took care not 
to call upon himself special animosity. By gradual 
steps he rose, until he was allowed a command in 
the far West. Up to this time he had not distin- 
guished himself. Some narrow escapes are recorded 
of him in the days of Sulla, whose command to put 
away by divorce the wife of his youth, he grandly 
disobeyed. He was not a model husband by any 
means, and did divorce his wife afterwards from 
motives of policy. He was a spendthrift and de- 
bauche. 

After distinguishing himself in Spain, he return- 
ed and was elected Consul, B. C. 59. That was 
something of a crisis in the republic, for the new 
Consul improved the time to secure many reforms, 
and to foreshadow quite clearly the aims of the de- 
mocracy. It was evident that he would, if he could, 
put an end to the narrowness of the past. Rome, 
to his conception, was a nation, not a metropolis. 
This ever-present political issue, the constant quan- 
tity in Roman politics, was accepted in all its logic 
by Caesar. It was not the plebeians against the pa- 
tricians, Latium against the city, but the whole em- 
pire against the favored few of the capital. He 
became henceforth the recognized leader of the na- 
tional party. His term of service over, he went to 
Gaul as Proconsul, and pushed the conquest of the 
West to Britain. By the artful employment of po- 
litical agencies, he so far conciliated Pompey and 
his party, as to secure the extension of his military 
commission. He "' stooped to conquer." Allowed 
a powerful army, he made such splendid use of his 
opportunities, that he laid Rome under very heavy 
obligation to him. and consolidated about him an 
army which could be relied upon to follow wherever 
he led. He was then able to take an aggressive 
and bold stand. The civil war with Pompey was 
incident to his plan, nothing more. His request to 
be allowed to come home and stand for another 



£> 



■54 



LAST CENTURY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. 



consular election being denied by the senate, he 
boldly denied not only the authority of that body, 
hut the very constitution of the republic. He was 
forbidden to advance nearer than the river Rubicon, 
but he crossed it, and in so doing set himself square- 
Iv against both the present edict and the law of 
traditional authority. That was the turning-point 
in his fortunes, and. as it proved, the death-blow 
of the republic. With wonderful celerity, lie passed 
from place to place, quelling the rising storm of 
opposition. Everywhere the conservatives were 
aroused, and nothing save the incomparable genius 
of Cassar prevented a crushing combination against 
him. From Rome he went to Spain, then back 
again to meet the forces of Pompey. No sooner 
had he won the battle of Pharsalia than he was oil' 
for Egypt, and put down the party whose cause 
Pompey had espoused. A mutiny in his own army 
was soon put down, and swiftly followed by the utter 
overthrow of the Pompeian party, which made its 
last stand in Africa. We next find him in Spain 
again. By that time he was ready to come back to 
Rome and enter upon the actual exercise (one can 
hardly say enjoyment) of his authority. He was 
now master of Rome and all its tributaries. The 
empire, politically speaking, dates from his election 
as Dictator for life, when he had reached a position 
from which only death could dislodge him. We 
cannot better close this chapter than by citing, 
without endorsing, the now famous concluding pas- 
sage in Fronde's Caesar : 

" The spirit which confined government to its 
simplest duties, while it left opinion unfettered, was 
especially present in Julius Caesar himself. From 
cant of all kinds he was totallv free. He was a 



friend of the people, but he indulged in no enthu- 
siasm for liberty. He never dilated on the beauties 
of virtue, or complimented, as Cicero did, a Provi- 
dence in which he did not believe. He was too sin- 
cere to stoop to unreality. He held to the facts 
of this life and to his own convictions : and as he 
found no reason for supjjosing that there was a life 
beyond the grave, he did not pretend to expect it. 
lie respected the religion of the Roman State as an 
institution established by the laws. He encouraged 
or left unmolested the creeds and practices of the 
uncounted sects or tribes who were gathered under 
the eagles. But his own writings contain nothing 
to indicate that he himself had any religious belief 
at all. He saw no evidence that the gods practically 
interfered in human affairs. He never pretended 
that Jupiter was on his side. He thanked his sol- 
diers after a victory, but he did not order Te Deums 
to be sung for it ; and in the absence of these con- 
ventionalisms lie perhaps showed more real rever- 
ence than he could have displayed by the freest use 
of the formulas of pietism. 

"He fought his battles to establish some tolerable 
degree of justice in the government of this world ; 
and succeeded, though he was murdered for doing it. 

" Strange and startling resemblance between the 
fate of the founder of the kingdom of this world 
and of the Founder of the Kingdom not of this 
world, for which the first was a preparation. Each 
was denounced for making himself a king. Each 
was maligned as the friend of publicans and sin- 
ners ; each was betrayed by those whom he had loved 
and cared for ; each was put to death ; and Caesar 
also was believed to have risen again and ascended 
into heaven and become a divine being." 




A 







/■^ra^^'ir- 



■■ : 




CHAPTER XXVI. 



The Republic and Imperialism — Cjesar and the Calendar— His Motto in Life— Testimony 
of Froude — Senatorial Reform— Age of Skepticism— The Proffered Crown— The Assas- 
sination Plot— The Triumvirate — Cleopatra the Beautiful— Augustus and his Policy 
—The Empire and the Senate— Popularity of the Emperor Augustus— Merivale on 
the Empire — The Augustan Age. 




!^Hr^£f~^ 



r was in the year B. 0. 46 
that Caesar was named Dic- 
tator for ten years, witli the 
right to nominate the per- 
sons whom the people were 
to choose for their Consuls 
and Praetors. In less than 
two years his bloody corse 
lay at the foot of Pompey's pillar in 
the senate cham- 
ber. During that 
short space of 
time was wrought 
a mighty work of 
reconstruction,! 
and the founda- 
tions of imperi- 
alism were laid so 
securely, that nothing but the 
corrosions of time could de- 
stroy them, and even then de- 
struction was not complete. 
Republicanism was not democracy. The form of 
self government was maintained without conferring 
the substance of liberty. 

Under the plea of popular rights was inaugura- 
ted the Empire. The term "emperor" (imperator) was 




Julius Ca?sar. 



known then, without having anything like its pres- 
ent import; but the reality of absolutism was en- 
joyed by Julius Caesar more fully than by any of 
his successors. They all refrained from assuming 
the kingly name, and kept up some show of popu- 
lar government. In the course of time Emperor 
became a more imposing title than King, but origin- 
ally the idea of monarchy was not suggested by it, 
or even by the really more sovereign title of Dicta- 
tor. Caesar was absolute master because the people 
so elected, and the right of hereditary succession 
was not an integral part of primitive imperialism. 
The work of reform was commenced at once. 
The courts were purified and political rings broken 
up. The standard of public morality had sunk to 
a pitiful depth of degradation during the perturbed 
century now closed. Caesar was no purist, but he. 
appreciated the necessity of a higher tone of public 
sentiment. He early set about reforming the cal- 
endar. Cicero sneered at him, and so did the other 
learned men of the times. They were skilled in 
the wisdom of Greece, but unversed in that of 
Egypt. Csesar had been in Alexandria, and his 
cpiick perceptions saw the advantage of a scien- 
tific division and measurement of time. He 
adopted substantially the Egyptian system, previ- 
ously explained. Our Julian calendar, leap year 



■?- 



(iS5) 



:>L 



156 



CAESAR AND THE EMPIRE. 



and all, still stands, and the first day of Jan- 
uary lias been New Year's day ever since B. C. 45. 

For fourteen years Cfesar had known no rest, and 
he was now fifty-five years old, but he abated none 
of his industry. His was a nature which could not 
find repose in life. "If you want a thing well 
done, do it yourself " was his characteristic motto. 
The confused state of the government demanded 
his constant attention in affairs of peace, but he 
was soon obliged to set out for Spain to put down 
the last remnant of the conservative party in its 
open hostility. He took with him his sister's son 
(he had no child of his own) Octavius, afterwards 
Augustus, then a lad of eighteen years. This boy 
he adopted, and to him he evidently looked for a 
successor. No doubt the youth learned much dur- 
ing that campaign which was of incalculable ad- 
vantage to him as emperor. In the spring of 45, 
the very last battle of that civil war was fought in 
Spain, near Gibraltar. It completed the defeat of 
the party which had been effectually crushed in 
point of fact at Pharsalia. " The free constitution 
of the republic." says Froude, "had issued at last in 
elections which were a mockery of representations, 
in courts of law which were an insult to justice, 
and in the conversion of the empire into the feed- 
ing-grounds of a gluttonous aristocracy." This is 
the language of an imperialist, still it is not an ex- 
aggeration. The battle of Munda was fought in 
March, and it was not until late in the following 
autumn that the Dictator set out on his return to 
Rome. His first care was to disarm opposition by 
clemency. He tried by that means to placate the 
implacable aristocracy. 

He filled the senatorial vacancies, and raised the 
number of that body to nine hundred. Among the 
senators were sonic (raids, and even some emanci- 
pated slaves. The high-born patricians were in- 
sufferably indignant. He tried to check the effem- 
inacy of the times, and stringent sumptuary laws 
were passed. A com mission was appointed to digest 
the laws, judicial and statutory, and great effort 
was made to make Home a scientific center. He 
formed large engineering plans for draining the 
Pontine marshes, and similar enterprises. His 
architectural plans were on a magnificent scale. 
Nothing, in fact, seemed to escape his attention in 
the shape of secular improvement. It was an age 
of universal skepticism. Csesar himself had held 



the office of high priest, but was a disbeliever in all 
religious tenets, including the doctrine of immor- 
tality. Classic myths were as mythical to him as 
to us of to-day, and the intelligence of mankind 
shared his agnosticism, except as there was a sect 
of Jews who were somewhat learned and held to 
the doctrine of a future life. Old forms of worship 
and systems of religion were maintained only for 
secular reasons, being interwoven with the political 
stmcture of society and deemed useful for purposes 
of state. 

But the crisis was near. On the fifteenth of Feb- 
ruary, the day of the Lupercalia (a feast in honor 
of Pan, who was supposed, in a literal sense, to 
" keep the wolf from the door ") Mark Antony, 
henceforth a noted name, but hitherto subordinate, 
offered Caesar the crown. Antony was one of the 
Consuls. A faint applause was heard. Open disap- 
proval might have been dangerous. It was evident 
that the Romans were not at all kindly disposed to- 
ward a return to royalty. The traditions of the 
Tarquins were too deeply graven in their thoughts. 
The offer was gently put aside, and upon its repeti- 
tion Caesar was heard to say, " I am not king. The 
only king of Rome is Jupiter." The boldness and 
persistence of the offer and the feebleness of the re- 
fusal, confirmed the suspicions of the senatorial oli- 
garchy that Cassar really cherished kingly ambition 
and would not be content to remain Imperator. It 
was clear that the only way to dispose of him was by 
assassination. That expedient was resolved upon. 

Once more a Bru- 
tus was found to un- 
dertake the cause of 
republicanism This 
later Brutus was sup- 
posed by some to be 
the natural son of Cas- 
sar, but however that 
may be, they were 
close friends. It was 
at first doubtful if he 
would lend his name 
and person to the plot, but he finally did. The con- 
spirators kept their secret well; albeit some rumors 
of the impending catastrophe were noised abroad, 
yet Cassar continued to perform his official duties 
at the senate without special precautions. At 
length the fifteenth of March, the day agreed upon 




Marcue Brutus. 



C^SAR AND THE EMPIRE. 



157 



for the assassination, came, and the Imperator ap- 
peariug as usual in the Capitol, the conspirators 
surrounded him, and the bloody work was finished 
before his friends could rally. Many romantic de- 
tails, evidently the invention of later imaginations, 
are told illustrative of the tragic interest which will 
ever cluster about that most memorable of all assas- 
sinations. It has been worthily dramatized by the 
genius of Shakspeare, and one is tempted to pause 
over the tragedy. The really historical interest does 
not center in the taking off itself, but in what led 
to ii and resulted from it; and Cicero was right 
when he remarked, " The tyrant is dead ; tyranny 
remains." The imperial party having lost its leader, 
another bloody civil war ensued, but out of it all the 
empire emerged territorially and politically intact. 
At first Antony, Lepidus, master of horse, and 
Octavius, Caesar's nephew 
and heir, were stunned, 
but they soon rallied and 
roused the popular indig- 
nation, for Caesar was a 
name to conjure with. 
Cicero apologized for and 
lauded the assassination, 
while Brutus and Cassius 
rallied an army in defense. 
A bitter and desperate 
struggle ensued. It was a 
comparatively easy task to 
punish the assassins, but the three avengers then fell 
out. Lepidus was first disposed of, and Antony and 
Octavius waged fierce warfare. In the meanwhile, 
the former had settled 
himself luxuriously if 
not comfortably at Alex- 
andria, giving himself up 
to the society of Cleopatra, 
the queen of Egypt, whose 
beauty and dalliance have 
made her name familiar 
to all. That was no time 
fur voluptuousness. An- 
tony might have won the 
imperial prize by strict at- 
Marcns Antonins. tention to business, but he 

frittered away his opportunity, and no eleventh-hour 
rally could save him. He perished, and with him 
the beauteous queen. With her fell the dynasty of 






the Ptolemies. Its position was precarious before, 
and now the last spark of real royalty expired. 
Cleopatra was designed 
by Octavius to grace his 
triumphal return to the 
capital, but she baffled 
him by applying the fa- 
tal asp to her breast. That 
sweet revenge was denied 
him, but he was none the 
less master of the situation. 
His uncle, under somewhat 
similar circumstances.had 
been very lenient to his en- 
emies. Augustus, as he now 

called himself, resolved to Bu9t of "eopatra at Deuderah. 

avoid that peril. He put to the sword all whom he 
thought could stand between him and security on 
the imperial throne. He seemed to be the very ideal 
of monstrous cruelty, so relentlessly did he carry 
out this policy, but having once made an end of his 
enemies, he bid a long farewell to slaughter, and 
inaugurated a period of tranquillity. 

The reign of Augustus Ca?sar, which was. in ef- 
fect a continuation of the Imperatorship of Julius 
Csesar, covered a period of forty years, namely 
from B. C. \!0, whan he returned to Rome to enjoy 
his triple triumph, his last enemy, Antony, having 
been crushed under his feet, until near the close of 
A. D. 14, when he tranquilly fell asleep in death. 
From the battle of Aetium, in which the Antonian 
army was routed, the empire had been at rest. No 
internal dissension disturbed the repose of the civil- 
ized world. Such a profound and universal cessa- 
tion of hostilities had never been known, and has 
not been enjoyed since. '• The empire means peace." 
It is curious that this reign of peace rested not 
only upon carnage, but upon military rule. Augus- 
tus owed his ascendancy in its continuance to the 
standing army. He was not only Princeps of the 
senate, — a strictly republican and civil title, — but also 
Consul and Proconsul, being Imperator for life. 
The senate was reorganized by him, and lost forever 
its independence and importance. Henceforth it 
was hardly more than the British house of lords, re- 
taining the semblance of authority without the real- 
ity. The powers of the Tribunate were also absorbed 
into the imperial office. As sovereign pontiff or 
high priest, he assumed what there was left of 



V 



^Ai 



>S» 



C^SAR AND THE EMPIRE. 



ecclesiastical jurisdiction. It was not much, but 
something. He was no advocate of skepticism, and 
certainly no admirer of philosophy. He contemned 
the speculations of metaphysics, and did what he 
could to restore the old faith. Indeed, he was em- 
inently conservative. Having won all the honors and 
powers he could covet, he set about allaying the 
animosities of the old regime by conspicuous re- 
spect for the traditional prejudices of the citizens. 
Perhaps Caesar's ghost with the ugly stabs of the 



isfied with the honor thus conferred, but he took 
care that the actual authority exercised should be 
such that ever since his day. Emperor has been the 
proudest and most royal title possible among men. 
Hitherto the Empire of Kome has had no certain 
boundaries, and no organic adjustment. Procon- 
suls and Prsetors have been assigned! to duties in an 
irregular and jerky way. Augustus systematized 
the government and districted the state. Italy, 
from the Alps to the Straits of Messina, was divided 




conspirators, was an ever-potent argument against 
persistent radicalism. He may have felt that his 
personal safety required him to conciliate the favor 
of the conservative element, so far as that could be 
done without the surrender of imperial ambition. He 
loved the reality of power without its pomp. He 
lived plainly, dressed in " homespun." walked the 
streets, nodding and chatting pleasantly with his 
acquaintances, obeying subpoenas to appear as a 
witness in court, and in every way of that kind con- 
cealing the crown he wore. Like Romulus, Camil- 
lus, Cicero and Julius, he was hailed as the father 
of his country, and professed to be abundantly sat- 



ROME IN THE TIME OF AUGUSTAS CESAR. 

into eleven districts, all under the control of the 



Praetor in the city. The rest of the empire was 
divided into senatorial or imperial provinces, ac- 
cording as the governors were accountable to the 
senate or the Emperor. The entire standing army 
was noi far from three hundred and fifty thousand, 
not including the naval force, which was very con- 
siderable, and the first ever maintained by the Ro- 
mans. Speaking of the taxes levied at this time, an 
eminent historian says: "The sources of public 
revenue were indeed numerous and varied. The 
public domain reserved in ancient times to the state 
after each successive contest, had now been gener- 



~s\~ 



C^SAR AND THE EMPIRE. 



l 59 



ally divided among the citizens, or remitted to then 
subjects ; the tribute or land tax, originally imposed 
upon citizens and subjects alike, had been remitted 
to the soil of Italy since the conquest of Macedonia , 
but this contribution was still levied throughout the 
provinces, in money or in kind, and the capitation 
tax pressed alike upon every inhabitant of the Ro- 
man dominions. Mines and quarries, fisheries and 
salt works, were generally public property farmed 
for the state. Tolls and customs were exacted on 
every road and in every city, and most of the ob- 
jects of personal property, both dead and live stock, 
including slaves, paid a duty in proportion to their 
value. Augustus imposed a rate of one-twentieth 
on legacies, but this mild experiment in direct tax- 
ation caused considerable murmurs. The great 
corn-growing countries of Egypt and Africa made a 
special contribution of grain for the supply of 
Rome and Italy. The largesses, both of victuals 
and money, to the people, which had been an occa- 
sional boon from the early times of the republic, 
were henceforth conferred regularly and systemati- 
cally, and there was no more fatal error in the pol- 
icy of the empire (though it was neither invented 
by the emperors nor could they relieve themselves 
from it) than the taxation of industry in the prov- 
inces to maintain idle arrogance at home." 

The populatiou of the city of Rome is supposed 
to have been about 700,000 ; that of the empire as 
a whole, not less than 100,000,000. The capital 
was enriched by many temples and other public 



buildings, and other cities like Alexandria and An- 
tioch, rivals of Rome in population and general civil- 
ization, seemed to bask in imperial smiles. The Em- 
peror made an extended Eastern tour, not as a con- 
queror, but as the friend and benefactor of his sub- 
jects and fellow citizens, for he carefully maintained 
the appellation of citizen, and the franchises which 
it implied were enjoyed by many of the people in all 
parts of the empire. At one time he undertook in 
person an expedition to quell an insurrection in a 
remote Western province (for profound as was the 
peace of Rome, barbaric eruptions of a trivial na- 
ture were not wholly wanting), and the eagles of 
Rome took a somewhat widening circle in their 
flight westward. He left the empire enlarged a lit- 
tle, and consolidated so thoroughly that it rested 
on a basis so solid that it seemed for centuries to be 
eternal. It has been remarked, that of the city of 
Rome Augustus could say. " I found it brick and 
left it marble." Of the empire, surely it might be 
said that he found it bricks and left it an arch. 
The loose material was cemented into a grand ami 
enduring structure on which the government of the 
world for centuries could securely rest. 

The details of this reign were uneventful, and in 
following the empire in its course from this time on 
we shall not find very much of actual importance. 
Rome has now acquired its distinctive type and char- 
acter. Before following the long line of emperors 
it may be best to pause and consider Latin literature, 
for the best part of it belongs to the Augustan age. 





HERE is most unmistaka- 
ble proof that the Romans, 
ike the Greeks and many 
other peoples, had their 
early ballads. Every coun- 
trv which can boast much 
curiosity and intelligence, 
with little if any reading or writ- 
ing, has had a wealth of such crea- 
tions of mingled history and fancy, 
of fable and fact, woven into pop- 
ular songs. But that primitive Lat- 
in literature almost wholly perished 
long before the present Latin liter- 
ature had its birth. What is known 
the history of the kings and 
early consuls of Rome is mainly 
ficticious. More than, three hun- 
dred years after the date ordinarily assigned for the 
foundation of the city, the public records were de- 
stroyed by the Gauls, and it was at least a century 
and a half later, before the annals of the common- 
wealth were compiled. 

Speaking on the subject in hand. Macauiay says 
in one of his essays, " The Latin literature which 
has come down to us is of later date than the 
commencement of the second Punic war, and ((in- 
sists almost exclusively of words fashioned on Greek 



models. The Latin metres — heroic, elegiac, lyric, 
and dramatic — are of Greek origin. The best Latin 
epic poetry is the feeble echo of the Iliad and Odys- 
sey. The best Latin ecologues are imitations of 
Theocritus. The plan of the most finished didactic 
poem in the Latin tongue was taken from Hesiod. 
The Latin tragedies are bad copies of the master- 
pieces of Sophocles and Euripides. The Latin 
comedies are free translations from Demophilus, 
Mereander and Apollodorus. The Latin philosophy 
was borrowed without alteration from the Portico 
and the Academy ; and the great Latin orators 
constantly proposed to themselves as patterns, the 
speeches of Demosthenes and Lysias." There is, 
therefore, nothing original, strictly speaking, in the 
extant writings of the Latin classics, and the very 
name of any absolutely original author has per- 
ished. The later writers, whose works have per- 
ished, were imitators, and probably poor at that. 
The fair inference from fragments is, that the best 
of the literature has survived. Without enumer- 
ating the lost books, we will give some idea of the 
present body of Latin classics. It is only where a 
language and a literature is original and germinal, 
like the Greek, that its very fragments and tradi- 
tions are valuable. 

Latin literature may be said to have had three 
periods. The first contains many lost works and 



(160) 



-Ill 



LATIN CLASSICS. 



161 



two names worthy of record, Plautus and Terence. 
Both were writers of comedies, not the grand and 
powerful works of Aristophanes and Shakspeare, but 
the light, half farcical conceits of the present " play 
of the period." They have all the vices of the 
Greek and some of the excellences. We have 
twenty of the comedies of Plautus. They are low 
and morbid, generally devoted to the intrigues of 
illicit love. They were very popular for at least 
five centuries. He was a native of Italy, but not 
of Home, and was born B. C. 210. Terence was 
eighteen years younger and a native of Carthage. 
He was a slave, as was Epictetus, the great ethical 
writer of later Rome. 
He modeled his works 
after the Greek pat- 
terns. He left six 
plays, which are much 
read by scholars, and 
studied by playwrights 
of classical education. 
.He had great power 
of character delinea- 
tion. He is credited 
with having given to 
the Latin language 
its highest perfection 
in point of elegance 
and art. He was more 
refined than Plautus. 
The latter wrote for 
the stage as patronized by a coarse people ; the 
former wrote for a more refined taste. 

Passing over the somewhat long list of lost medi- 
ocrity, we come to the Golden Age, for what re- 
mains belongs either to that period or the Silver 
Age, a distinction fully justified by the poetry 
of the two ages, but not by the prose. The poets of 
the Golden age are Ovid, Virgil, Horace and Lucre- 
tius ; of the Silver Age, Phsedrus, Juvenal, Lucan, 
Statius and Martial. The prose writers of the 
former age are Cicero, Nepos, Caesar, Sallust and 
Livy ; of the latter age, Tacitus, Suetonius, Seneca, 
Pliny, Quintilian, Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius. 
The two latter names are sometimes omitted, but they 
belong here. The first was a slave and the second an 
emperor, and both were pure and lofty moralists. 
Tacitus, Quintilian and Seneca are second only to 
Cicero, if indeed, not worthy to rank at his side. 




The first name in Latin literature is that of Vir- 
gil. He was a man of rare genius and indefatiga- 
ble industry. He wrote much and was unwearied 
in perfecting his lines. Born at Mantua in B. C. 
70, he became a ripe scholar, a careful student of 
the Greek, also of medicine and mathematics. At 
the age of thirty he repaired to the capital. His 
education was received mainly at Naples, where his 
last years were spent. His disposition was of a re- 
tiring nature, loving the solitude of Nature and his 
library. His first work was the " Bucolics," a truly 
rural poem of considerable length. The " Georgics " 
and " Ecologues " came later and occupied his time 

for seven years. But 
his one really great 
production is the "2E- 
neid," upon which the 
last ten years of his 
industrious life were 
spent. He lived to 
complete it, but so crit- 
ical was his taste that 
he never ceased to pol- 
ish the verse. Had his 
life-work closed with- 
out the latter epic, he 
would have ranked 
with Hesiod, only his 
superior by far. The 
/Eneid gives him com- 
panionship with Ho- 
mer, but a long distance beneath him. He is, there- 
fore, a second and greater Hesiod, and second and less- 
er Homer. The subject of the iEneid is the settle- 
ment of the Trojans in Italy. In the " Iliad " ^neas 
is one of the minor heroes of Troy, and Virgil repre- 
sents him as escaping with great difficulty from that 
city at the time of the great conflagration, leading a 
small colony "of refugees to Italy. Their journey 
thither was an eventful one. The story of his stay at 
Carthage and the passion of Queen Dido, the device 
by which he escaped, and her tragic end, are familiar 
to those at all acquainted with classic legends. He 
catered to the national prejudice by representing 
the Queen of Carthage as jilted by the hero to whom 
it was pretended the descent of the Emperor Augus- 
tus could be traced. The story has no historical 
foundation beyond the probability that some fugi- 
tives from Troy may have found their way to Italy, 






TlV 



-4- 



iGi 



LATIN CLASSICS. 



and formed part of the stock of the Roman people. 
The /Eneid suggests in its earlier books the Odyssey, 
in the later, the Iliad. Some minor poems are at- 
tributed to him. They are not of a high order, and 
if written by him must have been the production of 
•'■ vealy " youth. 

Next to Virgil ranks Horace, the consummate 
master of the art of poetry. He loved ease, and 
wrote odes and epodes, satires and epistles which at- 
test a mind of the highest culture, of lofty genius 
and sublime repose. He took the world as he found 
it, not over curious as to what went before or would 
come after. He saw in the theological teachings of 
his day a collection of myths, and cared no more 
for Jupiter and the Olympian deities than we of to- 
day do. As for a future life, it was the least of his 
ti oubles. He was not gross, but was "of the earth 
earthy." In his life was seen the typical man of the 
world, the poet of a civilization which is content to 
follow the motto, * One world at a time." There 
was nothing of the controversialist in his disposi- 
tion, nor had he any conception of any " mission " 
in life If any one cared to accept the foolish fables 
of the priests or the ratiocinations of the philosophers, 
he had no objections. That was their business, not 
his. The son of an emancipated slave, he took no 
thought for to-morrow. Brilliant, amiable, respect- 
able, jovial and fairly well-versed in the learning of 
the day, he could satirize without cauterizing ; be- 
stow praise without fulsome flattery ; sound the lute 
in festivity without swinish licentiousness. Hisodes 
have never been excelled as odes, and it is hardly 
too much to say. that in his way he is above all 
competition. His language is force itself, his senti- 
ments beautiful, and the melody of his versification 
charming. He has teen called the Pindar of Rome, 
and it would beover praise forthe great Greek lyrist, 
to call him the Horace of Athens. 

Lucretius embraced the same agnostic (as it is 
now called) philosophy as Horace. He was an Epi- 
curean, not in tastes and habits, like Horace, but he 
was a strenuous advocate of the theological, physi- 
cal and moral system of Epicurus. His work mi 
Nature is well worthy the high praise of Ovid when 
he says, -'The sublime strains of Lucretius shall 
never perish until the day when the world shall be 
given up to destruction." He had the true fire of 
poetry. There is a grandeur and beauty in his verse, 
even when it is evident that his main anxiety is to 



make a strong argument for materialism. The lat- 
est philosophy, that which finds its highest presenta- 
tion in Herbert Spencer, must ever recognize in 
Lucretius its poet laureate. Many things which he 
supports by suppositions and arguments which seem 
absurd, have been proven since his day to rest upon 
scientific ground. 1 le was born in B. C. 95, and what 
Horace accepted as a matter of course, Lucretius 
fought for with the zeal of an Ingersoll. He was 
the stuff that martyrs were made of, but he was not, 
so far as known, ostracised or persecuted for his 
•• blasphemy" of the popular gods, or his philosoph- 
ical theories. He died in the prime of manhood, 
and before he had put the finishing touches on his 
immortal poem. 

Ovid first saw the light on the very day that Cic- 
ero's star became obscured by the darkness of death. 
He had rank, talent and fortune. Like Horace and 
Lucretius, he was an agnostic, but he lacked the re- 
finement ot the one and the enthusiasm of the other. 
He sang of love in a morbid and unwholesome way. 
His " Metamorphoses " is almost an epic. It is a 
series of myths, some of them very beautiful, a few' 
of them chaste. This was his best production be- 
yond all question. For the most part, however, 
Ovid's poetry is elegiac. Much that he wrote is ut- 
terly unfit for perusal. It is vile without any ex- 
cuse for it ; and when the poet was banished for trea- 
son, although without any sufficient cause, and 
obliged to linger out life in vain supplications for 
pardon, it is hard to pity him. He wrote much, ami 
in a literary point of view, most admirably. 

The poets belonging to the Silver Age are not 
worthy of very extended notice. The fables of Plue- 
drus made the Romans acquainted with JEsop. He 
was a translator and hardly more. Being the son 
of a Thracian slave, he may be supposed to have 
been familiar with them from childhood. Two of 
these Silver poets, Persius and Juvenal, rank as 
satirists. The former was born about thirty-four 
years after Christ, and the latter about forty years 
after. They were both stoical in their sympathies 
and tendencies. Lucan, who was a co temporary of 
Juvenal, wrote some fine passages. They are nn ist 1 J 
to be found in his Pharsalia, a work in which I e- 
sar and Pompey, Cato and Brutus, are held up to 
the admiration of hero-worshipers. Martial was a 
Spanish Roman. His native city in Spain was giv- 
en full rights and privileges, which made him a 



LATIN CLASSICS. 



163 



Roman before the law. He was the laureate, one 
might justly say, of the Emperors Titus and Domi- 
tian, the latter of whom made some literary preten- 
tions, but without much reason. His Epigrams, 
twelve hundred in all, are essentially satirical com- 
positions. They present a frightful picture of un- 
cial demoralization. 

We pass now to the prose literature of the Latin 
language. Here too we find an almost abject ser- 
vility to Greek genius, and nothing at all approach- 
ing the highest Attic attainments. Cicero is the 
first name. All who went before him either perish- 
ed or deserved no better fate. Cicero was a close 
student of the Greek models. Something less than 
Demosthenes in oratory, he had a far wider range 
of thought. 
He wrote much 
upon ethical 
subjects and 
was a Stoic in 
his professions. 
All his works 
abound in slurs 
upon the pres- 
ent life, and 
exhortations to 
exchange the 
known for the 
unknown. It 

. ., Lucretius. S 

is hard to rec- 
oncile his actual life of gorgeous luxury with 
a philosophy of self-denial and positive contempt 
of the world. Herein he occupies the same 
position as Seneca. Both were men of the most 
extravagant habits. They talked like Anchorites. 
and lived like Sybarites. They contributed noth- 
ing to the new ideas of the world. They elabor- 
ated the views of Zeno, and preached with 
tedious fullness a doctrine of self negation, 
sharply contrasting with their lives. Cicero 
was about two generations before Christ, and 
Seneca nearly that after him. Thev illustrate 
the hollowness of Roman stoicism. Seneca was 
nothing to the world except an ethical writer, but 
Cicero has lefl us orations of such grandeur that 
all subsequent orators owe avast debt to him. He 
was a great statesman, a senator of whom any age 
or land might be proud. Profoundly learned and 
varied in his attainments, he was the Gladstone of 




his day, only instead of making Homer a speeialn . 
he delighted in setting forth the beauties of an ideal 
life foreign to his own experience. Not that he was 
a very bad man. On the contrary, he was, for his 
times, an unusually good man. But by his mode of 
living, he gave the sneer to his theory of life. Epic- 
tetus, who was several centuries later, and Marcus 
Aurelius, who ruled the empire, discoursed in much 
the same way as Cicero and Seneca did about the 
vanity of life, and the uncertainty of living after 
death ; but they seem to have been consistent and 
sincere. The orations of Cicero now extant are 
forty-nine in number, some of them incomplete, but 
all of them highly valuable. Of his rhetorical 
works, his dialogues on the Orator, and his essav on 

the Division 
of Oratory, are 
most esteemed. 
His style is sup- 
posed to be the 
veryperfection 
of Latin prose. 
His numerous 
extant epistles 
are mainly val- 
uable for the 
light which 
they throw up- 
on the history 
of his times. 

The first of the historians in point of time was 
Sallust, a Sabine, born in B. C. 85. A Plebeian by 
birth, he rose to eminence in politics, and secured 
the appointment of Governor of Numidia, where 
he accumulated a vast fortune, returning to Rome 
for its enjoyment. Surrounded by all the luxuries 
of ill-gotten gain, he wrote his history of the con- 
spiracy of Cataline and of the war against Jugur- 
tlia, relieving the dryness of his narrative with 
moral reflections upon the degeneracy of the 
times. After him came Cornelius Nepos, a friend 
of Cicero, whose voluminous writings are all lost 
except his " Lives of Eminent Generals." He 
seems to have been a faithful chronicler. The most 
eminent of all Romans. Julius Caesar, was a his- 
torian. His writings are history now, but they re- 
late to events witli which he had to do — " all of 
which I saw and part of which I was." His writ- 
ing-- preserve to us a record of the wars he waged. 



Tacitus. 



M+ 



164 



LATIN CLASSICS. 



and describe the people lie conquered. His style is 
simple, and his descriptive powers very great. 
Marvelous as was his genius for war and politics, 
he well deserves immortality as an author also. 
His " Commentaries " possess incalculable worth, 
apart from the glories of Caesar in other fields of 
effort. Livy was a greater historian than even Caesar 
or Sallust, and if second to Tacitus, he has been well 
called the prose Homer of Rome. Born in B. C. 
59, at Padua, he found the empire established, and 
sought to preserve its history from its inception to 
its imperial perfection. He wrote one hundred and 
forty-two chapters, of which only thirty-five are 
now extant. The first ten which survive carry the 
history from the arrival of ..Eneas in Italy to the 
year B. C. 293, a few years prior to the war with 
Pyrrhus. There is, then, a loss of ten chapters, or 
books. The account recommences with the second 
Punic war, B. C. 218. "What remains is mostly de- 
voted to that second Punic war. He accepted 
myths and legends as veritable history. It must be 
conceded that his work is more valuable for pre- 
senting what the Romans supposed to be true of 
their ancestors, than for telling the actual truth, 
and in this respect he was much like Herodotus. 

The greatest historian of antiquity, Greek or 
Roman, was Tacitus, born in A. D. 54. He had been 
Procurator of Belgic Gaul, and we are indebted to 
him for a great deal of information about the 
manners of the Germans in those days. Much that 
he wrote has been lost. A mode! of brief and 
philosophical biography, is his life of his father-in- 
law, Agricola. He was a master of terse and com- 
prehensive expressions. Suetonius, some twenty 
years later, wrote a very interesting series of biog- 
raphies, simple, precise, and correct. His subjects 
were the first twelve Caesars, from Julius to Domitian. 

Pliny is another familiar and illustrious name in 
Latin literature. There were two eminent men of 
the name. Pliny the Elder was a naturalist. His 
history of men and peoples was less remarkable 
that that unequaled monument of studious dili- 



gence and persevering industry, " Natural History." 
The work abounds in absurd stories. He was not so 
much a critical observer of nature as a painstaking 
collector of prevailing notions. He was a victim 
of the first eruption of Mt. Vesuvius. His nephew, 
Pliny the Younger, wrote " The Panegyric of the 
Trajan," and his books, or chapters of letters, are all 
valuable for their pictures of the manners and modes 
of thought of that period. He was born in A. D. 
61. He had for a teacher in rhetoric the great 
Quintilian (also a Spanish Roman) who survived 
his pupil eight years, dying in Rome in A. D. 118, 
at the age of seventy. Quintilian's " Institutes of 
Oratory " is a complete treatise on the art of com- 
position. He was a perfect master of the art which he 
taught, and his observations on style fairly entitle 
him to the supreme post of honor among the rheto- 
ricians of all times and languages. 

We cannot dismiss this subject without alluding 
to the one branch of literature which owes more to 
Rome than to Greece, and that is, law. It was in 
the appreciation of jurisprudence as a science, that 
the intellect of Rome showed its greatest originality. 
Servile in copying from Greece in most domains of 
pure reason, it marked out a path of its own in 
legal literature. It was not until a comparatively 
late date, the reign of Justinian, that the scattered 
jsarts were gathered into one digest ; but the mate- 
rial itself was gradually accumulating in the form 
of legal opinions through centuries. By a process 
of growth almost imperceptible, the raw material 
of legal literature, as it exists to-day, was accumula- 
ted in the files of the Roman courts. There is 
nothing in the Latin literature of which the Ro- 
mans might be so justly proud as the gradual accre- 
tions of legal lore in the Eternal City, which were 
finally digested and systematized as the Pandicts, a 
work prepared and promulgated by the order of the 
Emperor Justinian in the sixth century after 
Christ, but which in its essence and highest merits 
must be considered as the contribution of the Latin 
classics to legal literature. 




v V 



T^EJ^WPEROR ToKimcM 



gnunami -mi tmwmn \<&. 






CHAPTER XXVIII 



The Path of Empire— Tiberius Caesar— Caligula and Nero— Rome in the Days of Nero— 
The Siege of Jerusalem— From Vespasian to Trajan— Hadrian— The Forum— Marcus 
Aurelius— The Age of the Antonines— Ulpian the Lawyer— Diocletian— Constantine 
and Coxtantinople— Julian the Apostate— Weakness and Dissension— Theodosius and 
the Permanent Division of the Empire— Creek and Roman Churches— Last Days of 
Imperial Rome. 



K-<-§3}x{e!»-^ 



AVING seen the neph- 
ew of the great Csesar 
reap for himself the 
harvest of imperialism, 
enjoying the honors 
and prerogatives of ab- 
solute authority, as re- 
newed hy popular and 
senatorial delegation, from time to 
time until the public became ac- 
customed to the one-man rule, 
we come now to trace the path of 
empire. 

The Rome which would not follow 
out the suggestion of Mark Antony 
to crown the most illustrious Julius, 
has passed away, and a generation 
has come which accepted the mean and contempti- 
ble Tiberius as a matter of course. He was the 
successor, but not the son, of Augustus. Not one 
drop of the blood of the Caesars coursed in his veins, 
being simply the son of the Empress by a former 
marriage. It was known that the senile Emperor 
had adopted him as his son (having none living of 
his own) and that was enough. Tiberius wore the 
imperial purple without having his right challenged. 
By virtue of the tribuuieian power with which he 



had been invested, he summoned the Senate at the 
death of Augustus, and his right to the office of Im- 
perator was conceded. Augustus and Julius were 
both accorded divine honors, and henceforth the 
apotheosis of the dead emperors became a recog- 
nized institution of the state. Soon all disguise 
were thrown off, Tiberius accepting the homage as 
well as the subserviency of the senate and the peo- 
ple, all fear of another Brutus being dismissed. For 
twenty-three years he ruled the empire, a morose, 
bad man, without a single redeeming feature, bad at 
the start and constantly sinking deeper in the mire 
of infamy; making all about him unhappy, yet too 
feeble to seriously disturb the 
general thrift of the empire. 
Tiberius was succeeded by 
a scion of the proud Clo- 
dian family, Oaius Caesar, 
or Caligula, as he is usu- 
ally called. He was a prom- 
ising youth, and much 
was expected of him, but he 
proved even worse than Tibe- 
rius. Insanity seized him, 
and the monstrous freaks of 
his cruel craze made him an object of detestation. 
Wild and incredible stories are told of his madness. 




•Caligula. 



(I6 5 ) 



=^vr 



1 66 



THE EMPERORS FROM AUGUSTUS TO AEARIC. 



Bui the genera 
despotic hand. 




Claudius. 



public hardly felt the weight of his 
His prodigality was prodigious, and 
his personal habits revolting. After five years of 
infamy he was assassinated, not like Caesar, for politi- 
cal reasons, but in re- 
venge for private wrong 
and insult. For a short 
time it looked as if the 
republic might be re- 
stored ; but the reac- 
tionary party was dis- 
tracted by dissensions, 
and soon Claudius, 
uncle of Caligula, a 
weak-minded old man, 
was raised to the throne. 
Hardly up to the stand- 
ard of mediocrity, he 
yet had the merit of 
some common sense, and made a very good 
ruler, dying in A. D. 54. To him succeeded 
the son of his latest consort, Agripina. This 
son was the famous Nero, the pupil of Seneca; 

a young man of whom 
much good was expect- 
ed, but who proved the 
proverbial type of tyr- 
anny. This emperor 
killed his own mother, 
and was accused of set- 
ing fire to Rome for 
the excitement of wit- 
nessing the conflagra- 
tion. Under him be- 
Nero - . gan the persecution of 

the Christians. Having reigned wisely and mod- 
erately for five years, his character seemed to under- 
go a radical and detestable change, ami at the age 
of thirty he died, having been on the throne four- 
teen years, during which time he succeeded in effect- 
ually obliterating all the honors he had won in the 
early years of his reign. Among the victims of his 
murderous malice was his tutor, Seneca. Such a 
life was fitly terminated by the hand of an assassin, 
his atrocities being unbearable by those within tin 1 
le of his immediate' influence. Thai was in 
A. D. (38. 

Nero died childless, and a recent writer, in com- 
menting upon the situation at that point, observes : 




" The stock of Julii refreshed in vain by grafts from 
the Octavii, the Claudii, and the Domitii, had been 
reduced to a single branch, and with Nero the adop- 
tive race of the great Dictator was extinguished. 
The first of the Caesars had married four times, the 
second thrice, the third twice, the fourth thrice also, 
the fifth six times, and the sixth thrice. Of these 
repeated unions a large number had borne offspring, 
yet no descendants of any had survived. A few had 
reached old age, many had reached maturity, some 
were cut off by early sickness, the end of others was 
premature and mysterious ; but of the whole num- 
ber a large proportion were undoubted victims of 
political jealousy. Such was the price paid by the 
usurper's family for their splendid inheritance ; but 
the people accepted it in exchange for internal 
troubles and promiscuous bloodshed ; and though 
many of the higher classes of citizens had become 
the victims of Cassarian tyranny, yet order and 
prosperity had reigned generally throughout the em- 
pire ; the world had enjoyed a breathing-time of a 
hundred years before the next outbreak of civil dis- 
cord which is now to be related. ' The secret of 
the empire,' namely, that a prince could be created 
elsewhere than at Rome, was now fatally discovered, 
and from this time the succession of the Ron: an 
princes was most commonly effected by the distant 
lesions, and seldom without violence and slaughter." 
The first of these strictly military emperors was 
Galba, who was proclaimed Imperator by the army 
iu Spain. He was somewhat parsimonious, and did 
not suit the praetorian guards, who caused his as- 
sassination. Otho succeeded him for a short time, 
when the legions of the Rhine insisted upon mak- 
ing Vitellius emperor, and the Syrian army named 
Vespasian. It looked as if anarchy had been inau- 
gurated, and the end of the empire was near. But 
Vespasian succeeded in firmly establishing himself, 
and transmitting the crown to his son Titus. It 
was while the father was emperor, that the son laid 
siege to Jerusalem, and after a terrible resistance, 
effected its destruction. The hero-worship which 
had grown up and become a part of the very con- 
stitution of the empire was not seriously opposed 
by any except the Jews ami the Christians. Mono- 
theism .-aw in the deification of the dead emperors, 
not a form of loyalty to the government, hut a, hor- 
rible sacrilege. This made Jews and Christian-. 
then hardly distinguishable, a •■peculiar people" in 



THE EMPERORS FROM AUGUSTUS TO ALARIC. 



167 



a very unfortunate sense, for they were constantly 
suspected of treason. The secular Romans, to whom 
all religion was an empty form, could not under- 
stand the conscientious scruples of these Monothe- 
ists. That was one of the most memorable sieges 
ever known. The heroic resistance of the be- 
leagured city was sublime and awful. Confidently 
expecting deliverance from Jehovah, uon-Chris- 



sian, and the last of the Plavii. With all his faults 
and bigotry, Domitian was a beneficent ruler for the 
empire at huge. When the dagger of a freedman 
laid him in the dust, the old senatorial party, so 
long in the background, reasserted itself, placing 
a venerable senator, Nerva, upon the throne. Lit- 
tle more than a year elapsed, when death claimed 
him, and a new period began. 




1. Temple of Jupiter. 

2. Basilica Julia. 

3. Temple of Vesta. 



ROMAN FORUM RESTORED. 

4. Regia. 7, 8, 9. Temples of Saturn, of 

5. Temple of Castor and Pollux. Vespasian, of Concord. 

6. Tabulaxium. 10. Column of Phocas, 

14. Basilica 1 . 15. Temple of Antonius and Faustina. 



11. Statue of Domitian. 

12. Rostra. 

13. Arch of S. Severus. 



tian Jews did not hesitate to seek shelter within the 
walls, while the Christians, as confidently looking- 
for the second coming of Jesus, were bold in the 
defiance of temporal power. The dispersion of the 
one and the repeated persecution of the cither fol- 
lowed, and that not simply from monsters of the 
Xeronean type, but from emperors of good in- 
tentions, including Vespasian. Titus, and the Anto- 
nines. 

The accession of Vespasian to the throne was 

the elevation of a thoroughly plebeian family, the 

Flavii, to the royalty. The founder of this dynasty 

had a long and honorable reign, his immediate suc- 

■v a brief and no less honorable one, followed 

5 the bloody Domitian, the second son of Vespa- 



21 



Trajan succeeded to the throne apparently be 
cause all recognized his con- 
spicuous fitness for the grave 
duties of the imperial pur- 
ple. His long reign was 
rendered glorious by the 
immense extension of the 
empire in every direction. 
There had been a gradual 
growth in area ever since 
the supremacy of Rome 
had become an established 
fact, but more especially 
under Trajan, who was 
succeeded by a relative, Hadrian. 




Trajan. 

This noble em- 



T 



1 68 



THE EMPERORS FROM AUGUSTUS TO ALARIC. 



peror hadmore geniusfor government than any ruler 
since Julius Caesar. Under him much was done to 
civilize the ruder portions of the empire ; Hadrian 
being alike equal to military and civil emergencies. 
Toward the close of his reign, Hadrian chose as his 
associate (for it was the custom then and afterwards 
to choose an assistant emperor) T. Aurelius Anto- 
ninus, a man of mature age and most exemplary 
character. 

The Forum at Rome corresponded with the Agora 
at Athens. It was an open space surrounded by 
public buildings, and devoted to business. It was 
at once a market-place and a court of justice. All 
kinds of transactions centered there. The climate 
admitted of such an open-air system. The Forum 
had to be enlarged several times to meet the de- 
mands of the public, but the cut given on the pre- 
ceding page represents the Forum as it was when the 
empire was at its best. It may be added that as 
American towns frequently have squares around 
which business centers, so the Italian towns gener- 
ally had their forums, sustaining substantially the 
same relation to them that the great Forum did to 
Rome. 

At the death of Hadrian, to return to the emper- 
ors, Antoninus associated with himself in the gov- 
ernment a near relative, known in history as Marcus 

Aurelius. " The an- 
cient world,"' it has 
been truly remarked, 
"perhaps the modern 
world, has never enjoy- 
ed a period of more 
unbroken felicity, than 
that which glided tran- 
quilly from Vespasian 
to Marcus Aurelius." 
This is called the " Age 
of the . Antonines. " 
Notwithstanding the 
persecutions of that 
age, and the wars necessary to maintain and extend 
the empire, the condition of mankind, as a whole, was 
eminently prosperous. It extended over a period 
of about one hundred years. The Antonines were 
philosophers in the very best sense of the term ; 
broad-minded, high-souled and conscientious. The 
latest of them was a writer of ethical precepts, 
whose essays are still admired by all lovers of good 




Marcus Aurelius. 




Alexander Severus. 



morals. The Antonines did much to raise the pub- 
lic standard of right, and give an impetus to higher 
morality. 

With the death of Marcus Aurelius, A. D. 180, a 
new and calamitous era began. His son Conino- 
dus, was a vile wretch, early assassinated, and fol- 
lowed, at brief intervals, by several emperors of the 
Nero and Caligula type, whose names are not enti- 
tled to even the honor of mention. About the 
year 220, Alex- 
ander, better 
known as Sev- 
erus, came to 
the throne. He 
was amiable and 
honorable if not 
great. He it was 
who placed at 
the head of af- 
fairs, in point of 
fact, Ulpian, a 
man pre-emi- 
nent in Roman 
jurisprudence. 
His rule of thirteen years was of incalculable ben- 
efit, not alone or mainly to the empire of his day, 
but to the science of law. Under the genius of Ul- 
pian, justice became indeed a science, if such it 
had not become prior to that time. 

While engaged in a military expedition upon the 
Rhine, Severus was slain in a mutiny instituted by 
an officer named Maximus, a rude Thracian peasant, 
of superb physique. The soldiers were capth;i ted 
by the personal prowess of this Thracian, ami 
named him emperor. Then followed another series 
of swiftly rising and falling emperors, having no 
just claim to the sovereignty, and no fixed tenure of 
office. For fifty years the empire was on the verge 
of anarchy. During that time, the barbaric hordes, 
the Persians, on the East and the Goths in the 
West, seriously menaced the very existence of the 
empire. But the hour of doom had not come. 
Diocletian was raised to the throne in A. D. 284, 
and his accession marked a new era in the empire, 
entering then upon what may be called its oriental 
phase. The very name of Consul ceased tc be used. 
Having completed the degradation of the old rul- 
ing class at Rome, and succeeded in readjusting the 
empire on a strictly autocratic plan, he vol- 



■> *- 



'Mr 



THE EMPERORS FROM AUGUSTUS TO ALARIC. 



169 




untarily abdicated, and spent the remaining years 
of his life in elegant retire- 
ment. His chief associate in 
power was Maximian, whom he 
compelled to abdicate also, 
leaving the government toGa- 
lerius in the East, and Con- 
stantius in the West. The for- 
mer, Diocletian's favorite son- 
in-law, was allowed to name the 
associate of both himself and 
Const antius, and he chose for 

Diocletian. his OW11 

associate his nephew, Daza, 
and for Constantius one 
Flavins Serving. The real 
choice of Constantius was 
his own son Constantine of 
Christian memory. At that 
time Constantius was in Brit- 
ain, and there he died not 
long after. 

The ambitious son boldly 
assumed the office of his 
father, having already won a 
brilliant record as a soldier, 
and evinced remarkable sa- 
gacity. Constantine did not 
press his claims at once, but 
was content to exercise the 
functions of a subordinate 
officer, busied with the ad- 
ministration of affairs in the 
extreme Northwest. Declared Emperor at York in 
A. D. 306, it was not until several years later that 
he openly asserted his claim. By that time Chris- 
tianity had made tremendous strides, and had a 
vast number of converts. Constantine was totally 
devoid of religious scruples or convictions, but he 
had the wisdom to avow himself a champion of the 
Christian church. That rallied to his standard 
multitudes of enthusiastic supporters in all parts of 
the empire, especially in the East, where he was in 
most need of allies. His army had the enthusiasm 
of religious zealots, and they fought with a heroism 
which was irresistible. Several battles were neces- 
sary to the decision of the issue between the rival 
Ca?sars. The last battle was fought at the Melvian 
bridge, only three miles from Rome. Constantine 




CONSTANTINE THE GREAT. 



had already issued the Decree of Milan, giving im- 
perial license for the first time, to Christianity, and 
avowing himself a believer in its doctrines. Enter- 
ing Rome in triumph, he became, A. D. 312, the 
first Christian sovereign of the world. He had pre- 
tended to see while marching through Gaul a vision 
of the cross in the heavens, inscribed with the le- 
gend, " By this sign conquer." But the capture of 
Rome was not the subjugation of the entire Roman 
Empire by any means, and it was not until 323 that 
the great battle between paganism and Christianity- 
was fought. Two mighty armies met, one under 
Constantine appealing to 
the Christian's God for suc- 
cor, the other under Li- 
cinius jxhorted to remember 
that the gods of Olympus 
were many against only one, 
and he " the Prince of Peace." 
The defeat of the pagans 
was an utter rout and the 
shattered host sought refuge 
in the fortress of Byzantium, 
from which they were soon 
driven. At last the surrender 
was unconditional, and Con- 
stantine found himself sole 
emperor of the entire Ro- 
man Empire. 

In personal character this 
man was utterly detestable, 
but he certainly had great 
genius, and in nothing did 
he show this more plainly than in transferring 
his capital from Rome to Byzantium, which he 
changed to Constantinople, and reconstructed 
upon a scale worthy the imperial center of the 
world. Like a second Romulus, " he builded 
better than he knew." He required the nobles to 
erect there lofty palaces. Gibbon says, in comment- 
ing upon this subject, " The city and senate of Rome 
remained as before, while those of Constantinople 
were endued with co-ordinate honor and authority, 
and enjoyed, moreover, all the advantage of the im- 
perial presence. Two capitals could not, indeed, 
exist on equal terms within the same sphere. Rome 
sank immediately into a j^rovincial metropolis, such 
as Alexandria, Antioch, or Treves; Constantino- 
ple became the mistress of the world and succeeded to 



•f <o- 






THE EMPERORS FROM AUGUSTUS TO ALARIC. 



Rome's proudest title — the designation of ' The City. 5 
■• The reign of Constantine lasted to the year 337, 
untroubled by civil dissensions, and prosperous in 
the conduct of affairs on every frontier of the em- 
pire. The historians commemorate the settlement 
of the finances on a new basis, which rendered them 
more elastic, and gave, perhaps, considerable relief 
to the reviving industry of the general populations. 
The interior, at least, of the provinces remained 
undisturbed by war. Letters revived ; humanity 
extended her conquests." Constantine bequeathed 



new religion. The endless and fierce doctrinal 
controversies in the church had disgusted him. 
Plato and Aristotle seemed grander to him than 
Arius and Athanasius. An enthusiast, he hoped to 
restore the old paganism, modified by philosophy, 
deeming it far preferable to Christianity, and striv- 
ing earnestly to undo what his uncle had done, but 
to no purpose. 

Perhaps Julian might have changed the whole 
current of European events, from a religious point 
of view, had he lived to old age ; but he died 




' <:|, «7.H', -■ ?Spsif* 



CONSTANTINOPLE 

his empire to his son Constantius. It was indeed 
Roman, but it had been thoroughly reconstructed, 
and the capital itself had been changed. The son 
was an absurd stickler for ceremony, and all the 
circumstances of loyalty. He visited Rome, but 
affected indifference to its grandeur. The father 
had. in the fiendishness of his character, ami with 
a Xeronean ferocity, put to death nearly all of his 
own family. This favorite son had a brief and un- 
eventful reign, followed by the accession of his 
cousin Julian, familiarly, but unjustly, known as 
the "Apostate." Julian had been educated a 
Christian, hut upon arriving ;it the age of dis- 
retion, he preferred the old philosophy to the 



early, and no Elisha 
Julius had no Oc- 
tavius. He fell in 
battle with the Per- 
sians, who had al- 
ways maintained 
! heir independence 
if not their impor- 
tance, and who were 
threatening the in- 
tegrity of the em- 
pire. His deat b was 
entirely disconnect- 



took up his mantle. This 




Julian. 



ed with his pagan:-!::, but occasioned a great deal 



- 

r 



THE EMPERORS FROM AUGUSTUS TO ALARIC. 



I 7 I 



of legendary invention. It was reported that he 
1 xclaimed in dying. " Thou hast conquered, 
Galilean!" Of course this was pure fiction, 
but it none the less suggested the real fact in 
the case. Henceforth paganism was utterly dead, 
ami no important attempt was ever again made 
to revive it. The soldiers had made no objec- 
tion to Julian's religion, nor did they seem to care 
anything about it. one way or the other, for when 
the next emperor, Jovian, restored the ensign of the 
cross, they were indifferent. II is reign was also 
soon over. In less than a year he died, and the of- 
ficers of state who were with him (for Jovian was 
still absent from the capital on the military cam- 
paign begun by Julian) put Valentinian, a good 
soldier but no scholar, upon the throne. This eni- 
peror'soou returned to Constantinople, abandoning 
the provinces beyond the Tigris. Appreciating the un- 
wieldy magnitude of the empire, he made his broth- 
er Valens his associate, assigning him to the East. 
The successor of Valentinian was his son Gra- 
tian. who soon associated with him in the govern- 
ment his younger brother, Valentinian II. He re- 
sided himself in Treves or Paris, and the youthful 
brother emperor at Milan. Rome, as a city, was 
practically abandoned by the successors of the 
Caesars long before it fell a prey to the Gothic and 
Vandal hordes. The brothers were both very weak 
and inefficient. Gratian put himself under the 
protection of Alaric the Goth, but was finally assas- 
sinated by Maximus, who had been declared emperor 
by the legions in Britain. Valentinian would have 
been served the same way. probably, had not Theo- 
dosius of Constantinople shielded him from harm, 
and secured him in the possession of the middle 
portion of the old empire. Thus, in A. D. 383, the 
Roman empire had three emperors, and was ruled 
by a triumvirate again, something as it was during 
the days of Octavius. Antony and Lepidus, four 
centuries earlier, when imperialism was in the throes 
of birth. Soon there was war between the three 
emperors, resulting in making Theodosius absolute 
master of the entire empire. At his death, he 



made what proved to lie the permanent division of 
the empire into Eastern and Western, putting one 
of his own sons at the head of each empire. 

From this time on, we have, as now. the Roman 
and the Greek churches. In 395, this important 
division was made. Without following up the sub- 
ject ecclesiastically, it is important to note that the 
division of the church was the work of au emperor, 
rather than the result of theological schism. It fol- 
lowed in the path of politics, and may be put down as 
apolitical necessity, although somewhat theological. 

With the dawn of the fifth century, the very last 
stage of Roman imperialism is reached. The North- 
ern horde had devastated Greece, and turned cov- 
etous eyes upon Italy. Ravenna was then the 
capital. The military genius of Stilicho repulsed 
them with terrible slaughter, but he died in A. D. 
408, leaving the emperor Honorius at the mercy of 
the still undismayed barbarian. The indomitable 
Alaric marched into Italy, and leaving the emperor 
at Ravenna, made straight for Rome. He wanted 
spoils, and knew the old city was the seat of wealth, 
if not of empire. Rome was powerless, and Ra- 
venna rendered uo assistance. The barbarian en- 
tered the city, wrought his pleasure, and retired from 
it after twelve days of sack. That was in A. D. 410. 

Alaric as a Christian respected the churches, and 
those who sought refuge within them were spared, 
but the sack was complete. The Rome of antiquity 
had fallen, and although the new capital was not 
disturbed, the western empire itself crumbled, and 
disappeared in the night of the Dark Ages. 

But before entering upon that period and phase 
of the world's history, or even following fur- 
ther the trail of events in Italy from Romulus to 
date, it will be necessary to pause over a collateral 
branch of Roman history, for the rise and fall of 
the empire, distinctively, was only a part of the 
greatness of Rome. A more potential influence 
than imperialism began its manifestations within 
the empire during the first emperor's reign, and 
from an obscure beginning developed into that vast 
entity called Christendom. 




172 



PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANITY. 



Lcmcituje East from Greenwich 




m 

■;ohi 

VA"! TfFJMt *> 



PALESTINE 



r 





CHAPTER XXIX, 



Rome and Christ— The Jews and Jesus— The Fundamental Truths— First Churches— St. 
Paul and the Primitive Fathers — Virtues and Faith of the Early Church — Pagan 
and Christian Persecutions Compared— Flexibility op Christianity — The Catacombs — 
The Primitive Fathers— Nicene Creed. 




HE history of Rome would 
be inexcusably defective if 
special prominence were 
not given to Christianity in 
its primitive stage. That 
period of ecclesiastical de- 
velopment belonged to the 
empire of the Caesars. The found- 
er of the religion which now pre- 
vails over Europe and America was 
a subject of Rome, and the dis- 
tinctively primitive period of our 
faith was entirely Roman. By her 
conquests, her roads, and her gene- 
■ral unification of many peoples, the 
Queen City of the world prepared 
the way for the propagandists of 
the faith. To contemporary eyes, 
the religion of the despised and crucified Nazarene 
was a mere trifle ; but in the light of subsequent 
events, it is clothed with incalculable importance, 
outranking in vital force and molding power every 
< ither feature of Roman history. In its career is 
justified the prediction, " The stone which the build- 
ers rejected, the same has become the head of the 
corner," and that, too, whether the Romans or the 
Jews be considered as the " builders." 

The Jews were almost unknown to the civilized 
world of olden times, and their religion was confined 



to the narrow tract of land called Palestine, their 
nationality becoming a great factor only after the 
past had begun to merge into and give place to the 
present. The chief claim, however, of the Hebrews 
to pre-eminence, is the production, humanly speak- 
ing, of Christianity. It is proposed to consider 
this mighty system of worship in its early stage, as 
a separate entity, and that without doctrinal bias, in 
a purely historical spirit. The fact that the birth 
of Jesus of Nazareth is the time from which all 
civilized modern nations compute dates, is a fitting 
testimony to the significance of his supreme person- 
ality. Born of lowly parents, there could have been 
no more improbable suggestion made during his 
lifetime, even when he was most prosperous, than 
that he would prove to be the most notable char- 
acter in all history, but that such is the fact, is in- 
dubitable. 

The four biographies of Jesus (for such the Gos- 
pels really are) agree in representing the founder of 
Christianity as a teacher of certain fundamental 
principles, and not as either an organizer or sys- 
tematizer. He formed no church, formulated no 
creed. Content to teach practical truths, his aim 
as a teacher was to fill the heart of man with gen- 
tleness, and banish from it impure thoughts. His 
ideal was essentially original and new, so far as the 
great world of the Roman empire was concerned. 
In his own native Palestine was a small sect called 



(173) 



*74 



PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANITY. 



Essenes, by whom were practiced the virtues and 
graces exemplified and advocated by Jesus Christ, 
That sect may have derived its doctrines from the 
few Jews who had wandered into India, and learned 
the wisdom of the Christlike Chrisna. However 
that may be, the Christian religion as it was started 
by Jesus, and further promulgated by Paul, was a 
fresh element in human society. The old mytholo- 
gies were almost dead. Men of education held all 
Olympus in contempt, and philosophy was no long- 
er the satisfaction of spiritual longings. Some- 
thing radically unlike either would naturally meet 
with favor. 

The preaching of Jesus was indeed brief. At 
the age of thirty he abandoned his trade as a car- 
penter, and devoted himself to the life of an itin- 
erant preacher, and healer of diseases. Less than 
three years later, his body was nailed to the cross, 
his public career ended. During that time he visit- 
ed many places in his native land, and created a 
great sensation, but his influence did not extend be- 
yond Canaan. To all appearances, he had entered 
upon a strictly provincial career. His most inti- 
mate associates, the disciples, and the devoted 
women who revered him the most, had no concep- 
tion of his real mission. 

The church at Jerusalem was the oldest of all 
the churches, but could hardly be called the mother 
church. In the earliest days of Christianity, very 
soon after the crucifixion, there were eight churches. 
The one at Jerusalem was a commune, each mem- 
ber pooling his property, and having all things in 
common. The other prominent and somewhat later 
churches were those at Antioch, Ephesus, Smyrna. 
Athens, Corinth, Kome and Alexandria. 

For the most part, these churches attest the zeal 
and broad views of Paul. That great apostle of the 
Gentiles, as he is called, conceived the idea of mak- 
ing the doctrines and personality of Jesus the foun- 
dation of a world-wide religion ; one which should 
supersede Judaism and paganism. It was a lofty 
thought, and the mosi stupendous undertaking that 
ever engaged the efforts of man. The success which 
attended the preaching of Christianity on the Paul- 
ine plan, must ever stand in history as a more far- 
reaching and exalted triumph of genius than any 
of the conquests of i he world by arms. Mohammed 
was a sword-bearer, and his caliphs were men of 
war. but Jesus, Paul, and all the propagandists of 



primitive Christianity, were men of peace. Perse- 
cuted and maligned, they won their way by moral 
force, and when at last Constantine acknowledged 
the Christian religion as the state religion, he sim- 
ply gave official recognition of the fact that, de- 
spite every obstacle, the new faith had conquered, 
the empire being more Christian than Pagan. The 
converts were mainly from the middle and lower 
classes, but included many of the nobility, and a 
large element of learning. 

The primitive simplicity and purity of the church 
was maintained for the first two centuries, when the 
prevalence of the faith changed somewhat in its 
character. Angry disputes and immorality gained 
ground. Pious frauds and forgery were practiced. 
In. their zeal to substantiate their peculiar views, 
disputants would often interpolate passages into the 
Testament, and even palm oil spurious writings as 
sacred. A great deal of stress was laid upon the 
supposed near approach of the end of the world. 
The earth was very soon to be burnt up. and the 
wildest theories of impending ruin were entertain- 
ed. The prophesied near approach of the end of 
the Jewish dispensation, and the establishment of 
the Christian religion, were interpreted to mean the 
literal destruction of the globe, at least of all 
physical life upon it. It may be remarked that 
that millenarian delusion has been the prolific pa- 
rent of fanaticism, almost from the beginning of 
the Christian era. 

We sometimes hear of the ten persecutions of 
the Christians by the Pagan emperors. There were 
at most only ten, and these were slight, as com- 
pared with the Inquisition and kindred persecutions 
of Christians by Christians. In a strictly religious 
point of view, polytheism was tolerant, but there 
were religious rites and ceremonies blended with 
political institutions, as previously explained, which 
rendered the monotheistic scruples of Jews and 
Christians treasonable, in the light of Eoman law. 
But "those light afflictions " were like a little water 
thrown upon a great flame, stimulating rather than 
quenching the zeal of the believers. "The blood 
of the martyrs is the seed of the church " was writ- 
ten by Tertullian, during the days of pagan 
supremacy, and was true of those light persecutions. 
Many a primitive Christian was obliged to contrib- 
ute, however, to the brutal pleasure of a Roman 
multitude, gathered at the amphitheatre to witness 



PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANITY. 



17 



/ : 



a contest between wild beasts and men. The train- 
ed and professional gladiators were often killed in 
the fierce combat, and the untrained Christians 
were almost always slain. Sometimes women and 
even children were thrown to the wild beasts for the 
delectation of a bloodthirsty populace. Bitt the 
persecutions in later times, except in Germany, Hol- 
land and Great Britain, were so severe as to prevent 
the spread of opinions and sentiments opposed to 
the ruling church. Protestantism was burnt out of 
Italy, France and Spain, with a persistence and ve- 
hemence in persecution finding no parallel in the 
history of primitive Christianity. One general 
characteristic of 
Christi anity, 
which very ear- 
ly manifested 
itself, deserves 
observation; 
namely, its a- 
dapt ability. No 
other religion 
can at all com- 
pare with it in 
this regard. 

There are ten 
religions within 
the scope of his- 
tory, including 
the agnosticism 
of Confucius. 







RONS OF THE COLISEUM, ROME. 



frequent and radical changes, which must be met in 
disregard of precedents and prejudice, and 1; is 
ability to meel these demands that gives to Chris- 
tianity the promise of universal spiritual empire. 
Tins adaptability enabled the primitive church to 
conquer the empire, survive the Dark Ages, and 
conform to the conditions of vitality peculiar to its 
ever-varying environment. 

A peculiarly interesting feature of primitive 
Christianity was the catacombs of Rome. I he 
Roman method of disposing of dead bodies was to 
burn the corpse. Cremation was almost, universal 
in the Eternal City, and quite general throughout 

the empire. But 
the early Chris- 
tians were op- 
posed to destroy- 
ing the body, 
whether by tire 
or other means. 
They looked for 
a literal resurrec- 
tion of the body, 
and that in the 
near future. The 
catacombs were 
vast subterra- 
nean chambers 
which were ttsed 
as receptacles of 
the bodies of lie- 



All except Christianity are local, or, as in the case 

of Judaism, strictly national. When Greece and 

Rome developed in philosophy, outgrowing the 

crude myths of their ancestors, their religion re- 
ts 

mained stationary. The world moved on and left 
Olympus behind. Brahminism, Buddhism, and Is- 
lamism. each is substantially the same, always and 
everywhere, resembling the man who should wear 
the same clothing in all seasons ami latitudes. Chris- 
tianity has the elasticity which admits of and in- 
vites growth, while it defies outgrowth. There is 
absolutely no limit to its range of thought. The 
world has undergone many changes since ii- birth, 
but to every phase id' human development it has 
accommodated itself. It thus gives promise of a 
permanence, which i- nol the fixity of the rock, 
but the gradual, sure, and persistent growth of the 
century plant. The progress of civilization demands 



lievers in those primitive days. Many legends are told 
of the church of the catacombs which lack historical 
verification. It is probable that those underground 
rooms were the quarries f rom which building material 
for the city had been taken from time immemorial. 
Their use for the purposes of ( hristian burial is sup- 
posed to have been the first utilization of the space. 
The earliest mention of the catacombs was in the 
reign of Nero. Sometimes the persecuted church took 
refuge in the catacombs. Many inscriptions attest 
the piety of the early fathers. The symbols carved 
on the stones also bear testimony to the religious 
character of the place. No doubt the original 
quarries were greatly enlarged under the Christian 
influence and usage, ami the catacombs are sup- 
posed to have reached their maximum dimensions in 
the fifth century. 

The first a^re of the Christian church is called the 



7? 



22 



T) \ 



i£*. 



176 



PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANITY. 



Apostolic age. That period extended from the 
crucifixion of Jesus to the death of St. John, or the 
destruction of Jerusalem. The overthrow of that 
city had a powerful influence upon the church. 
Armenia was the first country in which Christianity 
was established as the national religion. Wherever 
there were Hebrews dispersed, the religion of Christ 
early found some adherents. 

Of the primitive fathers of note, the first was Ig- 
natius, bishop of Antioch, where the believers were 
first called Christians. He died a martyr under 
Trajan. Justin Martyr 
was an eminent writer. 
He was beheaded under 
Marcus Aurelius in the 
seventy-fifth year of his 
age. Another martyr for 
the same period, Polycarp, 
deserves mention as the 
special friend and spirit- 
ual son of John the Evan- 
gelist. Irenaeus, of Lyons, 
was a skillful theologian. 
He wrote much against 
gnosticism. He was mar- 
tyred at the beginning of 
the third century. Next 
in point of time, and 
superior to all who have been named in ability and 
influence, was Tertullian. a native of Carthage. A 
lawyer by profession, he brought to Christianity a 
mind well trained for discussion. Origen, of Alex- 
andria, was a learned teacher of the faith, and the 
author of some eminent treatises on religious sub- 
jects. But the greatest of all the Christian fathers 




CATACOMBS 



was Augustine. A Numidian by birth, he may justly 
be called the great light of the Western church. 
His writings were very voluminous, and he may 
be said to have formulated the doctrines of the 
church. His powerful logic was directed against 
Pelagianism, and every form of heresy then extant. 
Pelagius believed in free will, while Augustine was 
a stout defender of the doctrine of man's moral 
inability and absolute dependence upon God. John 
Calvin was simply a later edition of Augustine. 
Besides these eminent fathers there were two of 
great renown, Jerome 
and Chrysostom. The 
former was a learned 
scholar whose crowning 
work was the translation 
of the Bible into Latin. 
His version of the sacred 
volume is called the Vul- 
gate. Chrysostom was re- 
markable for his eloquence 
as a preacher. He was 
the great orator of the 
early church. 

Two conspicuous names 
in this connection are 
Athanasius, bishop of 
of home. Alexandria, and Arius. Of 

both we have heard something already. The for 
mer maintained the divinity of Christ and the trini- 
ty of the Godheud, while the latter was a Unitarian. 
The Nicene creed, which is substantially held by 
nearly all Christendom, is an embodiment of the 
views not only of Athanasius, but of nearly the 
entire primitive church. 




7? 



— ■ 1 w 



ik^ 





The Second Rome— Spiritual .Empire— The Medieval Priesthood— Church and State— The 
Church and Learning — The Early Popes — Rome and Theologt— Leo the Great— Greg- 
ory the Great — The Temporal Power of the Popes — The Decretals and Donation— 
The Gtjelphs— Papal Authority and the Reformation — Protestantism in Italy— The 
Mystics — The Inquisition — The Jesuits — The Dogma of the Immaculate Conception — 
Philip Schaff on the Church of Rome — Present Pope and the Vatican — Spiritual 
Divisions of Christendom — Modern Missions — A Reflection. 










>^§33C£5f— -H 



ITH the fall of the West- 
ern Empire Rome seem- 
ed to disappear forever. 
Indeed it had long be- 
fore ceased to be a real pow- 
er in the world, being lit- 
tle else than a city of lux- 
ury and reminiscence. But 
it was destined to a second greatness, a su- 
premacy more potent and absolute than 
imperialism had ever known or conceiv- 
ed. The Vatican at Rome is to-day the 
capital of a mighty empire, no less real 
because spiritual. 

In following the city of Romulus from 
its foundation to the stage in history now 
reached, it has been necessary to traverse a wide 
range of inquiry. Primitive Christianity was a part 
of the Roman Empire, springing up within it. and 
being greatly facilitated in its dissemination and 
growth by the mechanism of universal empire which 
centered in Rome. But primitive Christianity gave 
no special prominence to Rome itself. Jerusalem 
was the spiritual capital in those days of the Chris- 
tian church. When, however, the Roman Empire 
and Jerusalem both lay in rains, the miter of the 



Roman pontiff took the place of the scepter and 
the high priest, and to both the imperial purple and 
the holy sepulcher succeeded the surplice. In trac- 
ing the history of Italy we shall see much of the 
popes and the papacy ; but without anticipating the 
next chapter, it may be well to consider the Church 
of Rome as a distinct factor in the world, and in 
this same connection glance at the Modern ( hurch, 
without anticipating the great reactionary events 
yet to be noted. 

When the Northern invaders poured into Italy, 
they found the Christian priesthood a powerful 
body, a tremendously influential power in the society 
of the entire empire; but the sovereignty of the Ro- 
man See maybe called the "section of imperialism" 
subsequently saved from the general wreck. The 
Church of Rome was enriched with land, and early 
acquired vast territorial possessions. Its wealth of 
] lower was a slower, but more momentous growth. 
After every vestige of sovereignty over Europe had 
been torn from Rome as a political capital, the 
priesthood undertook the establishment of an em- 
pire more potent than the world had ever seen, 
and succeeded in its establishment. The popes, as 
we shall presently see, acquired an ascendancy over 
Europe more absolute and remarkable than the 



077) 



*?\ 



I 7 8 



THE PAPACY AND MODERN CHRISTIANITY. 



rule of the Caesars. The papacy cannot be attrib- 
uted to any one man, but was the slow growth of 
centuries, accelerated by an occasional genius for 
organization, but mainly due to impersonal causes. 

The medieval age was the golden age of relig- 
ion. It has been said that the ninth century was 
the age of the bishops; the tenth and eleventh, of the 
popes; but all medieval centuries, from Alaric to 
Luther, were ruled far more by the ecclesiastical 

than the 

secular 
power. It 
was not 
the union 
of church 
and state, 
but the 
sovereign- 
ty of the 
church 
over the 
state. In 
the lan- 
guage o f 
Pope lu- 
ll o c e n t , 
-T hese 
two bran- 
ches of 
power 
were the 
sun and 
moon ; " 
the church 

being the sun, and the state, or crown, being merely 
the moon. The voice of Rome was heard at every 
court, and the influences of the pontificate were 
supreme in all Europe for a thousand years. 

The church was far from perfect, but its power 
Mas a mighty agency for good. If it was autocratic, 
it did much to break down that bulwark of autocracy, 
the arrogance of birth. The priesthood, from the 
lowest to the highest, was open to all, however hum- 
ble, and the stable-boy's son might hold the keys of 
St. Peter. There was something higher than roy- 
alty, and more potent than the blood 1 if kings. Grad- 
ually and imperceptibly this idea prepared the way 
for democratic ideas. The priests were the allies of 
kings, it is true, in a certain sense, they heing 




N1CENE COUNCIL. 



drawn together by a common danger and interest 
frequently; but undoubtedly the church did very 
much to undermine the monarchy. 

In the domain of learning it was a very potent 
benefit. The priests were generally far from being- 
men of learning, but the church did much to en- 
courage the cause of education, nevertheless ; and 
further, when the floods of ignorance and devas- 
tation swept over all Europe, threatening to utterly 

destroy the 
civiliza- 
tion of 
At he n s , 
Alexan- 
dria and 
Rome, the 
monaster- 
ies of the 
continent 
served a s 
the ark 
wherein to 
save alive 
some por- 
tion of an- 
cient liter- 
ature. We 
h a v c al- 
ready seen 
that much 
of the clas- 
sics has 
been lost 
fore ver. 

Here and there a studious recluse clung to Plato, 
Aristotle, Homer, Virgil, Horace, or Cicero, and so 
the destruction was not complete. The church, as a 
body, deserves all credit for the preservation of an- 
cient literature, for fortunately it had individual 
scholars among its secluded monks and privileged 
priests. 

The term Pope means father (papa) and origin- 
ally was by no moans peculiar to the head of any 
particular church. It came gradually to be claimed 
by the bishop of Rome as his distinctive appellation. 
There have been 200 Popes of Rome, including St. 
Peter and the present pontiff, Leo XIII. The early 
list is somewhat uncertain. The apostle Peter may 
not have been the first to preach Christ at Rome, but 



g - 

"7p 



5) V 



i«U 



THE PAPACY AND MODERN CHRISTIANITY. 



■79 



he is supposed to have suffered martyrdom there 
under Nero. His pontificate is reukoned by the 
annalists from A. D. 42 to GT. In the authorized 
List of jjopes all are called saints (with one excep- 
tion) until the middle of the sixth century, and 
mine after the middle of the sixteenth century, and 
very few after the eighth. However undesigned 
this may be, it suggests very fairly the most general 
fact in regard to the subject, namely, that in the 
primitive age of the church the Roman See was 
purely ecclesiastical, if not 
wholly religious, but for a 
thousand years it has been 
a temporal power, or was until 
recently, although using the 
weapons of the Spirit largely 
for the accomplishment of 
its purposes. Not that all 
the popes have been secular, 
but the papacy has had its 
secular side for at least a 
chiliad. And to-day, shut up 
in the Vatican, it still wields 
vast authority. 

In the controversies between 
the theologians of the early 
church, Rome took a lively 
interest, and to its especial 
championship of the doctrine 
of the Trinity, was due in a 
very large measure its pre- 
eminence. It came to be the 
stronghold of orthodoxy, al- 
though the first Christian emperor was heret- 
ically inclined. Sylvester, who was made bishop 
of Rome in 314 and held the office twenty-two years, 
was the first Primate of all the Sees of Italy. He 
was raised to that dignity by Constantine and the 
Nicene Council in 325. He was in effect an arch- 
bishop. The thirty-sixth pope, Liberius, was de- 
posed and banished by the Arian or Unitarian em- 
peror, Constantius. He was a martyr to the cor- 
ner-stone of orthodoxy, as now and usually held at 
Rome ; but, singularly inconsistent as it may seem, 
Liberius was also the first in the list of popes to 
whom was denied canonization. 

The first pope to absolutely claim universal 
authority over Christendom, was Leo the Great, in 
440. He was a man of remarkable genius for exec- 




POPE GREGORY THE GREAT. 



utive matters. He claimed the primacy of the uni- 
versal church, or of the Catholic church, on the 
ground that Jesus had said, "' Thou art Peter, and 
upon this rock will I build my church." He scouted 
the corresponding claim of the Patriarch of Con- 
stantinople. The Roman and Greek churches from 
that time have been sharply outlined as rival and 
hostile hierarchies. Leo aspired to rule the East, 
no less than the West. His followers never formal- 
ly renounced the claim, but practically contented 
themselves with the Western 
Empire. Between the two 
great divisions of Christendom 
there has not been any very 
considerable conflict, territori- 
al boundaries being observed, 
except in a few cases. 

Protestantism and Catholi- 
cism dispute the same territory; 
but the Roman and the Greek 
each enjoys a domain apart 
from the other. The claims, 
therefore, set up by the first 
Leo led to no such conflict as 
the one disputed by Luther 
during the pontificate of Leo 
X., the most memorable of all 
the twelve Leos. The West 
readily accepted the claims of 
Rome, and the East con- 
temptuously ignored them in 
favor of Constantinople. 
We find no notable pope 
from Leo I. till the accession of the greatest of all 
popes, Gregory, whose pontificate dates from 568 
to 604. Those were troublous times in Europe. 
No great ruler sat upon any throne, and Gregory 
seized every opportunity to magnify his office. 
He extended the authority of the Church of 
Rome to Spain, and strengthened it throughout 
Europe, as a spiritual sovereignty ; but his 
great work was the elevation of the host, as 
it might be called, — the raising of ecclesiastical 
authority above thrones and sovereignties. He also 
took care to strengthen the hold of the church by 
improving the ceremonials and worship. Music was 
cultivated, and it might be said to have given to the 
Roman church its splendor and pomp, the peculiar- 
ities which alike inspire awe in the breast of a savage, 



-is 



k 



,80 



THE PAPACY AND MODERN CHRISTIANITY. 



and please the aesthetic taste of the cultivated wor- 
shiper. In A. D. 730, the title of Pope was changed 
from S&rmis Servorum, Servant of Servants, to Dorni- 
nus, or Lord. Gregory II. was the pope who received 
the sword of Lutprand in recognition of this new 
sovereignty. It was not, however, until the corona- 
tion of Charlemagne, 800, that the papacy received 
its full measure of jurisdiction. The Lombards re- 
sisted the popes, but Charles the Great confirmed 
their claims. Leo III. was the pope who crowned 
that greatest of medieval sov- 
ereigns. The temporal au- 
thority of the popes continued 
until the unification of Italy 
under Victor Emanuel. 

It was under the pontificate 
of Adrian I. that the great 
documents known as the 
Decretals and Donation were 
brought out, which have 
been called " those two magic 
pillars of the spiritual ami 
temporal monarchy of the 
popes." By the former, 
all ecclesiastical disputes, 
wherever occurring, were to 
be referred to the bishop of 
Rome for settlement, and by 
the latter, Coustantine (the 
supposed author of the first 

decree) donated to the | - 

tiffs the temporal authority 
over Rome, Italy, and the 
Western empire generally. 
These documents would not have been so sensa- 
tional had there not been the densest ignorance 
among the people, including Charlemagne himself 
and his court ; also a long period of previous exer- 
cise of nearly that much authority. That those 
documents were genuine is questioned at the 
present time, but their validity was not disputed 
until long after their promulgation. Building on 
that strong foundation, and the gradual entrench- 
ments which preceded those most stupendous of 
all documents, the papacy pursued a career of 
power unrivaled. 

With very rare exceptions, the popes, for a thou- 
sand years, were men of remarkable force of char- 
acter and zeal. They were the heads of the 




Guelph party, and wars were inevitable. It 
was a desolating, sickening and horrible con- 
test for- temporal power in Italy, with some 
diversions in favor of religion in general, and 
a^ainft the spirit of disbelief in particular, espe- 
cially as that spirit found expression in Italy. 
There were some mutterings of the coming Re- 
naissance, but very little was thought about 
the new lights and shadows of the faith until 
the fifteenth century, when a new era in papacy 
was inaugurated. 

Until the eleventh cent- 
ury, the popes were elected 
by the clergy and the peo- 
ple of Rome, but for eight 
hundred years the college 
of cardinals has had the 
authority, a two-thirds ma- 
jority being necessary to a 
choice. There have been 
numerous cases — nearly 
twenty — of sharp, earnest 
and protracted contests, 
resulting in two or more 
prelates claiming the tiara 
at the same time. 

It was in this century, 
1073, that Hildebrand was 
elected pope, taking the title 
of Gregory VII., under 
whom was waged the " War 
of the Investitures." By the 
term investiture was designa- 
ted the ceremony by which parish priests and 
other clergy were clothed with the functions of 
their sacred office. The secular authorities, 
especially in Germany and France, insisted upon 
the right to invest the clergy, while the pope in- 
sisted that such investiture belonged within the 
province of the pontificate. The issue thus raised 
involved the relative superiority of the secular and 
the spiritual authorities. It was a question of 
church or state. Henry IV. of Germany set up 
a new pope, Gilbert of Ravenna; but Gregory had 
the alliance of Robert of Normandy, and was. 
withal, a great genius. The contest was still in 
progress when Gregory died, 1085. The question 
of investiture was not decided until 1122, when a 



»k_ 



THE PAPACY AND MODERN CHRISTIANITY. 



181 



compromise was effected — a compromise which 
gave the lion's share of the advantage to the Papacy. 

When the Protestant Reformation set Europe 
ablaze with religious ideas hostile to the Papacy, Pope 
Leo X. found himself compelled to make Italian 
politics secondary, and the suppression of Protes- 
tantism primary. From that time to date the spir- 
itual empire of Rome has engaged the chief atten- 
tion of the popes. 

Since the Leo who fulminated his bull against 
Luther, none of the popes have been great elements 
in Italian affairs. They clung to the temporality 
of the petty Roman state with great tenacity, but 
not so much for its own sake as from fear lest its 
loss should prove a fatal blow at the hierarchy 
itself. 

The first outcropping of Protestantism was in 
1134, when Arnold of Brescia entered emphatic 
protest against papal authority The Waldenses, 
disciples of Peter Waldo, of Lyons, date from 1170, 
and early acquired foothold in the valleys of Pied- 
mont. Persecuted and maligned, they held their 
own, and to-day number between twenty and thirty 
thousand communicants. They constitute almost 
the entire Protestant force of Italy. They have 
sixteen churches. The Albigenses were a similar 
but smaller sect of Protestants belonging to the 
period of Waldo and his immediate followers. Sa- 
vonarola, who preached at Florence in the latter 
part of the fifteenth century, effected the downfall 
of the Medici, the ruling family in that part of 
Italy, but new ideas which he earnestly proclaimed 
gained no permanent and general foothold in the 
immediate national vicinage, as it might be called, 
of the jjopes, and he himself died the death of a 
political martyr. 

The Mystics were deeply spiritual religious enthu- 
siasts, whose influence dates from the middle of the 
fourteenth century, and who were not at all contro- 
versial. Thomas a Kempis, who died in 1-171, was 
the best known of these remarkable men. His 
treatise on " The Imitation of Christ" has been 
translated into every language, and is the expres- 
sion of the most intense piety. Religious recluses 
became somewhat common at an early day, and 
may be closely identified with the Essenes of Judea, 
quite fully described in a previous chapter; but 
nionasticism reached its climax in mendicant orders 
in the thirteenth, fourteenth, fifteenth and six- 



teenth centuries. They constituted a very remark- 
able feature of the Roman Catholic church. To 
the serious, monastic life, whether recluse or men- 
dicant, afforded special incitements to purity, while 
to the unfortunate it offered special facilities for 
immunity from active life. Medieval mysticism, 
as expressed in a Kempis and others of his class, 
carried spirituality to the highest pinnacle of the 
temple of faith ; but the modern church has had its 
mystics, from Spener and Francke, who founded 
the Halle school of pietists in Germany, to Moody 
and Sankey of contemporary fame. 

But to return to the papacy, we find in the Inqui- 
sition a mi ire natural development of hierarehal 
ideas. It was early in the thirteenth century that 
Innocent III. established the Inquisition, but it was 
not until Protestantism captured Germany and 
England, and seriously threatened Europe, that 
this institution was put in full operation. At first 
the Inquisition was merely a process of investiga- 
tion, as the term would indicate, but it grew into 
an embodiment of medieval ideas and methods. 
It spread to every country where the authority 
of Christianity was recognized. With its auto- 
da-fe, it was used for the eradication of the Jews 
from Spain, no less than the Protestants from the 
face of the earth. In proportion as the faith 
was strong the Inquisition was thorough. Its vic- 
tims were millions in number. Nothing can be ad- 
duced in its extenuation unless it be the fact that 
the inquisitor was often sincere in his merciless 
bigotry. 

Jesuitism sprang from the same soil as the Inqui- 
sition, but it can boast some positive good and some 
extenuating virtues. The Society of Jesus was 
founded by Ignatius Loyola, a Spaniard, and re- 
ceived pontifical sanction from Pope Paul III. in 
1540. Originally it was designed to be an order of 
monks, bound to the ordinary monastic vows of 
chastity, poverty and obedience ; but the second 
vicar-general of the order, James Laynez, gave to it 
its present and historical character, a character 
which has made Jesuitical a synonym for deeejjtive. 
The maintenance of the papal authority against any 
and all adversaries was made the prime object of 
the order, under the motto, " The end justifies the 
means." It was and is a secret society with won- 
derful adaptation to the exercise of influence. By 
a subtle process of insinuation and percolation, as 



;c 



I»2 



THE PAPACY AND MODERN CHRISTIANITY* 



one might say, the Jesuits gained control of the 
reins of government, the institutions of learning, 
and the great agencies of power in many countries. 
From being a protector of Rome the order grew in- 
to a vast and dreaded empire. In 1773 a papal 
bull was promulgated for the dissolution of the en- 
tire order. This was done at the request of France, 
Spam, Portugal, Parma, Naples and Austria. The 



self-sacrifice of the order in carrying the gospel to 
the heathen, especially in America. Jesuit missions 
did much to Christianize the aborigines of this con- 
tinent, more particularly in South America and on 
the Pacific coast ; also to establish pioneer churches 
in many parts of the far Orient. 

It was in 1854 that the Immaculate Conception of 
the Virgin Mary was proclaimed as a divine dogma, 




ST. PETER'S AT KOMj!, WITH COLONADES. 



order could only exist as a recognized institution in 
Russia, thanks to the sufferance of Catharine IL 
For several years the society seemed powerless, if 
not dead. But after the terrible upheaval of the 
French Revolution and the Napoleonic wars, the 
Jesuits were looked upon with more favor, and in 
1814 the order was re-established in its original forni 
by a papal bull. Since then Jesuitism has ?een less 
powerful than formerly, but to its influence _a large 
measure may be attributed the "Syllabus of Error' 5 
and the dogma of Papal Infallibility. The latest 
blow at the Jesuits was struck by the Republic of 
France in the secularization of French education. 
The chief credit and boast of Jesuitism is the heroic 



and the Vatican Council of 1870 declared the pope 
to be "the infallible bishop of bishops." In the 
year 1864 the pope issued the " Syllabus of Errors," 
a general bull against, or condemnation of, modern 
innovations in the name of ocieatifio though asioi 
religious freedom. 

Speaking of the worship and ceremonies of the 
< hurch of Rome, the learned Philip Schaff observes : 
"The Roman church accompanies its members from 
the cradle to the grave, receiving them into life by 
baptism, dismissing them into the other world by 
extreme unction, and consecrating all their impor- 
tant acts by the sacramental mysteries and bless- 
ings. It draws all the fine arts into its service. 



~r 



fv* 



THE PAPACY AND MODERN CHRISTIANITY. 



«8 3 



Gothic cathedrals, altars, crucifixes, Madonnas, pic- 
turesj statues and relics of saints, rich decorations, 
solemn processions, operatic music, — all combine to 
lend their great attractions for the common people, 
and for cultured persons of prevailing aesthetic 
tastes, especially among the Latin races. Catholic 
service is the same all over the world, even in lan- 
guage, the Latin being its sacred organ, and the 
vernacular being only used for sermons which are 
subordinate. Its throne is the altar. It centers in 
the mass, a communion service, which is regarded 
as a real though unbloody repetition or continua- 
tion of the atoning sacrifice of Christ on the Cross." 

The present pope of Home, Leo XIII., is said to 
be seriously considering the propriety of removing 
his residence from the Vatican at Rome to some 
other sjjot. Several places have been suggested as 
eligible capitals for the great hierarchy, Malta es- 
pecially ; but there is no immediate prospect of a 
change. The Vatican, which embraces St. Peter's, 
is the grandest achievement of all architecture. 
There are said to be 11,422 rooms in it, not count- 
ing mere closets. 

All the churches not belonging to the Roman or 
Greek communion are Protestants, except a few 
remnants of the apostolic churches in Asia, the 
Armenian, the Nestorian, the Jacobite, and the still 
less important remnants in Egypt and Abyssinia. 
The Eastern churches, including the Greek, num- 
ber over 80,000,000 ; Protestant, something more 
than 120,000,000; Roman Catholic, about 200,- 
000,000 ; making the grand total of Christendom 
over 400,000,000. 

After the evangelization of Europe the Christian 
world seemed indifferent to the further propagation 
of the faith, until late in the fifteenth century, 
when there was an awakening to " newness of life." 
The Dutch exerted themselves for Java and Cey- 
lon, the Danes for India, Xavier and fellow-Catho- 
lics for Japan, America and Africa. Very great 
progress was made apparently toward Christianiz- 
ing the pagan world, but the seed sown resulted in 
meager harvests in permanent effects. The evan- 
gelized portions of India, China and Japan are 
traceable to missionary labors belonging to the nine- 
teenth century. 



Speaking of modern missions, Dr. Hurst says : 
"The gospel was first preached in Madagascar by 

missionaries of the London Missionary Society in 
1818. Their labors, joined chiefly to those of the 
Church and Friends' Societies, have resulted in the 
overthrow of idolatry. The Queen and her govern- 
ment accept Christianity ; and from the capital, by 
contributions of converted Malagasy natives, mis- 
sionaries have been sent to unconverted tribes in 
distant parts of the island. In 1820 the American 
Board began a mission in the Sandwich Islands, and 
in less than half a century of earnest, persistent 
work a nation was redeemed from barbarism. 
Where there used to be only savages there are now 
Christians, who not only support their own churches 
but send missionaries to other islands. Wesleyan 
missionaries introduced Christianity into the Fiji 
Islands in 1835. The Pijians were a most savage 
and degraded people, whose horrible cannibalistic 
feasts made their very name a terror. Christianity, 
as preached by the missionaries of the AVesleyan, 
London, and one or two other societies, have ef- 
fected a wonderful change among these cannibals. 
They have given up their old practices, and become 
a Christian nation. Churches and schools succeed 
the hires or temples; family worship is general: 
marriage is sacred ; the Sabbath is observed ; ami 
law and order reign. Many thousands are commu- 
nicants in the churches, and devoted Fijians go to 
distant islands as missionaries and teachers. Some 
of themhave recently fallen victims to the canni- 
bals of New Britain. Before 1812 there were no na- 
tive Christians in Polynesia. Now there are no less 
than 340,000, of whom 68,000 are communicants." 
The aggregate membership of mission churches 
in 1879 was 575,486. 

Thus we have as the supreme phenomenon of 
the world, the most notable feature of all history, 
the religion founded by a Roman subject, one who 
never opposed imperialism, but, on the contrary, ad- 
vised the paying of tribute to Cfesar, and general 
conformity to temporal authority. Out of the Ro- 
man emj)ire, but not at all as a result of Roman 
civilization, came a power which not only gave a 
second birth to Rome itself, but a new impulse and 
character to all nations and peoples. 




23 





& The Youngest Nation— The Lombards— Italt in the Dark Ages— The Free Cities— The & 
Chief Glory op Medieval Italt — Modern Italy— Victor E manual and Italian Unity 
— Pio Nino — Present Government of Italy — Condition of the Country — Italian Liter- 
ature — Italy and Art — The Italian Renaissance. 



m^ 




HE Italy of to-day is the 
youngest member of the 
family of nations. It was 
not until Victor Emanuel, 
in the sixth decade, unified 
the country under one 
crown and one constitution 
that the present nation came into ex- 
istence. Prior to that time, church 
and state were inseparably blended on 
that peninsula, the former being in 
the mastery. The kingdom of 
Italy, as it now stand-, has an area 
Kg- of 114,406 square miles, and cou- 
p5 sists of sixty-nine provinces. The 
^i<ffy>xf principal cities, to name them in the 
>.// VjWk^ order of their population^ are Naples, 
Milan, Rome, Turin, Palermo, 
Florence, Genoa, Venice, Bologna, Messina. Leg- 
horn and Catenia. 

Italv, as the peninsula once known as Latiuin is 
now called, may bo said to the product of the Lom- 
bards, who poured into the country from the North, 
being to that peninsula what the Angles were to 
England. The very name was borrowed from a 
Lombard prince, Italicus, who, however, was less 
entitled to that honor than Albion, the king of the 



Lombards in Italy about the middle of the sixth 
century. The year 568 is the date for the division 
line between Ancient Rome and Modern Italy. Al- 
bion was the Columbus, Italicus the Amerigo in the 
case. 

The Lombards were the bravest of the brave. 
From the heights of the Alps they beheld the pleas- 
ant valleys and fertile plains of the South, and 
moved over with their families. There was no 
devastation. They exercised squatter sovereignty 
without the shedding of blood. They formed a 
new tenantry. Some of the old inhabitants moved 
further south, others remained, and the two sets 
of inhabitants became mixed, as were the Saxons 
and the Normans in England. The Lombards 
adopted the civilization they found, including the 
Christian religion. Their sway did not extend to 
the maritime cities of the Adriatic and Mediterra- 
nean seas. The Latins who fled cherished bitter 
animosity to the Lombards in their southern re- 
treats, and so did the city of Rome, which, though 
nominally subject at that time to the Csesars at 
Constantinople, was really ruled, even at that early 
period, by the Pontiffs. The Franks were sought 
in alliance by the older race, and Charlemagne, 
their greatest sovereign, conquered Italy in 774, re- 
eciving his coronation at Rome Christmas-day, 800. 






(is 4 ) 



ITALY AND THE ITALIANS. 



I8 5 



During the darkest centuries of the Dark Ages 
Italy was almost constantly the victim of petty and 
interminable warfare. The Lombards invoked 
German alliances, as the Latins and Romans had 
French. In 961, Otho the Great restored temporary 
peace. The Lombards soon rebelled against the 
German yoke. In a generation or so, all was once 
more confusion, anarchy and bloodshed, remaining 
so until liarbarossa, entering Italy in 1154, made a 



and turmoil of the land and gave herself to com- 
merce. She was the Carthage of the period. The 
first Doge was elected in 697. The founding of Ven- 
ice near the island of Rialto dates from 809. St. 
Mark is its patron saint, and the cathedral of 
that name is its most famous edifice. Istria 
and Dalmatia were united to this urban repub- 
lic in 997. 

Genoa and Pisa, on the other side of the Adriatic, 




FLORENCE. 

desperate effort to assert Teutonic supremacy. The 
bravery of the Italians was such that he was 
baffled, and in 1183, the peace of Constance rec- 
ognized the independent rights of the Italian cit- 
ies. " Thus ended," says Mariotti, " the first and 
noblest struggle in Europe between liberty and 
despotism." 

And now comes into conspicuous prominence 
several cities of Italy, once mighty factors in the 
world's work. First of these was Venice, queen of 
the Adriatic, which was founded by Roman citi- 
zens when Alaric and Attila invaded the country. 
That city avoided, as far as possible, the troubles 



were independent states, Genoa from the begin- 
ning of the eleventh century. These three repub- 
lics are medieval in origin. Their early annals are 
shrouded in impenetrable mystery, but their petty 
contests and rivalries would not be of interest if 
preserved. Later, but similar, were the origins of 
Naples, Amain and Gaeta. Genoa, the birth-place 
of Columbus, was long the queen of the Mediterra- 
nean, and the Genoese are still the best sailors on 
that sea. The Venetian aristocracy, it may be ad- 
ded, long bloody and tyrannical, still cherishes the 
pride of the Doges. The sea, now receding from 
the lagoons, renders hopeless all attempts to regain 



ste. 



1 86 



ITALY AND THE ITALIANS. 




a footing among the mighty cities of Europe. Flor- 
ence, Milan. Pavia and Palermo each, are cities 
replete with interest to one minutely studying Italy. 

The real significance of Italian history is not in 
the rivalries of petty states 
and factions. The sov- 
ereigns who deserve atten- 
tion are the Popes, and 
not the Guelphs and the 
Ghibeliu.es, the Borgias 
and the Medici. It was 
not until Victor Emanuel 
and Garibaldi arose that 
a single name, military or 
political, acquired suffi- 
cient importance to merit 
consideration, beyond the 
sphere of the Papacy 

Italy presents no point 
of special political interest 
until the house of Savoy 
appears above the waves. 
In 1870 was accomplished 
the unification of Italy with Rome as its capital. 
In this illustrious house of Savoy, under which this 
grand result was obtained, there were three Charles 
Emanuels, three rulers 
bearing the name of Vic- 
tor Aniadeus. and two 
Victor Emanuels, all 
creditable rulers and men 
of some genius, the most 
illustrious being the last 
of the eight. They raised 
the petty dukedom of 
Savoy to the kingdom of 
Sardinia, and later, to 
the kingdom of Italy. 
The crowning elevation 
was achieved by Emanu- 
el II., father of Hum- 
bert, the present king of 
Italy. He claimed the 
title (if King of Italy as 
earlv as 1861, having 



VICTOR EMANUEL II 




been crowned Kin" 



(if 

Sardinia in 1849, in the thirtieth year of his 
age ; but the full measure of his ambition was delayed 
until 1870. Louis Napoleon supported the Pope and 
kept him in the temporality of the Papal States by 



French bayonets. The king of Italy had removed 
his capital from Turin to Florence, but could not 
enter Rome. Victor Emanuel was so fortunate 
as to have the assistance of that great statesman, 
Cavour, and that grand 
patriot, Garibaldi ; and al- 
though excommunicated 
by the pope, he remained 
faithful to the Roman 
hierachy as a spiritual 
power. He kept the cause 
of Italian unity separate 
from religion. The Cri- 
mean war gave him oppor- 
tunity to distinguish him- 
self and gain for his nation 
the respect of the great 
powers. Italy derived 
honor and benefit, indirect, 
but great, from that war, 
and this was true of no 
other participant in it. 
\|gj'^pp~55^ Victor Emanuel had re- 

peated conflicts with Austria, and won some vic- 
tories at Austrian expense. He was in antipathy to 
France for barring his way to the Eternal City. 

Therefore he was in close 



sympathy with Prussia 
in its war with both of 
those powers. From 
Prussian victory over 
both, Italy derived sub- 
stantial advantage, es- 
pecially from the fall of 
the Napoleonic empire. 
Rome then opened her 
gates to the great king 
as a matter of course, 
amid the wildest enthu- 
siasm. The people re- 
juiced exceedingly at the 
change in rulers. The 
i lica in of Italian nation- 
ality had always been 
fondly cherished by the Romans, and they saw in 
Victor Emanuel the resurrection of old Rome in its 
better days. The venerable Pope, a good old man, 
one of the notable saints of the Pontificate, shut 
himself up in the Vatican, not from fear, but in the 



■~?i 



:**! 



ITALY AND THE ITALIANS. 



I8 7 



£* 



exercise of his Pontifical office, and protest against 
secular interference with his prerogatives, where 
he remained unti.'. the serenity of death came 
to his release, when Pius IX. was succeeded by an- 
other old man, Leo XIII. 

Pio Nino was born in 1792, and came to the 
papal throne in 1846. Personally kind and just, 
he was a staunch upholder of the ancient spirit of 
despotism, and sought to prop wp the falling for- 
tunes of the Pontificate. He may be said to have 
cliL>rged the creed of Some by two doctrines ; name- 
ly, the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary 
ae well as her son, and the infallibility of the Pope 
in all matters of 
faith and morals. 
He bluntly opposed 
a free press, free 
speech, liberty of 
conscience, and 
popular and mod- 
ern ideas of civil 
rights, being thor- 
oughly and consist- 
ently medieval. 
The Italians rever- 
ed his virtues, but 
disregarded his po- 
litical advice. His 
successor is a man 
of much ability, 
but thus far he has 
effected nothing to make his name remembered. 
Of him it can be said, that he strenuously clings to 
the old ways and ideas ; but he gradually accepts, 
apparently in good faith, the inevitable and com- 
plete loss of temporal power. No dynasty in Europe 
has such a hold upon its j^eople as the Italian, and 
ail thought of restoring the papal temporality may 
well be dismissed. 

The government of Italy is a constitutional mon- 
archy, ■with a senate appointed for life, and a cham- 
ber of. 508 deputies elected by popular suffrage. The 
press is free and the people contented. 'The national 
debt is large, but the country is, on the whole, pros- 
perous. The educational system is good. The rail- 
roads and canals afford sufficient facilities for trans- 
portation. The present population is not far from 
thirty millions. The great industries are silk culture, 
vnue making, and the production cf works of art. | 




View of Rome, showing the Castle of St Angelo and St. Peter's. 



Italy can boast a splendid literature, and an in- 
comparable art. The chief of its authors is Dante, 
whose poetic representation of the Komish view of 
the future life is an immortal work. Under the 
guidance of Virgil he explored hell and purgatory, 
and then the spirit of Ins lost love, Beatrice, led him 
through Paradise. Dante ranks witli Goethe, and 
second only to the incomparable Shakspeare. His 
works have been translated into all tongues, and are 
the delight of a peculiarly wide circle of readers. 
Another familiar name is Tasso. He was very 
highly esteemed in his day, but wiser after-judg- 
ment placed him in the lower rank of genius. Boccac- 
cio, whose tales 
would be rejected 
by a modern pub- 
lisher as indecent, 
occupies a consj>ic- 
uous place on ac- 
count of priority. 
Like the two other 
Italian authors just 
named, he was one 
of the pioneers of 
modern literature, 
and is'deserving of 
great credit for 
doing so well at 
so early a period. 
Italy did much for ' 
the Present at its 
dawn, and then subsided, the life of the natiox. 
sapped apparently by the evil influences of a 
church which would sacrifice any and every- 
thing to build uj) and maintain ecclesiastical 
authority. Its best work was in the fine of art. 
Painting, as it now exists, was brought from Con- 
stantinople to Italy in the eleventh century, and 
thence it spread over Europe. There were many 
schools or styles of painting in Italy, nearly every 
town having its characteristic invention of which it 
could boast, its line of artists culminating generally 
in some great master. Florence could claim Da 
Vinci and Michael Angelo; Rome had Raphael; 
Bologna, Guido ; Parma, Correggio ; Venice, Titian 
and Paul Veronese. Not infrequently sculpture 
and painting went together. Germany and the 
Netherlands did great things for modern art, and 
Germany, France, and to some extent, Spain, have 



^V.VAVV.'i'VW— < 



If 



>£. 



1 88 



ITALY AND THE ITALIANS. 



contributed very materially to the artistic wealth of the 
world : but all combined cannot equal this one small 
country, the peninsula of Italy. What Greek art was 
to the ancients, that is Italian art to modern times. 
Italy sustains a peculiar relation to ancient and 
modern civilizations as the great conservator and 
restorer of ancient literature. The chief service of 
that country in the domain of letters was not so 
much the production 
of original genius as 
of faithful restorers 
of the past. That was 
the supreme service 
of the Italian renais- 
sance. Petrarch and 
Boccaccio wrought 
most nobly in the res- 
toration of the ancient 
classics, and a bril- 
liant essayist observes 
" T heir enthusiasm im- 
parted an impetus to 
research, and a uni- 
versal interest in 
manuscript and an- 
tiquities sprang up. 
Monasteries were 
searched, and monks were bribed, when no better 
way availed, to give up their treasures. Pilgrims 
traveled to Byzantium in search of MSS. as in earlier 
days they had of relics in the Holy land. No less 
earnest was the work of collecting and revising the 
MSS. thus obtained. No effort was spared to 'ar- 
rive at the original meaning of an author, and 
years were sometimes spent upon a single work." 



It was most appropriate, certainly, that Italy, the 
heir of Kome, should thus reclaim and perpetuate 
the treasures of classic literature. 

Italy has been called a paradox, and from one 
point of view such it certainly is. With a vicious 
and deplorable financial system it enjoys industrial 
prosperity. The aggregate of industries rose 10 per 
cer.t during the last decade, and the average per capi- 
ta 10 per cent. Exports 




THE MODERN CAPITOL AT KOME. 



increase more rapidly 
than imports. In man- 
ufactures great ad- 
vancement is being 
made. Taxes are high. 
Not less than thirty-one 
rjer cent of the earnings 
of the people is re- 
quired to support the 
government. In France 
it is seventeen and a 
half per cent, and in 
Great Britain twelve 
per cent. The increase 
in the wealth of the 
people during the 
seventh decade of this 
century was one hun- 
dred and ten million pounds sterling, but the national 
debt increased during the same period 150 millions. 
The people suffer from the lack of food, or rather 
they are small eaters. The amount consumed is 
less according to population than that of any part of 
Europe, Portugal alone excepted. If the people ate 
more and heartier food their industrial capacity 
might be much greater. 




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HE printing press may be 
regarded as the dividing 
line in respect to the dis- 
semination of knowledge, 
between the old world and 
the modern; but in treat- 
ing of nations and peoples, 
the more natural demarcation is 
that neutral belt known as the 
Dark Ages. The Roman Empire 
was first divided, as we have seen, 
falling apart of its own weight, and 
then the western half of it was dev- 
astated by barbaric Norsemen. A 
period of chaos followed in the 
west, a night with no light but 
••' the horned moon " of the Cres- 
cent, and as morning approached, a 
few stars twinkled in the heavens. That crescent 
queen of the Dark Ages was the Saracen empire, 
which will engage our attention in the next chap- 
ters, and the stars of the dawn were the modern 
nationalities of Europe which gradually emerged 
from the medieval night. Those nations, differen- 
tiated by the natural boundaries of language, are 
the Turks, the Russians, the Italians, the Germans, 
the French, the Spanish (including the Portuguese), 
the Scandinavians and the English. These seven 



peoples are the nebula thrown off by the sun of 
imperial Rome. It shall be the purpose of this 
chapter to set forth the condition of Europe during 
t he 1 >ark Ages, apart from the Papacy, already con- 
sidered, and the empires which are to be severally 
brought out in subsequent chapters. 

During the entire period of history, nothing so 
desolate and vicious can be found as this chiliad of 
darkness. It seemed as if civilization had fled from 
the homes of men, and no morning would ever 
dawn upon Western Europe. The religion of Jesus 
of Nazareth had been adopted in theory, while the 
Christianity of actual practice was in the sharpest 
possible contrast to the benevolent and gentle teach- 
ings of the crucified Christ. Violence, bloodshed, 
brutality and crime made Europe a vale of tears. 

The chief feature of the period was feudalism, 
and that was born of the necessity of seeking pro- 
tection at the price of liberty. Political institutions 
and national authority afforded no actual safe- 
guards against rapine and murder. The farmer had 
no assurance that he should reap) what he had sown, 
or enjoy what he had harvested. The country was 
everywhere so overrun with marauders, that neither 
person nor property was side. Husbands and broth- 
ers were slain, wives and sisters subjected to outrage 
worse than death, and the robbers and despoilers 
were entrenched in strongholds. Finally there came 



f 



(189) 



3 \ 



190 



THE DARK AGES. 



to be a truce between the weak and the strong, by 
which the former put themselves under vassalage 
to the latter, serving them in war and paying trib- 
ute to them in peace, all in the hope that self-inter- 
est -would dictate to the robber in his castle that he 
should protect the peasant in his hut. To such an 
extent did the lord become interested in the vassal 
that some security was afforded. Thus did barbar- 
ism work out a certain degree of reformation. 
Feudalism was a great amelioration of the condition 
of affairs to which it owed its own existence. It 
gradually developed into an elaborate system. 

For the most part. _ 




the tenantry of Eu- 
rope at the present 
times is a relic of feu- 
dalism. The legal 
ownership of the soil 
rests in most cases 
upon no just title of 
purchase, but upon 
the corner-stone of 
rapine and violence. 
Gradually, as nations 
rose into definite out- 
lines of jurisdiction, 
the state took the 
place of the fief and 
the vassal became a 
subject, until, in mod- 
ern times, little remains of feudalism, except in 
the matter of land tenure. The reliance of the 
people for redress and protection is not upon 
the lord of the nearest castle, but upon the mag- 
istrate who represents the sovereignty of the law. 

In his History of Civilization, M. Guizot makes 
some extravagant claims for feudalism, but the fol- 
lowing passage is an admirable presentation of facts 
in regard to the system : " There was nothing mor- 
ally common between the holder of the fief and his 
serfs. They formed part of his estate ; they were 
his property ; and under this word property are 
comprised not only all the rights we delegate to 
the public magistrate to exercise in the name of the 
state, but likewise all those which we possess over 
private property ; the right, of making laws, of levy- 
ing taxes, of inflicting punishment, as well as that 
of disposing of them — of selling them. There ex- 
isted not, in fact, between the lord of the domain 



MARCH OF THE CKUBADKUS. 



and the cultivators, so far as we consider the latter 
as men, either rights, guarantees or society. * * 
This system seemed, however, naturally to pour in- 
to' the mind of every possessor of a fief a certain 
number of ideas and moral sentiments — ideas of 
duty, sentiments of affection. That the principles 
of fidelity, devotedness and loyalty became devel- 
oped and maintained by the relations in which the 
possessors of fiefs stood towards one another, is 
evident.'' 

Another generic feature of the period was chiv- 
alry. It is said in praise of Don Quixote, that it 

laughed chivalry out 
of Europe, and that 
was a great and good 
tiling to do, for when 
done, the morning 
of modern day had 
broken ; but in its 
way and time chivalry 
was very beneficent. 
It stimulated and 
cultivated the senti- 
ment of honor, and 
honor is one of the 
fundamental ingredi- 
ents of good charac- 
ter, both individual 
and national. Chival- 
ry was born in the 
reign of Charlemagne, although plain traces of its 
rudiments may be found in the early Teutons, the 
Germans of Tacitus. The knight-errant of romance, 
bravely redressing the wrongs of suffering innocence, 
without thought of reward or danger, was not a 
myth. Found in all parts of Europe in those times 
of universal wrong, chivalry was the highest ideal 
presented of real goodness. Often fighting in a 
tournament, which was about the same as a mod- 
ern prize-fight (only arms, armor and horses were 
allowed the combatants), still the knight was a mes- 
senger of avenging justice, an angel of succor to the 
unfortunate. Loyalty, courtesy and valor were 
the cardinal virtues of a time knight. 

The Crusades belong to the Dark Ages. There 
were eight of them, all substantially alike in cause 
and purpose. They attest the monstrous folly with- 
in the range of universal possibility. Of nothing 
has the European branch of the human family 



4 



THE DARK AGES. 



I 9 I 



more occasion to be ashamed than of these frenzied 
efforts to gain possession of that empty hole in a 
rock called the Holy Sepulcher. Viewed in the 
light of modern practicality, there was no occasion 
for that series of wars. The Saracens did indeed 
have possession of the tomb of our Lord, but even 
from the standpoint of Christian devotion, there 
was no reason 
why thatfact 
should dis- 
t u r b the 
e q uaniinity 
of all Europe. 
But Peter the 
Hermit, a 
crazy fanatic, 
conceived the 
idea of arous- 
ing popular 
zeal for the 
rescue of that 
tomb from 
the Moham- 
medans, on 
the ground 
that Jesus 
( Ihrist was 1 < ► 
come again 
very soon, his 
second ap- 
pearing to be 
on the spot 
made sacred 
by his pas- 
sion, resur- 
rection and 

ascension. 

•t* 

The vast mul- 
titudes who left home and all local endearments, 
animated by a common purpose, mingled together as 
friends and brethren. For the first time the peoples 
of Europe met on a common footing of amity. They 
were not fighting each other, and the narrow ideas 
of devotion to a petty sovereignty were forgotten. 
They came together on a basis of brotherhood as 
broad as the continent. They learned something, 
each from all. The sparse seeds of civilization were 
scattered, to bear fruit and be the beginning of a 
new era. There was a commingling which proved 




TAKING OF JERUSALEM BY THE CRUSADERS. 

Engines were framed by some Genoese artists, who had fortunately landed in the harbor of Jaffa. 
Two movable turrets were constructed and rolled forward with devout labor, not to the most acces- 
sible, but to the most neglected, parts of the fortification. Raymond's tower was reduced to ashes 
by the Are of the besieged, but his colleague was more vigilant and successful; the enemies were 
driven bv his archers from the rampart; the draw-bridge was let down; and on a Friday, at three in 
Hi.- afternoon, the day and hour of the passion. Godfrey of Bouillon stood victorious on the walls 
of Jerusalem.— Gibbon' s Decline and Fall. chap, lviiii. 



of incalculable advantage to Europe. Out, then, of 
the most gigantic folly of all times, grew one of the 
most beneficent impulses of all times, and if the Cru- 
sades had no justification, their horrors and devas- 
tations have certainly proved a blessing in disguise. 
The first Crusade dates from 1096 to 1099. The 
leader, Peter the Hermit, had for his first lieuten- 
ant, Walter 
the Penni- 
less. To their 
staudard ral- 
lied in those 
three years 
six large ar- 
mies, num- 
bering, all 
told, 600,000. 
Several very 
distinguished 
knights gain- 
ed renown in 
that Crusade. 
Godfrey of 
Bouillon, af- 
terwards the 
King of Je- 
rusalem, be- 
longed to 
that crusade. 
So did Tail- 
ored, Ray- 
mond of Tou- 
louse, and 
Hugh the 
Great. They 
besieged Je- 
rusalem, and 
"* in July, 1099, 
the holy city fell into their hands. The object 
of Peter had been gained, only the success 
was not permanent. In 1145 the Moham- 
medans took Edessa and prepared to attempt 
the recapture of Jerusalem. That called out the 
second Crusade, which continued two years. The 
Abbot of Clairvaux, St. Bernard, was the great 
apostle of this uprising, and the excitement 
amounted to a mania. The kings of France and 
Germany took the field in person, with an aggregate 
army of 1,200,000. It seemed as if all Europe was 



igz 



THE DARK. AGES. 



one vast mad-house. Women and children insisted 
upon taking part in what was expected to be little 
less than the annihilation of the Moslem power. 
Horrible were the sufferings entailed and utter was 
the failure of the movement. After an ineffectual 
siege of Damascus the shattered remnants straggled 
back to Europe, demoralized to the last degree. 
The most stupendous delusion of all the ages was 
at an end, yet not at an end, for just forty years later 
began the third Crusade, which lasted three years. 
That renewal of hostilities between Cross and Cres- 
cent was occasioned by the fall of the kingdom of 
Jerusalem, which terminated in 1187. The mighty 
Saladin, who reasonably aspired to universal Moham- 
medan empire, drove the Christians from the sacred 
city. That aroused the indignation of Frederick 
Barbarossa of Germany, Philip Augustus of France 
and Richard Coeur de Leon of England. Their ef- 
forts were not wholly fruitless. They could not re- 
store Christian rule, but they forced from Saladin a 
treaty exempting from taxes and special peril Chris- 
tian pilgrims to the Eoly Sepulcher, and so numer- 
ous were these palmers, as the pilgrims were called, 
that this treaty was highly important. 

I_i 1198 Pope Innocent III. tried to organize still 
another crusade. A slight beginning was made at 
Venice, but the movement was abortive. The 
fourth Crusade was a peculiarly tragic attempt of 
about30,000 boys just entering their teens, and hardly 
that, to rescue the sepulcher of Jesus from infidel 
hands. These lads were led by a shepherd boy, 
Stephen of Vendome. They set sail by ship from 
Marseilles, intending to reach Palestine. Two of 
their seven ships were wrecked. Those who escaped 
the perils of the sea landed at Egypt, but on- 
ly to be sold into slavery. By some writers that mel- 
ancholy episode is called the fourth Crusade. Oth- 
ers apply that designation to the expedition of An- 
drew of Hungary, organized in 1217.- He took a 
few Moslem fortresses on Mount Tabor, but in the 
second year of his expedition gave up and came 
home. 

For ten years only did the world have rest from 
Crusades. The fifth one was organized in 1228 
by Frederick II. of Germany. After ten years of 
fighting and diplomacy a treaty was entered into be- 
tween the Sultan of Egypt and the German Empe- 
ror, by which the latter acquired Palestine, and re- 
turned home with some substantial acquisitions to 



show as the fruit of his expedition. But in 1248 
came the Turk, who besieged, captured and pillaged 
Jerusalem. Louis IX. of France, called St. Louis, 
tried to drive back the barbaric infidel, but was tak- 
en prisoner by the Sultan of Egypt, who was finally 
prevailed upon in 1250 to accept a ransom for his 
royal captive. 

The last of the Crusades dates from 1270 to 1272. 
St. Louis began it, but he soon died, and the lead- 
ership fell upon Edward of England. No progress 
was made, however, toward dispossessing the Turks. 
For more than two centuries longer the idea of res- 
cuing the Holy Sepulcher from the Moslems was 
cherished as the dream of popes and devotees. The 
new world with its diversions put an end to all 
thoughts of a ninth Crusade. 

The Island of Malta acquired considerable prom- 
inence in the conflict between the Mohammedans 
and the Christians. Solyman the Magnificent, in 
furtherance of bis scheme to annex Hungary to his 
empire, and extend Islamism to Western Europe, 
captured the island of Rhodes in 1522, wresting it 
from the Knights of St. John, who had held it 
undisputed since their retreat from Palestine. 
The knights retired from Rhodes to the Island 
of Malta, which was bestowed upon them by Charles 
V. of Germany. They fortified it, and that so well, 
that when in 1565 Solyman attempted its capture 
he was baffled. 

One name towers so high during this black peri- 
od as to be immortal and illustrious. We do not 
refer to any of the brave knights and princes who 
won renown in the holy wars, but to Charlemagne, 
the emperor who will come before us somewhat in 
detail later, but who, because he made all Europe 
bow before his throne, deserves conspicuous atten- 
tion. Without touching upon subsequent history, it 
may be said of him here, that he had the genius to 
create an empire, but not to transmit it. Under 
him the Franks and the Teutons were united, his 
dominion embracing nearly all Europe, except the 
savage North. Pope Leo III., in the year A. D. 800, 
I'l iced the imperial crown upon the head of this 
Alexander of medieval times. A rude and almost 
literally unlettered barbarian, he gathered about 
him the learning of every land, founded schools, col- 
lected libraries, and in many ways sought to elevate 
the character of the people. His ideas were grand, 
but they availed little. Europe was not soil prepared 



*7f 



*r 



-is 



THE DARK AGES. 



T 93 



for the sued lie sowed, and much of it bore no fruit. 
( 'harlos the Great was a monster of vice, licentious, 
cruel and superstitious. He pronounced the death 
penalty against those who refused Christian bap- 
tism, or ate meat in Lent. He was a strange mix- 
ture of greatness and weakness, of iron and clay. 
Hallam says: "In the Dark Ages of European 
history, the reign of Charlemagne affords a solitary 



names may be mentioned here, such as Petrarch, 
Boccaccio and Abel. ml. but with the one exception 
of Da.te, all the distinctively medieval literature 
might be obliterated without so great a loss as one 
play of Euripides or oration of Cicero. 

There sprung up during that period a class of 
minstrels called minnesingers, troubadours, and tro- 
viers, who rendered important service to the art of 




resting-place between two long periods of turbu- 
lence and ignominy, deriving the advantage of con- 
trast both from that of the preceding dynasty and 
i if a posterity for whom he had formed an em- 
pire which they were unworthy and unequal to 
maintain.'" 

In a literary point of view, the Dark Ages can 
boast only one or two great names. Dante is a poet 
whose fantastic visions of heaven, purgatory and 
hell, will always be the admiration of mankind. 
Chaucer was a true poet also, but he was the morn- 
ing star of imaginative modern literature, rather 
than a distinctive part of medieval times. Several 



MALTA. 

poetry, although not one of them all composed any 
great or immortal verse, but they sang of love and 
war, of heaven and passion, in strains which tired 
the medieval heart and gave character to subse- 
quent poetic expression. In themselves considered, 
those songs and ballads may be set down as of little 
worth, while in their influence upon real genius of 
a later period they were invaluable. 

Singular as it may seem, the most important link 
connecting the Dark Ages with modern times is 
witchcraft. That phase of human experience be- 
longs almost wholly to the historical in distinction 
from the actual world. Traces of it may be found 



J- 



194 



THE DARK AGES. 



in the remote past, and perhaps in the present, but 
as a prominent factor in the affairs of men it was 
developed during the medieval period, finding its 
fullest life, however, during thestagesof early Pro- 
testantism, being peculiar to no church or country. 

The translators of the King James version of the 
Bible were so full of this belief that the law of Mo- 
ses against poisoning was rendered bythern, " Thou 
shalt not suffer a witch [instead of a poisoner] to 
live." And the woman of Endor who was con- 
sulted by King Saul was evidently a spiritualistic 
medium, and not at all a witch, in any proper sense 
of the term. There is no doubt a close connection 
between ancient magic, divination, 'astrology and 
necromancv. and medieval witchcraft ; but the latter 
term stands for a distinctive form of the unnatural, 
the abnormal and the mysterious, which was not 
regarded so much as supernatural as sub-natural, 
originating with the fiends of the world below. 

In 1484 Pope Innocent VIII. issued a bull against 
witchcraft, and commissioned the Inquisitor Spren- 
ger to extirpate it. He put to death hundreds every 
yisar, and always and everywhere the more vigorous 
the prosecution, the more prevalent the mania — for 
such it was. Insanity was mistaken for demoniac 
possession. From first to last, tens if not hundreds 
of thousands must have fallen victims to this terri- 
ble delusion, the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries 
being the worst in this respact of all. Lecky tells 
us that the first appearance of the conception of a 
witch dates from the twelfth century. He describes 
a witch as " a woman who had entered into a de- 
liberate compact with Satan, who was endowed with 
the powers of working miracles whenever she pleas- 
ed, and who was continually transported through 
the air [generally on a broomstick] to the Sabbath, 
where she paid her homage to the Evil One. The 
panic created by this belief advanced slowly, but 
after a time with a fearfully accelerated rapidity. 
Thousands of victims were sometimes burnt alive 
in a few years. Every country in Europe was 
stricken with the wildest panic. Hundreds of the 
ablest judges were selected for the extirpation of 
the crime. A vast literature was created on the 
subject, and it was not until a considerable portion 
of the eighteenth century had passed away that the 
executions finally ceased." 



After giving many details of witchcraft in many 
lands, this same writer, the highest authority upon 
the subject, observes : " Witchcraft resulted, not 
from isolated circumstances, but from modes of 
thought ; it grew out of a certain intellectual 
temperature acting on certain theological ten- 
ets, and reflected with almost startling vividness 
each great intellectual change. Arising amid the 
ignorance of an early civilization, it was quick- 
ened into an intenser life by a theological struggle 
which allied terrorism with credulity, and it declined 
under the influence of that great rationalistic move- 
ment which since the seventeenth century has been 
on all sides encroaching on theology." In no other 
country did it rage so furiously and persistently as 
in Scotland. 

That famous English Puritan, Richard Bax- 
ter, whose "Saints' Rest" is one of the classics of 
religious literature, was an intense believer in the 
reality of witchcraft, and the duty of its extirpation. 
His writings on this subject did much to stimulate the 
mania in primitive Massachusetts known as Salem 
Witchcraft, in the last years of the seventeenth cen- 
tury. The last execution of a witch in Europe 
occurred in Switzerland in 1782, and the last 
law against witchcraft, the Irish statute, was 
not repealed until 1821. It was in 17C8 that John 
Wesley wrote plaintively, "The English in general, 
and indeed most of the men of learning in Europe, 
have given up all accounts of witches and apparitions 
as old wives' fables. I am sorry for it, and I willing- 
ly take this opportunity to enter my solemn pro- 
test against this violent compliment which so many 
who believe the Bible pay to those who do not believe 
it. I owe them no such service. I take knowledge 
that these are at the bottom of the outcry which has 
been raised, and with such insolence spread through 
the land in direct opposition, not only to the 
Bible, but to the suffrage of the wisest and best 
men of all ages and nations. They well know 
(whether Christians know it or not) that the 
giving up witchcraft is in effect giving up the 
Bible." A delusion which could call out from 
such a man such a declaration as late as 1768, 
may well be called the deepest-rooted and most 
tenacious of all the poison-plants of the Dark 
Ages. 



■v 



>JLL 





THE SARACEN EMPIRE. 







CHAPTER XXXIII 



Medieval in Origin and Glory— The Term Saracen— Mohammed's Early Days and Associa- 
tions — Mecca and Medina— Death op the Prophet and Sketch op his Work— The 
Strength op Islam — The Great Empires of a Thousand Years Ago — Mohammedan Mor- 
als—The Koran— The Caliphate and the Ommiad Dynasty— Spread of Empire— Con- 
stantinople— Division of the Saracen Empire— Fall op the Empire — The Saracens and 
Modern Civilization — Saracenic Glory and its Eclipse. 



K-~§S}3C£f— -^ 






!iF all the powers and princi- 
palities of earth, whether 
temporal or spiritual, none 
are or were so distinctively 
medieval as that strange mix- 
ture of the flesh, the spir- 
it and the 
devil, called the Sar- 
acen Empire. It 
maj-, indeed, he said 
to have had its root 
in the far-away days 
of Abraham and 
H agar, but from Ish- 
mael to Mohammed, 
the root hardly put 
forth a shoot of real nationality, 
and Saracenic glory, which began 
with the prophet of Mecca, was 
dimmed by the dawning of modern 
civilization; to which, indeed, it 
made some valuable contributions. 
The term Saracen is found in clas- 
sic literature occasionally. As used 
by the old writers, it applies to a particular tribe of 
Arabs and one of no special importance either. 
But in these later centuries, it is often used to desig- 





nate all the followers of Mohammed, more properly, 
however, those who constituted the nation founded 
by the prophet of Islam. It was not an orderly, 
regular and well-defined empire, but in part an area 
and in part an idea ; a curious hybrid, half ambi- 
tion and half fanaticism. To get an idea of it one 
must first of all form a just con- 
ception of Mohammed, his sur- 
roundings and genius. 

Mohammed was born at Mecca, 
in " Araby the Blest," April 20, A. 
D. 571. That city was the center 
of trade between Africa and India, 
carried on by caravans of camels. 
He belonged to one of the first 
families, and was himself engaged 
in the mercantile and transporta- 
tion business. Although aristocratic 
in connection and blood, his im- 
mediate family was quite poor. 
Besides traveling and trading, he 
spent some time, as did that other 
greater founder of a nation. Muses. 
in tending flocks. While yet ob- 
married Kadijah, a rich widow, and 

iving, lie de- 



scure, he 



instead of giving himself up to fast 

voted his time to religious meditation, the develop- 



( T 9S) 



196 



THE SARACEN EMPIRE. 



merit of those ideas which were destined to make 
him immortal, and for which he was largely in- 
debted to Christians he had met while a commercial 
traveler. Like many another genius, he claimed to 
have derived his inspiration from some supernatural 
source. Mohammed was twenty-four years of age 
when he began this ambition. 

descent from Abraham 



The Arabs claimed 
through that servant - 
girl whom " the father 
of the faithful " drove 
into the wilderness with 
her son Ishmael. They 
worshiped one God, but 
stood in mortal terror 
of the devil, and were 
tinctured somewhat 
with idolatry. A few of 
them were Christians 
but for the most part 
they held to the old 
worship with a half- 
dazed loyalty to ances- 
tral ideas. Judaism was 
embraced by many. 
The Arabs were in a 
state of religious fer- 
mentation. Moham- 
rned began t<i preach in 
G09. He had epileptic 
tils and conceived him- 
self to be under some 
sort of spiritualistic in- 
fluence. He was wont 
to retire to a cave for 
prayer and communion 
of soul. His townsmen paid no heed to him, or if 
they did, ridiculed his pretensions, but his motherly 
wife had unbounded confidence in his claims, fully 
sharing his belief that his abnormal experiences were 
divine favors and not the result of physical and 
mental disorder. 

His public career as a preacher or prophet began in 
612. He was banished and his believers compelled 
to seek safety from the mob in flight. After three 
years he was allowed to return to Mecca and resume 
his preaching of the doctrine of one God, for mon- 
otheism was about all there was to his original doc- 
trine. He made some converts, especially among 



merchants or " traveling men," from the city of Me- 
dina. In G19 his first convert and good wife died. He 
mourned deeply, but not as one who refuseth to be 
comforted, as he married several other wives, event- 
ually establishing an extensive harem. The famous 
. Hegira occurred September 20, 622. That was 
the flight of the prophet and his followers from 
Mecca to Medina, two hundred and fifty miles north. 

The Mohammedan era 




PILGRIMS GOING 



dates from that flight, 
as the Christian era 
does from the birth of 
Jesus. At Medina he 
built a mosque and set 
about establishing a 
distinct religion on a 
large scale. Hitherto 
he had aimed at refor- 
mation rather than sub- 
stitution. Not making 
very satisfactory prog- 
ress by moral suasion, 
he apj>ealed to the 
sword and war was de- 
clared against sur- 
rounding tribes, Jews 
and Christians. In 623 
he was successful in a 
battle with the Mec- 
cans, and later had 
some reverses, but on 
the whole made very 
considerable progress, 
and secured quite favor-' 
able terms of peace in 
628. About this time 
the sword-bearing prophet opened negotiations 
with foreign orieutal courts and began to be 
a notable person in Arabia. The Meccans did 
not observe the terms of peace, and in the next 
campaign he succeeded in capturing the city. In 
632 he made his last great pilgrimage to Mecca, 
this time attended by an army of forty thousand 
and a seraglio of ten wives (he had fourteen in all). 
In June of that year the prophet died at Medina, 
leaving no son to reap what he had sown, his only 
child being Fatima, the wife of Ah, of whom we 
shall speak later. 

At the death of this most remarkable man, his 



;^r 



4 



THE SARACEN EMPIRE. 



I 97 



followers were without a leader, and the religion 
he founded might well have been thought to be 
in a very precarious condition, and no one cer- 
tainlv could have indulged a dream of splendid 
empire for his disciples. But to-day those dis- 
ciples number nearly two hundred millions, oc- 
cupying southeastern Europe, southwestern Asia, 
and the northern half of Africa, while the magnifi- 
cent empire which he founded fills a large place in 
history ; both religion and empire having always had 
for corner-stone and inspirational belief the simple 
declaration. •• There is no God but (rod, and Mo- 
hammed is his prophet." 

/ The real strength of Islam was in these two 
ideas ; first, the time of one's death is immutably 
fixed ; second, heaven is the reward of the brave 
soldier of the Crescent, and hell the destiny of the 
cowards/Mohammed and his immediate successors 
were able to muster armies of actual believers in 
these two ideas^ If one were fully convinced of 
the truth of those ideas, he would lie undismayed 
by danger and afraid of nothing but cowardice. 
His bravery would be in proportion to the complete- 
ness of his faith. 1 In the entire history of man- 
kind there was never an army imbued with convic- 
tions so peculiarly favorable to the martial spirit as 
were the disciples of Islam. The heaven and the 
hell of Mohammedanism are not dim and shadowy. 
On the contrary, the heaven promised was just such 
a paradise as the voluptuous oriental nature would 
most ardently long for. The angels were not harp- 
ists without passion or sex, but beauteous young 
women, all smiles and tenderness, while hell was 
torture, veritable, physical, endless and most excru- 
ciating. So long as the natural reason of the 
Saracen could be blindfolded by his religion he was 
absolutely invincible in arms. But such preposter- 
ous notions cannot hold absolute sway always. 
Gradually the Saracen came to feel at heart, what- 
ever his surface belief, that life is worth living, and 
that to throw it away on an uncertainty would be 
foolish. The original zeal and faith of the Mo- 
hammedans could not survive after the first heat of 
novelty had cooled off. 

At the time Mohammed was born, there were two 
powerful empires and emperors, Justin II.. who 
ruled at Constantinople over the Byzantine Empire, 
and Koshroes I., King of Persia. The Byzan- 
tine possessions in Asia consisted of Asia Minor, 



Syria, part of Armenia, Southeastern Persia, 
extended over a vast and illy defined Eastern terri- 
tory and as far west as the Mediterranean and 
iEgean seas. In one of these empires Christ was 
worshijjed ; in the other Zoroaster was revered as 
the great teacher of religion. Mohammed saw in 
both religious idolatry, and boldly did his Saracens 
attack both. The Arabian peninsula lay on the 
confines of both empires, and the desert was the 
impregnable wall of protection from both. 

The Arabs were greatly improved in morals by 
Mohammedanism. They had been much given to 
drunkenness and gambling, but Mohammed radically 
and permanently cured them of both. His disci- 
ples have always remained true to his teachings on 
temperance. It is only fair to add that Mohammed 
did more for the cause of temperance than all other 
reformers in that line combined have ever been 
able to accomplish. Those who see in drunkenness 
the supreme curse of Christendom must be tempted 
to regret the failure of the Saracens, and later the 
Moors and Turks, to overrun and possess Europe. 
Mohammed did something to lessen the social vice 1 if 
his people. The old Arabs were grossly licentious. 
He did indeed allow a man to be the husband of 
four wives, but that was a restriction as compared 
with previous practices, and some improvement up- 
on irregular libertinism. 

The Koran, which he pretended to receive by the 
inspiration of God, is held in the greatest possible 
veneration by his disciples. It is a jumble of pre- 
cepts and statements, without method and often 
without sense. It cannot be summarized. As 
Canon Kingsley said of it, " After all, the Koran i- 
not a book, but an irregular collection of Moham- 
med's meditations and notes for sermons." It is 
neither a creed, a code, a diary nor a history. It is a 
scrap-book of odds and ends put together some time 
after the prophet's death by Abu-Bekr. The 
Saracen's faith, however, requires the acceptance of 
the Koran as the gift of God through Mohammed 
to man, of an eternal, uncreated, perfect and all- 
sufficient revelation. 

Every true Moslem believer has always held that 
the Caliph or Vicar of the prophet was the lawful 
lord of the world, but the prophet died without ap- 
pointing a successor. It was expected that the hus- 
band of his only child would be appointed for the 
succession, but Mohammed's favorite wife. Ayesha, 



\ Q_ 



I 9 8 



THE SARACEN EMPIRE. 



defeated this, and brought in her father, Abu-Bekr. 
The first four Caliphs belong to a distinct period. 
They were, to name them in their order, Abu-Bekr, 
Mmar, Othinan and Ali ; the one who should have 

been first being last. The .selection was by no de- 
fined method, but made in a hap-hazard way. For 
twelve years after the death of Mohammed — 632 to 
644 — the Saracens were harmonious, and swift was 
the march of empire. Persia fell, and the Eastern 
empire tottered and was shorn of her oriental prov- 
inces. As if by magic, the Saracen empire rose to 
pre-eminence. Jerusalem, Antioch and the regions 
round about accepted the Crescent. The wealth. of 
Persia and Syria were emptied into the coffers of 
Abu-Bekr, but he used it only for the cause of Is- 
lam. His personal habits were simple in the ex- 
treme. Medina was the first capital. It was after- 
wards located respectively at Damascus ami Bagdad. 
The accession of Ali was the signal for the 

first real dis- 
sensions, and 
vain were all 
his endeavors 
t o reconcile 
the factions. 
II e died at 
the hand of 
a 11 assassin, 
and his rival. 
M os w i j a. h. 
succee ded 
h i m . The 

latter founded an hereditary dynasty, one which 
lasted in the East a century, and in Spain, to which 
it was driven, nearly three centuries more. It vvas 
called the Onimiad dynasty. 

The motto of the conquering Saracens was." Ko- 
ran, tribute or sword," and so fierce were their on- 
slaughts, that the Koran was generally preferred to 
the sword, or even to tribute. On the very year of 
the prophet's death, the invasion of both empires 
was begun, and nothing could resist the fanatics 
who saw in the spirit-land houris beckoning the 
brave to bliss. Egypt fell without a blow almost, 
glad of an excuse to change masters, and Syria was 
subjugated in six years. The northern portion of 
Africa, called Latin Africa, withstood the Orescenl 
sixty years, but finally Csesar and Christ were both 
displaced on the dark continent by Mohammed. 




The great Mosque of Damascus. 



Early in the eighth century the Onimiad sway was 
extended to India, hitherto independent of both 
Cossack and Persian despotism, and unacquainted 
with Moses and Jesus. In 710 the Oxus was crossed 
and India subjected to the encroachments of the 
Saracens. The religion of the desert seemed to be 
very well adapted to the wants and tastes of the 
Hindoos, and now begau the conversion of those 
terrible Moslems, the subjects of the Grand Turk 
and of the Great Mogul. A Saracenic province be- 
tween the Oxus ami the Jaxartes developed later 
into what Freeman calls " the region whence issued 
in future ages the warriors who planted the standard 
of Islam on the banks of the Ganges and the shores 
of the Adriatic, the proud Mogul of India and the 
terrible and abiding Ottoman of Europe." It was 
not long before the will of the Caliph was supreme 
from the remote Jaxartes to the Atlantic, a reach 
of empire beyond the dream of Alexander or Caesar. 

But there was one mighty rock which said to the 
Saracen. " Thus far shalt thou go and no farther, 
and here shall thy proud waves be staid." That was 
Constantinople. From the first it had been espe- 
cially coveted. Repeated efforts to capture it were 
made to no avail. The first siege was in 673. In 
711 the opportune moment seemed to have arrived. 
That year the Justinian dynasty became extinct at 
Constantinople, and the Caliph at at Damascus at- 
tained its utmost extent. But the city withstood 
the shock. Six years later another Saracen army 
laid siege to Constantinople, but to no purpose. 
The Caliphate never won the golden prize. The 
city of Constantine remained the capital of the Ro- 
man, or Greek, or Byzantine empire until a fiercer 
race of Mohammedans than the Saracens besieged 
it, namely, the Turks, or Ottomans, 111 1453. 

When the Onimiad dynasty fell (750) the Cali- 
phate was divided, nevermore to be joined together. 
From that time the Crescent was 110 longer the 
horned ensign of a united empire. During the 
Crusades all believers in the Koran were exhorted 
to join in war against the believers in the Bible, 
each branding the other as Infidels, and there was 
much the same unity under one standard as the 
other. Nothing approaching political autonomy 
was secured under either the Cross or the Orescent. 
Henceforth the followers of Islam were divided in- 
to sects or nationalities, hostile to each other, much 
as Christians were and are. To follow these frag- 



^t 



JiU 



THE SARACEN EMPIRE. 



I 99 



menta in their jargonic details would be foreign to 
the purposes of this volume. The Eastern Sara- 
cens had Bagdad for their capital, the Western, 
Cordova in Spain. Of the Moors, the Turks and 
the Tartars, all in a certain sense Saracens, we shall 
have occasion to speak more specifically in connec- 
tion with Spain, Turkey and Russia. The warfare 
in any religious sense between the Cross and Cres- 
cent was continued until Ferdinand and Isabella, 
the patrons of Columbus, conquered the Moors, or 
Saracens, in Spain, their only foothold in the 
Western Empire. It was then felt that the dis- 
grace of the fall of Constantinople had been offset. 
and the blood of unholy Holy Wars, was washed 
from Cross and Crescent forever. There has been 
some prejudice in the sanguinary discussion of the 
" Eastern question," but no war on that distinctive 
issue. The fall of the Saracen empire might be 
placed at the overthrow of theOrnmiad dynasty, or 
it might be said to still survive wherever Moham- 
med is revered as Allah's prophet; but it would, 
perhaps, be more proper still to say, that as the 
Turk planted himself at Constantinople, and the 
1 . reai Mogul in India, the Saracen empire gradually 
faded into one or the other, and became indistin- 
guishable anil finally extinct. 

Much lias been said in these later years of the in- 
debtedness of modern civilization to the Saracens. 
There is just enough truth in the claims set up to 
entitle the subject to some consideration. The 
Arabs were not inventors or originators of anything. 
Even the numerals which bear their name were bor- 
rowed by them from India. They were judicious 
appropriators and zealous propagators. They learned 
a great deal from all the peoples whom they subju- 
gated. They cultivated a native literature rich in 
sentimental poetry and stories, and studied with 
avidity physical and metaphysical science as taught 
by and embraced in classic literature. No people 
ever held literary excellence in higher repute, a fact 
of vast inportance in stimulating letters. In as- 
tronomv, medicine, logic and the arts, useful and 



ornamental, the Saracens were far in advance of the 
Christians of medieval Europe. In the blackness 
of the Dark Ages the abundant scholarship of the 
Saracens was largely instrumental in rescuing from 
destruction the wisdom and writings of the ancients. 
It did vastly more in this regard than did the sparse 
learning of the Christian monasteries, and for that 
service at least, if for no other particular reason, 
the civilization of to-day should hold the Crescent 
in grateful memory. 

As the Jews, ever since the fall of the Hebrew 
Kingdom, have indulged the hope of a Messiah who 
should restore the throne of David, and as the Chris- 
tians have always expected the second coming of 
Christ, so the worshippers of Islam look for the res- 
toration of the Saracen Empire by the Messiah, or 
El Medi. It is true that Islam is divided into 
sects, and such bitter sectarianism prevails that who- 
ever might gain the confidence of one sect would be 
denounced as a false prophet by others, but the 
Messianic theory is none the less tenaciously held. 
There have been many pretenders to the Ommiad 
throne. Some of them have attracted a very con- 
siderable following by liberal promises to crush 
Christianity in the East and renew the splendors of 
the Crescent, but for the most part they have been 
petty failures. The last of them was the head of 
the Khouan, or Arabic freemasonry. The name 
given him at circumcision was El Medi, and for 
years the idea was sedulously cultivated that the day 
of imperial restoration at his hand would be the 
first of the month Moharrem, in the year 1300, 
corresponding to our date November 12, 1882. The 
uprising in Egypt hastened somewhat the attempt 
of the pretender to rally the faithful around the 
Messianic flag. It was a puny failure. The curtain 
was rung down on this false prophet February 19, 
1883 by his capture. He will hardly be heard of 
more, but the hope that the Saracen Empire will 
live again as in the medieval age is nor.e the less 
tenaciously held throughout Islam. 








MmdM^m 







CHAPTER XXXIV 



The Three Empires op the East — Byzantium — The Empire Established — Its Area and Con- 
servatism — Justinian ' and Belisarius — Justinian and the Civil Law — Leo HI. and the 
Iconoclasts— Bazil and his Dynasty— The Comnenians and the Latin Crusaders — 
Pal-eoloui and the Turks— The Byzantine Empire and Europe. 








T is now time to revert to 
the Eastern portion of the 
divided Roman Empire, 
' generally known as the By- 
zantine Empire. Follow- 
ing streams of intelligence 
which had their origin in 
the Eternal City, or were so 
closely connected with Rome and Italy 
as to demand attention before taking 
leave of the city of the seven hills, we 
have traveled a long way from Constan- 
tinople and the empires of the East. 
Beginning with the offshoot of Rome, 
following with the medieval, which was 
finally swallowed up by the third em- 
pire, we shall see that these three 
members of this historical family of 
nations, the Byzantine, the ' Saracen and the Otto- 
man empires, sustain peculiarly intimate relations 
to each other. 

Some seven centuries and a half before the 
Christian era, a (J reek colony established a city up- 
on the Thracian Bosphorus, on the site of the Mod- 
ern Constantinople. It was called Byzantium. It 
was a thrifty commercial town, and that is about 
all that can be said of it, never acquiring any real 
importance in history. A thousand years after its 




-t< 



establishment, Constantine the Great saw its geo- 
graphical advantages as the capital of a great em- 
pire of inter-continental importance, and gave to it 
a new name and a new destiny. That was in the 
year 330. Then, fur the first time, that now his- 
toric spot became worthy the attention of history. 
There was no Byzantine history of any importance 
until Byzantium ceased to exist. 

But it was still later before the Byzantine empire 
came into being. Constantine made his metropoli- 
tan namesake the capital of the undivided Roman 
empire. That empire was definitely divided by 
Theodosius the Great in the year 395, when the 
emperor assigned the western portion to his son 
Honorius, and the eastern to the elder brother, Ar- 
cadius. This eastern empire, sometimes called the 
(ireek, sometimes the Eastern, and sometimes the 
Byzantine, proved the great conservator during the 
medieval ages, of both Greek and Roman civilization. 

While nearly all Europe was in the throes of a 
new life, and the rude barbarism of the North and 
West was amalgamating with the culture of the old 
world, thus forming a Modern Europe, there stood 
upon the Bosphorus a mighty city which preserved 
Roman law and Greek literature until such 
time as the West had fairly stai'ted upon the 
highway of modern progress. The Byzantine em- 
pire was the great conservator of the past, while 



(200) 



— sV 



THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE. 



20I 



the present was being evolved. The civil institu- 
tions were Roman; the language employed, Greek. 

This medieval empire comprised, substantially, 
modern Turkey, Greece and Egypt. Sometimes 
the area was extended, sometimes contracted.accord- 
ing to the fortunes of war. The imperial crown was 
elective, and more than one great military hero found 
the army a stepping-stone to the throne. Owing 
to the natural strength of Constantinople, it was 
easy to defend it against assault. It is said to have 
withstood no less than twenty sieges. The extent 
of its domain varied frequently, but for centuries, 
lost territory . 
was generally 
recovered. The 
empire cared 
little for in- 
crease of do- 
main, but was 
peculiarly te- 
nacious in the 
maintenance 
of its natural 
ancient boun- 
daries. It was 
the object of 
envious attack 
on all sides, 
and to hold its 
own was quite 
enough, and, 
as it proved, 
even more than could be accomplished permanently. 

The first Byzantine emperor of renown was Jus- 
tinian. His uncle, Justin, had come to the throne 
early in the sixth century, rising from a Thracian 
shepherd lad to the imperial purple, through mili- 
tary genius. Justin was the David of the dynasty, 
and his nephew its Solomon. From 527 to 565, 
Justinian wore the imperial crown. It was a splen- 
did reign. By him was erected the magnificent 
edifice, the cathedral, now Mosque of St. Sophia. 
In the field he had the services of Belisarius, who 
ranks with Hannibal, Marlborough and Wellington, 
if not with Alexander, Csesar and Napoleon. Beli- 
sarius lived to experience the cruel ingratitude of 
the government he had served so well. Tradition 
represents him as a blind beggar in his old age. 
He gained splendid victories over the Persians in 




''itasiStoL -*s£. 



THE MOSQUE OP ST. SOPHIA, CONST ANTINOPLE. 



the East, the Vandals in Africa, the Goths in Italy, 
and insurgents at home; but he was never popular 
with the beautiful but vicious queen Theodora, and 
his misfortunes were due to her machinations. 

Justinian enriched his empire with the spoils of 
conquered nations, and still more by the development 
of manufactures, agriculture and commerce. But 
the great glory of this illustrious reign was neither 
military, industrial nor commercial. It was legal. 
That grandest of all monuments to and embodi- 
ments of the science of law, Corpus Juris Civilis, 
constitutes his highest claim to the gratitude of the 

world. 'That 
work is the 
Roman code, 
revised and 
edited by a 
corps of able 
lawyers, with 
Tribonian as 
editor-in chief. 
It consists of 
four parts, the 
Pandects or 
Digest ; the 
Code ; the In- 
stitutes, and 
the Novells, or 
supplemental 
edicts. It was 
some five hun- 
dred years lie- 
fore the stupendous work became known to the 
nations west of the Byzantine empire, but for 
several centuries it has formed and still forms 
the basis of jurisprudence all over the conti- 
nent of Europe. England has always had a com- 
mon law peculiar to itself, and France is mainly 
guided in legal matters by the Code Napoleon, but 
the civil law, as expounded in the Corpus Juris Civilis, 
is to the rest of Europe what Blackstone's Commen- 
taries are to English jurisprudence. 

In 718 Leo III. ascended the Byzantine throne. 
With him began the reign of the Iconoclasts. For 
about one century there raged a fierce controversv 
over the worship of images. The priests and the 
peasantry clung to this species of idolatry, while the 
government sternly opposed it. Iconoclasm was. 
however, a pretext quite as much as the real cause 



— 1 <£> 



JS°- 



202 



THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE. 



<>f contention. Behind the images was the issue of 
church or state, the priesthood seeking to subordi- 
nate the temporal power, and the latter to hold the 
clergy in due subordination. The Greek church 
never attained to the power of the church of Rome. 
Leo was the emperor for more than twenty years, 
and he succeeded in giving the secular arm author- 
ity enough to maintain its ascendancy ever after. 

Xext to Justinian, the greatest name in the an- 
nals of the Byzantine empire, is that of Bazil the 
Macedonian. He ascended the throne in 867. 
Many reforms and improvements in the government 
date from this reign. A new version of the laws 
was made, and the revenue system of the nation 
greatly simplified. His son, Leo VI., made what 
proved to be the fatal mistake of calling the Turks 
to his aid in resisting the attacks of the Saracens. 
The seed then and thus sown bore fruit in the over- 
throw of both the Byzantine and Saracen empires. 

For 188 years the Bazilian dynasty held the 
scepter. Then it became extinct, and Isaac Com- 
nenus was raised to the throne by the unanimous vote 
of the aimv. He was worthy the high trust. For 
two years he ruled the empire, when he retired to 
a monastery. His son Alexis took the place he va- 
cated, and his dynasty furnished six emperors in 
succession. The Comnenians held sway until 1304, 
when Constantinople was taken for the first time. 
The conquerors were a small army of French and 
Venetian crusaders called Latins. They were actu- 
ated in a large measure by religious fanaticism, the 
adherents of Rome being hardly less hostile to the 
Greek church than to Islam. Having Constanti- 
nople, they had the entire empire, which they pro- 
ceeded to divide into four parts. The capital fell 
to the lot of Baldwin, Count of Flanders, and he was 
recognized as emperor by his associates. 

The vanquished descendants of Isaac Comnenus 
retired to the city of Trebizond, in Asiatic Turkey, 
and there established a kingdom which maintained 
its independence until 1461, when the Turks con- 
quered and annexed it. Baldwin found his position 
a difficult one to hold. The Bulgarians were very 
hostile, and anarchy at home supplemented Slavic 
or Christian hostilities. In 1206 lie was taken pris- 
oner by the Bulgarians a ml died. His brother Henry 
took the reins of government and held them six 
years. He was a brave and able man, but his reign 
was none the less a sorrv failure. 



In 1261 began the dynasty of the Palaeologi, 
which was a restoration of the Greeks, and contin- 
ued until the overthrow of the empire. The first 
emperor of this line was Michael VIII., who was 
indebted to the alliance of the Genoese for his crown. 
He was an able and patriotic man, but he made one 
egregious mistake. He tried to unite the Greek and 
Roman churches. Such a union would have been 
in substance the triumph of the papacy. By that 
policy he excited the intense animosity of the clergy 
and the common people. 

During the reign of Michael's great-grandson, 
Andronicus, who ascended the throne in 1328, the 
Turks made very serious inroads upon the territory 
of the empire. Two important towns, Nicsea and 
Nicomedia, were captured by them, and the coast 
of what is known as Turkey in Europe was devas- 
tated. From this time forward, the invaders made 
rapid strides. In 1362 the Sultan Amurath made 
Adrianople his capital ; a city founded by the em- 
peror Hadrian, one hundred and thirty miles west 
from Constantinople. From that vantage-ground 
the Ottoman waged almost incessant war against 
the key city of two continents. 

The lastof the Greek emperors, Constantine XIII., 
was wise, brave and patriotic, but the empire had 
been so enfeebled by despotism and was so palsied 
by age that it could not withstand the shock of bar- 
barism, and fell, all the efforts of Christian allies, 
which were very considerable, being unavailing. By 
this time, nearly the middle of the fifteenth centu- 
ry, the papacy recognized the importance, from a 
Christian point of view, of keeping the Mohamme- 
dans from gaining possession of the key city of both 
Europe and Asia. Hungary and Poland responded 
to the pope's appeal to succor beleaguered Constan- 
tinople, but Germany, France and England stood 
aloof from the conflict upon the Bosphorus. In the 
summer of 1453 the city was captured and Con- 
stantine XIII., the last of the Byzantine Emperors, 
died sword in hand. In this siege cannons were 
first used upon a large scale. 

The death of the Byzantine empire was the birth 
of the present Ottoman empire, and where the his- 
tory of one ceases that of the other begins. Upon 
the ruins of the one great Christian empire of the 
middle ages, rose the Turkey of to-day, a power 
which upholds the Crescent, and in that respect is 
the heir and successor of the Saracen empire, to 



V 



A— 



THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE. 



203 




THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE. 



205 



which, however, in attitude towards science and lit- 
erature, it has no resemblance, the Ottoman having 
always been hostile to civilization. 

The fall of Constantinople was deeply deplored 
by Christian Europe as the lamentable triumph of 
Mohammedanism, but it proved an inestimable 
blessing to the West. Driven into exile, many of 
the Byzantine scholars and artisans traveled west- 
ward, taking their knowledge and skill with them. 
They accomplished great results. The West was 
prepared to profit by their higher civilization. 
These new teachers taught law and theology to the 
ignorant, and useful arts to the idle. The germs 
of the Renaissance and the Reformation were sown 
in the lands covered with the blackness of the Dark 
Ages by the refugees from Constantinople. What 
the Moors accomplished in Southwestern Europe, the 
Byzantines wrought in Central and Eastern Europe. 
In a word, Constantinople was a vast grain-bin, 
and when the storehouse fell, much of the seed 
fell upon fallow ground, much of which ground 
had never before been reclaimed ami made fruitful. 

Byzantine art is a distinct and important school 
of architecture and ornamentation, developed by 
the artists of that empire out of Christian symbol- 
ism. Says an eminent writer upon the historical 
development of art, " During the Dark Ages, after 
Rome had been conquered by the Goths and Huns, 
and the fine arts had been nearly extinguished by 



the influx of barbarism, many Western artists re- 
tired to Constantinople, and founded a school by 
which the traditions of anticpie and classical art 
were cherished and modified by whatever was new 
and peculiar in the Christian system. The great 
features of this style are the circle and dome, the 
round arch, and all the various details of form 
which are derived from the lily, the cross, the 
nimbus, and other symbols." Besides the Mosque 
of St. Sophia, may be mentioned St. Mark's Cathe- 
dral at Venice as specimens of Byzantine archi- 
tecture. All that is truly artistic and sublime in 
Russian structures may also be claimed as Byzan- 
tine. 

The fall of this empire no more overthrew the 
Greek church than the banishment of the Popes 
from the Vatican would destroy the Roman church ; 
but it greatly weakened the authority of the 
Patriarch of Constantinople, and prepared the way 
for Peter the Great to adopt for Russia a strictly 
national church without incurring, as Henry the 
Eighth of England did in adopting the same poli- 
cy, the wrath and anathemas of the central head 
of the church. There was no Greek Empire, and 
so the Great Czar could substitute his Holy Synod 
for the patriarchy, and still be " orthodox." Herein 
the church of the Eastern Empire proved itself 
to be more liberal than the church of the Western 
Empire. 



^ A 




-*i«- 



.■vl" 




Si^^&w^t^t^&aSflee*- 







\ ^ .K\ >-;'3> 



THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 



mjPW p W* i W* 




t I 




CHAPTER XXXV. 



The Sick Man of the East (Turkey) — The Empire Founded— Adrianople and Tamerlane— 

The Fall op Constantinople and its Effect — Solyman the Magnificent— Decline of 
the Empire— Scheme of Catharine the Great— State op Dependence— Religion and 
Intelligence in Turkey— Present Condition of the Empire— Area, Population, Gov" 
ernmknt. Education, Railways and Debt. 



m 



uu 



ffc 



4> -&* 

* T the confluence of the Medi- 
terranean and the Black 
seas, where Constantine fixed 
his court and reared a city 
monumental of his name, 
^MlS&tKJ and where Justinian held 
swav, now rules the " Sick 
Man." Never was there a 
more appropriate name for a govern- 
ment. The Ottoman empire, or Tur- 
key, is strong only in weakness. It 
stands because the rest of Europe can- 
not afford to allow any really vigorous 
power to hold Constantinople. To set 
forth the historic and present relations 
of this burnt-out volcano, requires but 
few details. 

The Ottoman empire, traced to its source, leads 
back to a tribe from the Altai mountains. The 
Ottoman career of conquest dates from 1330. 
About that time Orchan made successful sorties 
upon Necomedia and Nicola. He called the gate 
of his palace the Sublime Porte, and himself Pa- 
disha. Both titles are still in use, the former being 
frequently employed to designate the sovereign, or 
Sultan. His right arm in conquest was a band of 
soldiers known as Janizaries, a body of warriors 



which became virtually autocratic in later centuries, 
raising up and overthrowing Sultans at pleasure. 
They were finally destroyed early in 'the present 
century. They were the only Turkish approach to 
a regular nobility. The founder of the empire re- 
sided at Brussa. The second Sultan, Amurath I., 
made Adrianople his capital. That was in 1365, 
and that city remained the capital until Constanti- 
nople was conquered in 1453. 

During that Adrianopolitan period, the Byzan- 
tine empire was not only overrun by a gradual pro- 
cess of conquest, but came in contact with that 
prodigy of valor and cruelty, Tamerlane, or Timor 
the Lame. He was the leader of a jjredatory band 
of Mongols. As a soldier Tamerlane may well 
claim the very highest rank. In 1360 he became 
the chief of his tribe, being then twenty-four years 
of age. He subjugated the whole of central and 
western Asia, from China to the sea, and from Si- 
beria to the Ganges. In 1403 he met the Turks 
and completely routed them. His death, occurring 
three years later, saved China from invasion. He 
was destitute of statesmanship, and his conquests 
were mere raids, desolating but transitory in effect. 
As soon as nature could repair the wastes of his wars, 
all was restored. The Ottoman empire regained its 
vigor and never lost its identity. In less than a 



(206) 



ik- 



THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE. 



20' 



generation it greatly humiliated the Byzantine em- 
pire, and in less than two generations the latter 
ceased to exit, having been supplanted by the former. 
It was Mohammed II. who transferred the seat of 
empire from Adrianople to Constantinople, the 
Turkish name for which is Stamboul. 

The conqueror of Constantinople. as previously sug- 
gested, wrought a great work for Europe. The city 
was appropriated by Mohammed, and many of the 
people submitted to his rule, which was tolerant, 
but a large number of the better class fled from Is- 



tions and extended the area of the empire with 
facility, his ambition being to conquer Western 
Europe and establish the Crescent throughout the 
continent. For a time lie seemed likely to succeed. 
The Knights of St. John were driven from Rhodes, 
the Hungarians beaten upontheirown soil, and the 
way was thus opened for the success of his plan. 
But the Western nations were alarmed and alert. 
Solyman gained some advantages and extended the 
area of Turkey in Europe, also of Turkey in Africa. 
very materially, but his great ambition for Euro- 




SERAGLIO POINT. CONSTANTINOPLE. 



lam as from the plague, taking their civilization 
witli them westward. 

The capture of Constantinople was followed by 
other important victories of the Crescent in East- 
ern Europe. During the next hundred years the 
Ottoman empire attained the summit of its power, 
and Greece and Arabia were soon added to the do- 
main of the Porte. The Saracen empire had crum- 
bled away, and the Moors were being pushed out of 
Spain. The strength of Islam was this new king- 
dom of the Bosphorus. 

It was under the third Sultan of Stamboul, Soly- 
man the Magnificent, that the Ottoman empire 
reached its highest point of greatness. His rule 
extended from 1520 to 156G. He was a statesman 
with all which that implies. Educated, temperate, 
patriotic and philosophical, he had the fire and at 
times the ferocitv of his race. He quelled insurree- 



pean conquest was baffled. He died during a cam- 
paign in Hungary, and with his death the decline 
of the Ottoman empire began. 

From that time until nearly the close of the 
eighteenth century, the Turk was the almost con- 
stant terror of his Christian neighbors. Russia, Hun- 
gary, Poland, Austria and Italy were frequently im- 
broiled in war withthe Ottoman, and all Europe felt 
somewhat apprehensive of Crescent ascendancy. 
The records of those wars are monotonous and un- 
instructive, blood and misery being terms suggestive 
of the period. Late in the eighteenth century a great 
change was wrought. Catharine of Russia set her 
heart upon dividing Turkey with Austria, as she 
had Poland with Austria and Prussia, and waged 
relentless war in furtherance of this design. The 
rest of Europe had allowed a Christian country to 
be dismembered, and surely, she thought, would not 



26 



208 



THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE. 



object to the expulsion of Islam from the continent. 
But that was a miscalculation. England and France 
became alarmed at the strides of Germany and 
Russia, especially the later, and when Turkey was 
at the mercy of the Hapsburg and the Romanoff, 
they interfered and secured for the Sultan terms of 
peace which substantially guaranteed the autonomy 
of the Ottoman empire. 

From that time the Turk has retained his Eu- 
ropean foothold by the friendly interposition of the 
Anti-Russian powers. Not that the Ottoman ap- 
peals to the sympathy of those nations, but simply 
that so long as 
the Sultan of 
a people who 
have lost all 
aggressive am- 
bition rules at 
Constantino- 
ple, the " bal- 
ance of power" 
is safe. Turkey 
furl he lastcen- 
tury has sim- 
ply beena mere 
puppet, mov- 
ing as the greal 
nations pull 
the string, and 
dependent for 
bare existence 
upon the suf- 
ferance burn of mutual jealousy. Sonic show of in- 
dependent action is kept up, but it is the veriest show 
in the world. Turkey is a charity empire, a monu- 
ment of the sparing grace of its peculiar position. It 
admits of no division. That is, Constantinople does 
not admit of division, and its position is so very 
commanding, that the nations are not willing to 
have it added to the strength of any of their neigh- 
bors. 

Such in its history and prospects is Turkey, 
viewed from an international standpoint. The 
population consists largely of Christians who abhor 
their masters and long for deliverance. Those 
Christians are nearly all members of the Greek 
church, or at least distinct from both the Papacy 
and Protestantism. There arc a good many Protest- 
ant missionaries in Turkey Their labors are con- 



fined to fellow Christians, the Turk proper being 
impervious to the darts of occidental propagandists. 
Of literature, Turkey can boast nothing worthy 
of note, either in the past or the present. In the 
higher ranges of civilization the Ottoman finds 
nothing congenial. The Saracen could fight well 
and also easily enter into the intellectual life of the 
world. 

The reigning Sultan of Turkey is Abdul-Hamid 
II., who succeeded to the throne on the deposition 
of his elder brother, Murad V., in 187G. He is the 
thirty-fifth in male descent from the founder of 

the empire, 
Othman, and 
twenty-eighth 
since Constan- 
tinople was 
conquered by 
the Turk. The 
royal residence 
is the seraglio, 
or harem, and 
this residence, 
notwithstand- 
ing the bank- 
rupt condition 
of the imperi- 
al treasury, is 
maintained at 
enormous ex- 
pense. The 
will of the Sul- 
tan is absolute. Forms of constitutional limit- 
ations upon the arbitrary authority of the Sultan 
have been adojited recently, but in point of fact 
the legislative and executive departments of 
the government are in the hands of his sublime 
highness, and the functions of law are directed by 
two officers, the Grand Vizier, who looks after secu- 
lar affairs, and the Sheik-ul-Islam, who is the head 
of the church. There is a body or class known as 
the Ulema which comprises the " Mufte," or inter- 
preters of the Koran, the judges and high function- 
aries of the law. " Bey" is a general term, applying 
to all important civil officers, while " Pasha" is the 
designation of tax gatherers and other officers who 
are both military and civic in function. A minis- 
terial council, or cabinet, called the " Divan," exists, 
comprising eight ministerial departments, namely, 




-i 



THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE. 



209 



War, Finance, Marine, Commerce, Public Works, 
Police, Justice and Education. 

Prior to the war with Eussia in 1877, or rather 
to the treaty of Berlin in 1878, the area of the em- 
pire was 1,742,874 square miles and the population, 
something in excess of 28,000,000. That treaty 
gave Bosnia and Herzegovina to Austria - Hungary, 
made the states of Bulgaria and Eastern Roumelia 
semi-independent, and added somewhat to the terri- 
tory of Roumauia, Servia and Montenegro, so that 
now the territory is estimated at 860,562, and the 
population at 31,000,000. Turkey in Europe was 
reduced about one-half, in botli territory and pop- 
ulation. It now consists of 62,850 square miles, 
population 4,275,000. Turkey in Asia comprises a 
territory of 710,320, with a population of 15,715,- 
000 ; Turkey in Africa, 344,500 square miles, pop- 
ulation, 1,010,000. A recent writer says, "All con- 
sular and other reports agree in stating that the 
native population of every part of the Turkish em- 
pire is fast declining, in many provinces at such a 
rate that the formerlv cultivated lands are fallinsr 
into the condition of deserts. Want of security 
for life and property, an anarchical yet extortionate 
administration, and a general absence of all moral 
and material progress, are given as the principal 
reason for the rapid decrease of the population." 
The same writer, in speaking of education in 
the Ottoman empire, observes that " public schools 
have been long established in most considerable 
Turkish towns, while ' medresses,' or colleges, with 
public libraries, are attached to the greater number 
el' the principal mosques. But the instruction af- 
forded by these establishments is rather limited. 
The pupils are chiefly taught to read and write 
the first elements of the Turkish language ; the 
class-books being the Koran, and some commenta- 
ries upon it. In the 'medresses,' which are the col- 
leges or schools of the ulemas, the pupils are in- 
structed in Arabic and Persian, and learn to decipher 
and write the different sorts of Turkish characters. 
The instruction comprises philosophy, logic, rhet- 
oric, and morals founded on the Koran ; and these, 
with theology, Turkish law, and a few lessons on 
history and geography, complete the course of 
study." 

The railways of the empire have a total length 
of about 1,000 miles. The national debt is fully 



$1,000,000,000, and the national credit is at an ex- 
ceedingly low ebb, and the paper money of the em- 
pire amounts to about $450,000,000. In every point 
of view Turkey is in a moribund state. The coun- 
try is rich in resources, but for the most part those 
resources are undeveloped. 

We cannot better close this chapter than by an ex- 
cerpt from MacKenzie's "Nineteenth Century." 

Egypt is a part of the Ottoman Empire, al- 
though more dependent, in point of fact, upon 
England than Turkey. The administration of 
public affairs in Egypt, is now (1886) carried on 
by a native ministry, subject to the Khedive, but 
under British supervision. Some important re- 
forms have been inaugurated in the management 
of public finances, in prison affairs and in the 
courts of justice. Since 1886, the boundaries of 
Egypt have been more sharply defined, ami the 
Soudan and other provinces south of Dongola, 
have been distinctly separated from Egypt. The 
latter seems to be all the more prosperous for the 
abandonment of vague territorial claims. The 
principal tributary state in Europe of Turkey, is 
Bulgaria, which is now (1886) in a state of fer- 
ment and uncertainty. This is true, in fact, of 
all Southeastern Europe. That region, so long 
crushed beneath the heel of the Sultan, is still 
disquieted and liable to occasion general European 
war. Local wars, abdications and diplomatic 
intrigues, have brought Russia and Austria near 
the line of battle. It is the eager desire of Russia 
to absorb, practically, Bulgaria and Central 
Servia. which Austrian interest can not afford to 
allow, if it can be prevented. The people of that 
region are still primitive in their modes of life and 
methods of agriculture. 

A good Mohammedan regards it as his right and 
duty to kill a Christian when he has opportunity 
The evidence of a Christian against a Turk is not 
received in a court of law. A Turk can legally 
steal Christian children and forcibly convert them 
to Islamism. The frightful principle of slave- 
owning law is practically in force in the Ottoman 
dominion — no Christian has any rights which a 
Turk is bound to respect. The only security of 
the people is to conceal their wealth and seem to be 
poor. Under the sway of the Turk the ajipearance 
of poverty is rarely deceptive." 




The Dawn of Russian History— Novgorod, the Great Republic— Grand Princes from 

RURIK TO IGOR— OLGA'S REVENGE AND PlETY— YlaIUMIR AND THE INTRODUCTION OF CHRIS- 
TIANITY— Yaroslaf and his Code— Four Centuries of Progress— Genghis Khan and the 
Golden Horde— The Ivans— Peter the Great— Catharine the Great— Moscow and Na- 
poleon—Alexander I. and the Holy Alliance— Nicholas and the Crimean War— Alex- 
ander II. and the Serfs— Nihilism— Siberia— Present Condition of Russia— Greek 
Church in Russia. 





K,*!|33oc£§— -sH 



HE great territory of Rus- 
sia first presents itself to 
the historic ken in A. D- 
862. All previous events 
in that vast region must 
forever remain matter of 
conjecture. The first ob- 
ject which greets the eye is the 
best. Russia's aurora fills with 
astonishment the student of the 
past, unprepared to discover in 
that far-away land and time a 
vigorous republic, Novgorod, call- 
ed "the republican mother of a 
most despotic empire." This dawn 
of history was the slowly fading 
twilight of a liberty whose day was 
clothed in mist, and whose last 
lingering ray was darkened by the night of des- 
potism. 

Novgorod the Great, not the great despoiler, but 
the great republic, preceded the great empire. 
Speaking of this period of early dawn, yet evening, 
Karamsin says : " At that time the great republic 
had become so powerful that it was a common saying 
among its neighbors, 'Who can dare oppose God and 



Novgorod the Great?' Its commerce," he con- 
tinues, " extended to Persia, India, and to Constan- 
tinople." The nations around were its tributaries, 
but unfortunately between it and the Baltic Sea, 
which was its principal channel of communication 
with the rest of the world, were the unfriendly and 
barbaric Varangians, and the Baltic itself swarmed 
with Norman pirates. Novgorod dared not attempt 
unaided the subjugation of two such formidable en- 
emies, and weary of constant depredations upon her 
commerce, allied herself with one against the other. 
Rurik, Prince of Varangia — the first name in Rus- 
sian history — was invited with his two brothers to 
defend the Republic against the Normans. This 
was a dangerous experiment. Rurik used his power, 
as might have been expected, and became, after the 
death of his two brothers, Grand Prince of Russia, 
for from that time it really became a nation, al- 
though it was several centuries before the empire. 
Rurik's administration continued fifteen years. He 
was certainly a very great ruler, but unfortunate- 
ly imbued with the spirit of despotism ; a perfect 
specimen of barbaric greatness ; brave, crafty, insa- 
tiable, adventurous, and capable of the most savage 
treachery. He might well have been the ideal and 
model of most subsequent rulers of Russia, doing 



(210) 



-s v 



RUSSIA. 



21 I 



;ill ill his power to supplant the arts of peace with 
the ferocity of war. In his reign began the agita- 
tion by swonl and treaty of the never-ending East- 
ern question. Like all who came after him, he 
wanted Constantinople, the key of the Bosphorus, 
and like them he failed to get it. His immediate 
successor, Igor, was his close imitator, and lost his 
life while collecting taxes in the usual way. by tak- 
ing an army around with him. 

His widow, Olga. became regent. Fabulous tales 
are told of her revenge upon the slayers of her hus- 
band. After gratifying her vengeance she visited 
her northern dominions, where her first enterprise 
was to build towns, a 
favorite pastime with 
Russian rulers. In 
other countries towns 
grow ; in Russia they 
are made to order. 
She regulated if she 
did not reduce the 
taxes, and most of 
all, she divided the 
land into commons. 
Here is the first men- 
tion of that famous 
institution, the Com- 
mune, and it is un- 
fortunate that more 
particulars are not 
given of its infancy. After many other measures 
which contributed in favor of the argument for 
woman in politics, Olga became desirous of em- 
bracing Christianity. In order to do so she repaired 
to Constantinople where she was led to the baptismal 
font by the emperor himself. There were already 
some Christians in Russia, but even Olga's example 
failed to make it fashionable ; her own son, who was 
to succeed her, holding her religion in contempt. He 
was, however, a noble character, as the chronicles at- 
test, but was early killed in war with their old and 
ever new enemies, the Turks. 

The empire, or rather the nation, which was still 
composed of ruincipalities and republics, was then 
divided, and civil war followed between the different 
rulers. One of these, Vladimir of Novgorod, con- 
quered the other princes, his brothers, and reunited 
and enlarged Russia. For his victories he deter- 
mined to return thanks to the ancient gods of his 




Kt'SSIAN POST-nOUSE. 



peojde by sacrificing not only a human being but a 
Russian. The choice fell upon the son of a Chris- 
tian. The father r fusing to give him up, Int. 
were killed. They have been canonized by the 
Russian church as its only martyrs. It a ipears 
almost incredible that Christianity should have met 
with no serious resistance among these pagans, when 
in all other lands it has caused or been the cause of 
streams of blood and misery unimaginable. Vlad- 
imir's greatness awakened the zealots of four relig- 
ions, the Creeks, the Romans, the Jews, and the 
Mohammedans; each striving to convert him to 
their own system of ceremonies — one can hardly 

say worship, fie a _- 
pointed a comrr.L ',ee 
of boyars — a class of 
noblemen — to in- 
vestigate them all 
and report. After 
due consideration 
this cool convert 
adopted the Greek 
faith, influenced 
more by the example 
of his ancestress Ol- 
ga — who was called 
the wisest of mortals 
— than by the report 
of the committee. 
Havingr made his de- 



cision, he experienced no little difficulty in getting 
himself baptized in a manner sufficiently sen- 
sational to satisfy his barbaric highness. it 
was necessary to go to war, take a city, and 
abduct a bishop that the ceremony might be 
performed in his own country. Once in the church 
himself, his troubles were ended. A general order 
was given that all should appear on the bank of the 
river and be baptized. Nobody objected — and so 
the present religion of Russia was established. The 
grateful national church recognizes Vladimir, its 
founder, as co-equal with the Apostles. He is said 
to have raised Russia to its highest primitive glory; 
but unwarned by the past, united Russia was again 
divided, this time among seven sons. 

A season of bloodshed followed, wherein such 
mild terms as monster, fratricide and assassin are 
continually heard. Then Yaroslaf, the best and 
ablest of the seven, became ruler of the entire na- 



212 



RUSSIA. 



tion. He was revered for his religion and toler- 
ance, for his efforts in behalf of education and 
civilization, and he succored rather than encroached 
upon the liberties of the citizens of Novgorod. To 
him the national church owes its freedom from By- 
zantium, and Russia itself by its alliances became 
closely connected with the other great nations of 
Europe. The three daughters of Yaroslaf were 
Queens of Norway, Hungary and France, and his 
daughters-in-law belonged tothe Greek, German and 
English royal families. He gave to Russia its first 
code. That was in the year 101S. The right of 
private vengeance was recognized ; but when no 
avenger appeared the murderer paid a fine to the 
public treasury. The penalty for killing a man was 
twice as much as that for killing a woman. Under 
this code, Novgorod was indeed considered an a\>- 
pendage of the Grand Principality, but every citi- 
zen called to the town meeting by the sound of the 
great bell, could vote, and all questions were deci- 
ded by that vote, even to the choice of Grand 
Prince — at least popular approbation was consid- 
ered necessary, and he was not acknowledged until 
he had sworn to govern in accordance with the 
ancient laws of the Republic. 

It was now four centuries since the reign of Ru- 
rick, at which time the absolute independence of 
Novgorod was compromised. Twice, during this 
period, there had been a strong centralized govern- 
ment, and more or less of desjjotism ; in fact, a 
complicated blending of the two, despotism and 
democracy. Russia was then rapidly advancing 
towards civilization, and no nation in Europe had 
brighter prospects. Notwithstanding the fact that 
her Grand Princes had always been despots in their 
relations to other princes, and to individual sub- 
jects, interference with the local self-government 
of the republic had never been attempted. Nor 
was there then in Europe more commercial enter- 
prise than in Novgorod, the glory of the North. 
But Russia as a whole lacked unity. The various 
states were not one people. Dissensions often arose 
and disintegration followed, until, when the Tartar 
invasion came, in 1223, the country was illy prepared 
to defend itself against that genius of barbarism, 
Genghis Khan, who with his Golden Horde made a 
pasture from Kasan to Vladimir. For two centu- 
ries the Tartar yoke accustomed the Russian neck 
to servitude, and the spirit of the people was so 



broken that the way was prepared for imperialism. 
The Tartars, that horde of organized tramps, bold 
and numerous, made themselves perfectly at home 
in Russia. Never rooting themselves deeply in the 
soil, never assimilating with the inhabitants, they 
simply foraged upon them, until finally, in the year 
14G2, a Grand Prince arose, strong enough and bad 
enough to cope with them. 

Ivan, Grand Prince of Moscow, was at once the 
liberator and the enslaver of his country. For 
forty years he persistently pursued a determined 
purpose, with a cold, unimpassioned patience, and 
persevering industry that should have made bini 
the admiration of all who have a bias towards im- 
perialism. To become absolute monarch of all the 
Russias, to be feared abroad and supreme at home, 
was his constant, aspiration. Without personal bra- 
very, with none of those high attributes which in- 
spire enthusiasm, he was enabled by the condition of 
that most distressful country, and by a guile al- 
most superhuman in its malignancy and efficacy, 
to conquer and reduce to submission all the dis- 
cordant elements of Russia. The first step towards 
this achievement was the expulsion of the Golden 
Horde. This accomplished, one Prince was incited 
to war against another, until the only powerful bar- 
rier to his ambition was republican Novgorod, 
which wielded a power almost equal to that of Ivan. 
It ruled over all the North, whose commerce it had 
possessed and protected for seven centuries. Ivan 
destroyed that commerce and reduced the haughty, 
liberty-loving Novgorod, which could rally forty 
thousand warriors, and numbered four hundred 
thousand people, to the insignificant village which 
it still remains. All this was not accomplished 
without a long and bitter struggle. Liberty died as 
hard in Russia as in Poland, — but it died ; and that 
great land was a dungeon without a window. 

Had Ivan the Great and his successor Ivan the 
Terrible, been Ivan the Good and Ivan the Sensible, 
the future of Russia might have been as changed as 
would have been our national life had the Ameri- 
can Revolution resulted in a monarchy instead of a 
Republic. The misfortune of Russia has been that 
her great rulers have seemed to be under the bane- 
ful influence of that drop of Tartar blood said to 
course in their veins. 

The first real genius after Ivan the Great was 
Peter the Great. Their objects were different, their 



OdL 



RUSSIA. 



2I 3 



methods the same. One forced submission upon 
the people, the other sought to force civilization 
upon them. Instead of attempting to gradually 
modify inherited customs, and supplant old ideas 
with new by a process of healthy growth, he tried to 
foist a sort of fiat civilization upon his subjects. 
Whatever he did was done by the force of his own 
unbridled and relentless will. That ho accom- 
plished many and wonderful things for Russia, can- 
not be denied ; but that his ideas and methods were 
not conducive to a wholesome development of a 
happy and progressive people, subsequent events 
have full)' 
shown. The 
rights and 
interests of 
his subjects 
were ruth- 
lessly sacri- 
ficed tii im- 
perial am- 
bition, and 
whatever 
lie thought 
served to 
aggrandize 
the materi- 
al welfare 
of Russia 
was to be 
purchased 
at any cost. 

The happiness, the moral improvement, the lib- 
erties of the people, were utterly unimportant to 
this purchaser of civilization. Notwithstanding all 
his reforms, his subjects were left to the mercy of 
whatever any tyrant like himself might do. He 
looked upon Russia as a great estate hereditary in 
the family of the Romanoffs. The civilization of 
which he was the author was precarious, not to say 
spurious and pernicious. The reign of Peter the 
Great was from 1G89 to 1725. 

Hitherto Russia had been more oriental than oc- 
cidental in ambition and ideas, but henceforth its 
< mtlook was towards the "West. The first of his suc- 
cessors to rise to prominence was Catharine II. 
Peter assumed the title of Emperor of Russia, and 
Catharine was every inch an empress. Her reign 
extended from 1762 to 179G. Those were eventful 




PETER THE GREAT 



years. Frederick the Great ruled Prussia, Voltaire 
was in all his glory, and the independence of Amer 
ica was achieved. Catharine connived with Fred- 
erick to partition unhappy Poland ; she sympathized 
with Voltaire in his skepticism and cynicism, while 
callous to his appeals for justice and liberty within 
her own border, quite content, however, to have 
England lose her colonial possessions. She was a 
monster of licentiousness, albeit a woman of mighty 
intellect. She was comprehensive in her plans and 
strong in execution. 

Catharine the Great was succeeded by her son 

Paul, who 
continued 
somewhat 
the policy 
of Peter 
and Cath- 
arine. The 
throne to 
which he 
succeeded 
had by that 
time aspir- 
ed to a rank 
among the 
great pow- 
ers ; and it 
improy ed 
somewhat 
under him. 
During the 

rule of Alexander I. (1801-1825) Russia was the 
balance of power in Europe. Ho was an able and 
liberal man, without being great in statesmanship 
or philanthropy. He may be called the father of the 
Holy Alliance. This compact was entered into at 
Paris, September 26, 1815, by the sovereigns of 
Russia, Austria and Prussia, joined by most of the 
other European powers, and bound the high con- 
tracting parties to exclude forever every member of 
the Bonaparte family from any throne in Europe, 
also to stand by each other in the maintenance of 
their royal prerogatives and the general peace. He 
affected great respect for philosophy. 

It was during the reign of this czar that the city 
of Moscow came prominently before the world. 
This court capital of Russia lies 400 miles southeast 
of St. Petersburg. Founde 1 in the twelfth century 



CATHARINE 



Q w 



2I 4 



RUSSIA. 



it was the capital until 1711 when Peter the Great 
removed to the city which he built and named in 
his own honor. It is esteemed as a sacred city by 
the devout Cossacks. To its inhabitants belongs 
the honor of striking Napoleon a blow from which 
he never recovered. When he marched the French 
army thither in 1812, expecting to winter there, 
they had the heroism to set fire to it and flee. It 
contained then nearly 10,000 houses and over 250,000 
i u h abitants. 
Napoleon 
found barely 
12,000 people 
clinging to 
the burnt 
city, and he 
was obliged 
to retrace his 
steps. No less 
than875can- 
nons aban- 
doned by 
the French 
when they 
retreated are 
now treasur- 
ed in the ar- 
senal at Mos- 
cow as tro- 
phies of that triumph by fire. The central part of 
the city, the Kremlin, stands upon a hill and is 
surrounded by a massive wall with lofty towers, 
and consists of churches, palaces and other public 
edifices. "As seen from a distance," says a recent 
visitor, "the Kremlin seems to form one gigantic but 
bewilderingly fantastic pile.'' The great conflagration 
already mentioned raged from the 14th to the 21st of 
September. It was not until the great fire at Chi- 
cago on the 9th of October, 1871, that the world wit- 
nessed another conflagration upon so large a scale. 
Upon the death of Alexander I.Nicholas I. came 
to the throne. This stem despot ruled from 1825 
to 1855. He had an inordinate faith in Russian 
prowess, verily believing; that his country was able 
to defy all Europe. Under his influence the na- 
tional pride rose to an absurd height. A pretext 
for a war upon Turkey, having for its object the 
capture of Constantinople, was sought and found. 
The war in the Crimea was the result. 




The Crimean war was a conflict in which were 
arrayed against Russia, Great Britain, France, Italy 
and Turkey. It began in the faU of 1853. The 
combined fleets of England and France entered the 
Black Sea, and the natural supremacy of Russia in 
those waters was permanently lost. Sevastopol, 
the stronghold of the Russians in the Crimea, was 
bombarded, and finally evacuated. On the 25th 
of October, 1854, was fought the battle of Balakla- 

va, and elev- 
en days later 
the victory of 
Inkermann 
was won. 

Hostilities 
continued 
until Febru- 
ary, 1856, 
when an ar- 
mistice was 
ciin eluded, 
followed in 
March by the 
treatyof Par- 
is, which ter- 
minated the 
conflict. The 
suff eri ngs 
and the losses 
No general won 



of the Allies in camp were terrible, 
renown in 
that war. 
Flo re 1 1 ee 
Night i 11- 
gale, an 
English la- 
dy of phi- 
lanthropic 
disposition 
becamefa- 
mous the 
world over 
for her ef- 
ficient zeal 
in caring 
forthesick 
and woun- 
ded. She 




Alexander IT. (1855). 



may well be called the angel of the hospital. The 



=5ET 



J- 



RUSSIA. 



2I 5 



great Sanitary Commission of the American civil 
war was a sublime product of her kindly genius. 
The first distinctive policy of the successor to 
Nicholas, Alexander II., was the liberation of the 
serfs, which was accomplished in 1861. To that 
great act of justice the Czar was driven by two con- 

A c. 



t 



which in the spring of 1881. culminated in the as- 
sassination, after repeated failures, of the very Czar 
whose fiat had liberated the serfs. Between eman- 
cipation and assassination occurred another war 
with Turkey, with no advantage to the Cossack. 
The other powers occupied a position of armed 




JiM^JL. 



' ■■ , -'. ■>■•-'.' ' ■ ! -M-i Iff 




■y 







SEVASTOPOL DURING THE BOMBARDMENT OF THE ALLIED FORCES. 



fr 



-§r ; -i 

siderations, in themselves hostile, — -regard for liberal 
sentiment, and fear of the progressive nobility and 
educated class. Imperialism felt the need of the good 
will of the fifty million laboring classes as a safeguard 
against the increasing and importunate demand for 
representative government. The absolutism of the 
throne was in danger. The emancipation of the 
serfs threw a halo around imperialism in Russia 
that blinded for a time the dimmed eyes of liberty, 
but the banishment during the last twenty years of 
twenty thousand subjects to the desolate wilds and 
horrible mines of Siberia has dispelled all illusion, 
and created a state of affairs absolutely awful, and 



neutrality, taking good care that the Russian bear 
should not make his lair in the city of Constantine. 
The latest phase of Russian affairs is Nihilism. 
To understand the creed of the Nihilists it is only 
necessary to recall the meaning of nihil- — nothing. 
Its father, Michael Bakumin. says, "Our first work 
must be annihilation, and when once the floods rise 
take heed that no ark be allowed to rescue any 
atom of this old world which we consecrate to de- 
struction." The prominent victims of this destruc- 
tion are God, government, marriage, and property, 
and with these gone what would there be left? It 
is a frenzied anxiety to overthrow absolute despot- 



27 



- 



:i6 



RUSSIA. 



ism, and can only be palliated by the reflection that 
••' the destroyer of weeds, thistles and thorns is a 
benefactor, whether he soweth grain or not." The 
present Czar, Alexander III., is virtually a prisoner 
in the palace, so constant and great is his apprehen- 
sion of peril from the Nihilists. Dynamite is the 
Bastile which deprives him of all real liberty. 

The northern portion of Asia, Siberia, is a dis- 
tinct and notable part of the Russian empire. The 
Ural mountains and the river of the same name 
divide it from Russia in Europe. On the south it 
has no well-defined boundary, being pushed down- 
ward farther and farther upon every pretext. The 
Arctic Ocean is its northern limit, and the Pa- 
cific its eastern. It lias an area of something over 
four millions and a half square miles, and a popu- 
lation of over three millions, three hundred thou- 
sand. Russian and Polish exiles and their descen- 
dants form three-fourths of the population. As 
early as the seventeenth century the policy of ban- 
ishment to those desolate polar regions was adopted 
by the Russian government. At first heretics were 
sent there in punishment of their dissent from the 
orthodox Greek church. Instead of burning her- 
etics at the stake or massacring them, the Russian 
government transported them. Entire communi- 
ties of Protestants (for such they really were) were 
sometimes forced to remove to Siberia and kept 
there. Then political offenders were banished 
there, and that policy is still maintained. Vast 
numbers of Poles have from time to time been com- 
pelled to cast in their lot with the Siberians. Nihil- 
ists, if not executed, are driven thither in large 
chain-gangs, suffering terribly on the long and ar- 
duous journey. Ordinary criminals are consigned to 
the same fate. The Ural, Altai and other moun- 
tains are rich in the precious metals, and the mines 
are worked by the prisoners. Terrible are the 



hardships of these worse than galley slaves. The 
government derives large revenue from these mines. 
The trade in Arctic furs is very considerable. The 
native Calmueks are rude savages. Reindeers 
abound in Siberia. 

The balance of trade is in favor of Russia, yet 
singular as it may seem, it is a liberal exporter of 
specie. The mints of the empire turn out on an 
average $10,000,000 in gold coin and $5,000,000 in 
silver coin each year. More than two-thirds of this 
coinage flows out of the country, and lias done so 
for at least a decade. The paper money of the 
country amounts to $890,000,000. The national 
debt, inclusive of this paper money, is $3,410,000,- 
000. In European Russia the death rate and birth 
rate are both higher than any where else on the 
continent. Russia produces food enough to feed 
90,000,000 of people, or ten million in excess of the 
actual population. It has fifteen thousand miles of 
railroad, constructed, however, with reference to mil- 
itary necessity more than commercial convenience. 

The national church of Russia is the Greek 
church. The Emperor is now the head of it, and 
next to him ranks the Holy Synod, composed of 
seven bishops. Originally the head of the church 
was the Patriarch at Constantinople. When the 
Ottoman empire superseded the Byzantine, and the 
Moslem took the place of the Christian on the Bos- 
phorus, a Russian patriarch was appointed by the 
Czar. That was in the sixteenth century. But 
Peter the Great arrogated to himself supreme ec- 
clesiastical authority, abolishing the patriarchy and 
instituting the synod. No change has been made 
since his day in the spiritual rule of the country, 
except that other religions have been tolerated of late 
years. Strictly orthodox in doctrines, as judged from 
a distinctively Greek point of view, the Russian 
church is entirely independent and national in polity 



■? s- 

" 




|p ^mho^q^e^qMra ^^rae^iahis^qms^qfea^ 




POLAND 




POLES. ft 





zi.ia,i.^±.:i:i:±'ivl:_l:_c 









CHAPTER XXXVII. 



Sympathy for Poland— First Appearance of the Poles— Polish Age of Fable— The His- 
torical Era begins — Casimir the Restorer, and Casimir the Great — Feudalism in Po- 
land—Elective Monarchy or Monarchical Republic— Mode and Place of Election — 
Foreign Influence— John Sobieski— Anarchy and Intervention— Stanislas, and the 
Neighboring Great Powers — St. Petersburg and Warsaw— Fall of the Republic — 
Kosciusko and the War for National Life— Polish Characteristics— The Indignation 
of the World — Russian Policy— Pan-Slavonic Dream— Polish Literature— Paul Sobo- 
leski on Poland— Polish Jews— Religious Persecution 










or- 

I is impossible to think of 
Russia without being re- 
minded of Poland. The 
one will suggest the other 



^-TW&C&wr^ 



|(F to every intelli- 
'C^- Rent mind. On 





'the map of the 

world Poland 
*t^ no longer exists ; 
^j*^ but the Poles are 

a very positive 

and distinctive 

people. They 

have a country, 
denationalized, crushed and 
despairing, still a sharply 
denned part of the territory 
of Europe. Its history is full 
of pathos, its fate enlisting the sympathies of even- 
tender soul, or even approximately respectable heart. 
The Poles first came within the vision of history 




as the Polani in the fifth century. They are a prom- 
inent branch of the great Slavonic family, and pri- 
marily occupied the broad plain between the rivers 
Oder and Vistula. The name itself means in its 
original root (poluska) a 
plain. Poland may be called 
the prairie of Europe, or 
rather, it is the nearest ap- 
proach to a prairie (except 
in some respects Holland), 
that Europe can boast. 
There are large tracts of 
sand and morass, also broad 
reaches of forest, but as a 
whole, the country is well 
adapted to agriculture. Its 
waters flow into either the 
Baltic or the Black sea. The 
area of the land of the Poles 
is about 282,000 square 
miles. At the time of the 
first dismemberment of the 
kingdom (1772) the population was estimated at 
12,000,000, mostly farmers, enjoying a comparative 
thrift, feeding immense herds of cattle, horses and 



(2I 7 ) 



218 



POLAND AND THE POLES. 



swine, and cultivating a wide area of rye, barley and 
wheat. That such a people should have been so com- 
pletely subjugated, is one of the miracles of history. 

Like all countries, Poland had its age of fable. It 
dates from the ducal reign of Lech I., in the middle 
century. In some chronicles the country is called 
Lechia. About one hundred years later flourished 
Wenda, the Queen Elizabeth of the Poles. She was 
so tenacious of her sovereignty that she declined all 
offers of marriage. Her seat of government was Cra- 
cow, named in honor of Cracus, a ruler whose mem- 
ory is still revered in Polish tradition. There were 
many other legendary sovereigns, petty and shadowy. 

The historical era began in 902 with Miecislas I., 
the fifth prince of the house of Piast. He intro- 
duced Christianity, being compelled to do so as a 
part of the price of the hand of the Hungarian 
Princess Dombrowka. The marriage and the bap- 
tism occurred the same day. The next stepj was to 
force the rite of baptism upon the people, and it was 
Qi .1 a difficult thing to do. The old faith sat lightly 
upon the nation, and gave way almost without a 
struggle. The second of the Christian kings, Bo- 
leslas I., made the Polish arm feared throughout 
Hungary, Germany, and even in Italy and France. 
Russia crossed swords with him, led on by Vladimir 
the Great. He has well been called " the true foun- 
der of his country's greatness.'* He was succeeded 1 >y 
Miecislas II., an idle and vicious imbecile. It was 
under his reign, however, that the land was divided 
into Palatinates, each presided over by a local judge. 
That was certainly an important step in the right 
direction. He die! in 1034. For seven years the 
Poles were kingless. The interregnum was prolific 
of great evils. Despotism is better than anarchy, 
too much government than none at all. The late 
king had left behind him a cpteen and an infant 
son. The former tried to sway the scepter, but was 
so very unpopular that she was obliged to leave the 
country. She took with her the heir to the throne, 
Casimir. At first he was not much missed, but as 
the horrors of anarchy increased, the desire for the 
restoration of the royal family increased. After six 
or seven years the lost heir was recovered. It was a 
longtime before the mother would disclose his hid- 
ing-place. 

For three centuries the stream of Polish history 
flows on, turbulent, turgid aud monotonous. Dur- 
ing all that time notliing occurred, according to the 



records, which challenges special attention. From 
Casimir I. to Casimir III. was nearly three centu- 
ries, but nothing will be lost in crossing that dreary 
waste with eyes closed in sleep. The first Casimir 
was called the Restorer, the second the Great, and 
great he surely was. As a reformer his genius shone 
resplendent. Brigandage was checked, and every 
form of violence held in some restraint. Casimir 
was not content with temporary measures. He es- 
tablished the reign of law. A convention was called 
by him to frame a code. This was a very impor- 
tant step. That system of laws had all the defects 
of feudalism, but was a very great advance over 
irresponsible and unbridled absolutism. The Poles 
were early divided into three classes : nobles, peas- 
ants and burghers, or town-folk, and for each the 
law was different. The laboring class felt the ex- 
t feme rigor of serfage ; the nobles were arrogant, idle 
and lawless, the burghers industrious, independent 
and mildly aggressive. In the growth of the coun- 
try the cities took the lead. One especial reason of 
this was the fact that Casimir was the great patron 
of industry. The artisans flocked to the Polish 
towns and found profitable employment. From 
that time Poland found place among the more pro- 
gressive and prosjjerous nations of Europe. 

From the very first, feudalism was exceptionally 
strong in Poland, and the nobility never neglected 
an opportunity to enhance the power of their class. 
The kings were gradually reduced in authority un- 
til they became little else than putty in the hands of 
the nobles. With the accession of Casimir IV.. 
1445, Poland may be said to have passed from a 
monarchy to a republic. To our political concep- 
tions it is inconsistent to speak of a country as be- 
ing both a republic and a kingdom ; but such the 
land of the Poles became in the middle of the fif- 
teenth century, so remaining until the nation itself 
was blotted out. Upon the death of a king the 
lords would meet to elect a successor. The first 
distinctively elective king (for so aggressive had the 
nobility become that the jjositive claim of right to 
determine the royal succession came almost as a 
matter of course) Casimir IV., was Grand Duke 
of Lithuania, and he did not want the crown. For 
a long time he evaded the unwelcome honors thrust 
upon him. It was not that he shrank from respon- 
sibility, but he hoped to extort concessions to the 
royal authority. In this he failed. The nobles 



POLAND AND THE POLES. 



219 



compelled him to occupy the throne as their puppet 
rather than their ruler. And in all the subsequent 
history of Poland the kingly power was the shad- 
owy reflection of the aristocracy. 

Early in the sixteenth century a few burghers 
were admitted to the parliament of barons, and 
that was the recognition of the growing importance 
of the citizen (using the term in its original signifi- 
cance.) In religious matters the influence of Huss 
and Luther was very considerable, although re- 
pressed and finally suppressed by persecution. 
Under the reign of Sigisniund I. (1506—1548) 
leaders of the reformed faith were beheaded or ban- 
ished. That king lived to a great old age and was 
one of the great rulers of his age. Upon his death 
his son was chosen to fill his place. Hitherto the 
elective franchise was confined to a very narrow 
range. The kings were taken from the family of 
the Jagellos. When the last member of that line 
died, the way was open to a wider range of choice. 
The nobles met in 1572 on the plains of Prague, on 
the bank of the Vistula, opposite Warsaw. Hereto- 
fore the selection of a new king had devolved upon 
delegates representing the aristocracy ; but now it was 
agreed that the entire body of the Equestrian order 
should be eligible to advice in the election. Thus 
tens of thousands of armed and mounted men were 
brought together to choose a ruler for life. " At the 
time appointed," says Ducloss, "for the holding of the 
elective diet, such numbers of the nobles arrived 
that the circumference of the place (twelve miles 
in extent) where they were stationed by counties 
for the greater facility of collecting their suffrages, 
was scarcely able to contain them ; and as the}' 
were all armed, they looked like men assembled to 
conquer a kingdom, rather than to exercise a peace- 
ful, deliberative privilege. In the center of a circle 
or kolo, was the tent, capable of holding six thou- 
sand people, and in it the senators and ministers of 
the crown met for consultation." This description 
applies specifically to the assembly held upon the 
death of Sigisniund II., the last of the Jagellos, 
but it is hardly less appreciable to the usual convo- 
cations at the recurrence of each interregnum. As 
a matter of course the meetings were turbulent, of ten 
liloodv, and never free from imminent peril. Many a 
time before it finally fell the Republic of Poland 
tottered and rocked upon its base, seeming to be on 
the verge of utter destruction. 



Foreign as well as domestic princes were eligible 
to the throne. A Czar of Russia, Alexis, father of 
Peter the Great, was a candidate at one time. The 
difficulty of an election was greatly increased by 
the veto power, inherent in the diet, by which the 
will of the majority could be nullified. That fea- 
ture of the law of royal elections was finally aban- 
doned out of sheer necessity. 

For twenty-two years, from 1674 to 1696, Poland 
was under the rule of a truly great man, John Sobies- 
ki. He nobly earned the crown by having been his 
country's best defender in many an hour of danger. 
It was not so much hostile Christians as Moslems 
that harassed Poland. Turks and Tartars Were 
very insolent, aggressive and powerful. Ibrahim 
the Devil, Pasha of Damascus, led a vast army 
of invasion. Another time Mustapha led three 
hundred thousand Mohammedans in a crusade 
upon the Christians, and, says Salvandy. " Ger- 
many looked to Sobieski as its savior, and Europe 
as the bulwark of Christendom. The embassador 
of the empire and nuncio of the pope were 
at his feet in importunate supplication." That was 
in the year 1683. The Cross was in peril, and the 
Crescent seemed about to displace it. But Sobieski 
was equal to the emergency. Poland saved Chris- 
tianity from the last really formidable assault of 
Islamism. It is no exaggeration to say that on the 
twelfth of September, beneath the walls of Vienna, 
the last battle of the Crusade was fought, and Po- 
lish valor, genius and prestige won the day. From 
that time on, the conflict was a series of assured 
victories for the Christians. 

The name of Sobieski deserves to rank with the 
supreme warriors of all times, but as a ruler in 
peace he was weak and wicked. He was the last 
independent King of Poland, and incomparably 
the greatest sovereign his country ever knew. The 
Republic was on the brink of ruin, and if he did 
not save it, he at least prolonged its life. 

The eldest son of John Sobieski was confident 
of his election to succeed his father, but the no- 
bles were not at all disposed to favor his candidacy, 
or that of any other member of the family. The 
candidates were two besides James Sobieski. Prince 
Conti, nephew of Louis XV. of France and Fred- 
erick Augustus, Elector of Saxony. The latter 
won the prize, but he did not keep it long. Charles 
XII. of Sweden took the field against him, aud 



220 



POLAND AND THE POLES. 



made short work of capturing Cracow, deposing the 
king and placing Stanislas, Palatine of Posnania, 
upon the throne, if throne it may be called. He 
was a great and splendid man, but fortune was 
against him. The republic of Poland was in a 
state of interminable turmoil and factiousness. A 
little later we find Stanislas a fugitive and Fred- 
erick Augustus back in power. The latter died in 
1733. " He had a few virtues," says a native his- 
torian, "but more vices. His reign was one con- 
tinued scene of disasters; many of which may be 
attributed to himself, but more perhaps to the in- 
fluence of circumstances." The diet which met to 
elect a successor resolved, first of all, not to place 
the crown upon a foreign brow. 

The dethroned Stanislas, now father-in-law to 
Louis XV., was the choice of the nobles. Sixty 
thousand voices were raised in his support. But 
Austria and Russia favored the candidacy of Fred- 
erick Augustus II., son of the late king. A Mus- 
covite army proclaimed him king and marched to 
the enforcement of the proclamation. Stanislas 
had lost his ambition and energy. He wasunsuited 
to the task of resisting foreign interference. The 
Czar was foremost in claiming protectoral power. 
" St. Petersburg,' - we are told, "was the great focus 
by the middle of the eighteenth century where the 
rays of Polish intrigue were concentrated, and 
where the more ambitious natives resorted to ob- 
tain, by flattering the imperial confidants, the digni- 
ties of the republic. Every intimation, however 
slight, from the northern metropolis, was an 
imperious obligation on the feeble king and his ser- 
vile minister ; and not on them alone, but on the 
great body of the nobles, who had lost all sense of 
the national dishonor, and who transferred their 
homage from Warsaw to St. Petersburg without 
shame or remorse." Of course the rejntblic could 
not long survive such a state of affairs. Famine, 
anarchy, rapine and desolation were everywhere. 

The population dwindled away, and poverty took 
the place of thrift. Catharine of Russia resolved 
to end the shame, and erase the republic from the 
political map of Europe. Stanislas Augustus fee- 
bly swayed the scepter of Poland during the expir- 
ing hour. The Poles had the bravery necessary 
to defense, but the incongruous and unstable ffov- 
eminent afforded unfriendly neighboring powers 
facilities for devising ways and means to dis- 




member the distracted nation. The evil came 
gradually. When too late the nation was aroused 
to the danger of the situation, and the cause of 
national independence found a grand leader in the 
heroic Thaddeus Kos- 
ciusko, one of the 
heroes of the Ameri- 
can revolution. He 
had rendered import- 
ant service in the 
cause of American 
Indej>endenee, and re- 
turning to his native 
land, made a grand 
effort to rescue it from 
the allied robbers. 
Cracow and Warsaw Kosciusko. 

both opened their gates to him. Kosciusko was 
prudent and kindly no less than brave, but the 
frenzy of the French Revolution, rather than the 
calm patriotism of the Americans, pervaded the 
ranks of the nationalists. Wild scenes of blood 
were enacted, and the salvation of Poland rendered 
hopeless by these excesses. In 1795 the end came. 
Warsaw fell before a Russian army. Austria, Prus- 
sia and Russia divided the territory between them, 
the latter taking the lion's share. It was the Mus- 
covite who had done the fatal work, for the most 
part, and the other powers were made partakers in 
the infamy as the price of accpiiescenee. 

In his history of the Republic of Poland Ferrend 
says in contemplation of the erasure of the republic : 
" Perhaps no people on earth can boast more per- 
sonal heroism than the Poles, but as it was virtually a 
country without a government, without finances, a 
national army, or any central authority of binding 
force, the surprise is not that it fell at last, but that 
it stood so long. Valor, although almost superhu- 
man, could not preserve the proud nobles from un- 
bounded dissipation, nor consequently from temp- 
tation to corruption, from receiving bribes to repair 
their shattered fortunes ; it could not prevent the 
powers which lavished this means of corruption from 
interference with the affairs of the kingdom ; it 
could not dissolve the union of these powers with 
the discontented parties at home ; it could not in- 
spire the slow-moving machine of government with 
vigor, when the humblest partisan, corrupted by 
foreign money, could arrest it with a word ; it could 



-711 



-^ s>J*«- 



POLAND AND THE POLES. 



221 



not avert the entrance of foreign armies to support 
the factions and rebellions ; it could not, while di- 
vided in itself, uphold the national independence 
against the combined effects of foreign and domes- 
tic treason ; finally, it could not effect impossibilities, 
nor therefore forever turn aside the destroying 
sword which had so long impended over it." 

The extinction of the republic of Poland aroused 
the indignation of the world. France, England and 
America were indignant to the last degree. Sweden 
and Turkey joined in the outcry. 
During the Napoleonic war, and tbe 
diplomacy which followed, there 
seemed to be some hope of restora- 
tion. To little purpose. The three 
robber powers never abandoned the 
idea which had so long been cherished. 
Napoleon's star set and the treaty of 
Vienna was made. By that treaty the 
kingdom of Poland was proclaimed 
June 20, 1815, with Cracow as its 
capital, but it was simply the district 
of Cracow with a popula- 
tion of 61,000, hardly a 
shadow of real Poland. 
Four millions of the peo- 
ple came under the direct 
sway of Russia. At that 
time Alexander was Czar, 
and at first he seemed 
disposed to rule the Poles 
in justice and with great 
liberality. For some time 
all went well. The peo- 
ple were fast becoming 
loyal to the Czar at St. 
Petersburg. This state of things continued three 
years without signs of collapse. But it was an un- 
natural condition of affairs, and discontent on one 
side and repressive measures on the other, created a 
breach which widened continually. When the vicious 
Constautine succeeded Alexander almost all pretense 
of good feeling between Poles and Russians disap- 
peared. Conspiracy after conspiracy sprang up to 
emphasize the Polish discontent without alleviating 
the evils of foreign rule. By 1830 popular discon- 
tent had taken the form of insurrection, and failure 
then did not prevent subsequent efforts to throw off 
the yoke, and restore Poland to political autonomy. 





THREE GREATEST POLISH POETS 



It would be profitless to follow the fortunes of 
these unavailing efforts to restore the lost national- 
ity. Time seems to lessen the prospect of success, 
and to-day Poland is ens-eloped in a darkness un- 
relieved by a single star. The only approach to 
hope is the dream of a Pan-Slavonic nation, a na- 
tion which should so far reconstruct the map of 
Europe as to make into one nation all the Slavs. 
Such a cojiformation to the divisions of race, lan- 
guage and traditional sympathies is not to be ex- 
pected. Bloody rebellions arose in Po- 
land in the years 1830, 1846, 1849 and 
1863, each having been crushed with 
unpitying rigor by Russian despotism. 
The Poles are the Irish of the contin- 
ent in valor, perseverance, lack of 
unity, and repeated calamities. 

In a literary point of view Poland 
has never produced a genius so bril- 
liant as to attract the admiration of 
mankind. That nation boasts about 
fifteen hundred literary names, but 
one may search through 
all the productions of 
that literature, as made 
accessible to English 
readers, without being 
rewarded with a single 
diamond of thought 
which shines with es- 
pecial luster. 

From Kochanowski to 
Olizcrowski the heights 
of immortal poetry are 
not reached. Often pa- 
thetic, the verse of Po- 
land is never Shakspearean. The venerable Paul 
Soboleski, author and editor of "Poets and Poetry 
of Poland," says, "Prostrate, partitioned, suffering 
and blotted out as it were from existence, Poland 
awaits the fulfillment of her destiny. Fate some- 
times strikes nations as it does individuals, but hope 
in her case, though it may seem futile to other na- 
tionalities, never forsakes the sorrowing hearts of 
her children. Scattered though they are thoughont 
the habitable globe, they have never ceased to wait, 
to hope, and to trust that she will once more be re- 
suscitated, resurrected, regenerated, and be once 
more counted among the nations of the earth." 



Sv*" 



222 



POLAND AND THE POLES. 



Three names staiid out conspicuously in Polish 
literature as the great triumvirate of song. The 
earliest, but not the first, of the trio was Archbishop 
Krasicki, born in 1734. He died the first year of the 
present century. After the partition of the country 
his bishopric, Warmia, fell to the lot of Frederick 
of Prussia. That sovereign had no sympathy with 
the deeply religious nature of his "more than royal 
subject, but he admired his learning, wit and genius, 
and invited him to reside at his palace of Sans 
Souci. In 1795 be raised him from Bishop of War- 
mia to Archbishop of Gniezno. He was a voluminous 
writer. The really supreme name, however, was Adam 
Mickiewicz, born in 1 798. He was fifty-seven years of 
age when he died. He was a subject of Russia, and 
enjoyed the favor of the nobility at Moscow, and later 
at St. Petersburg. But good fortune did not abide 
with him, for he was obliged to leave the country 
to save himself from arrest for treason. He resided 
much of the time at Paris, where his bones now 
rest. The youngest of the three, Julias Slowacki, 
was born in 1809. He was an intense patriot. 
The revolution of 1848 filled his heart with hope 
for his beloved Poland, but when that hope died he 
too rjassed away, expiring in April, 1849. He voiced 
the deep pathos of unhappy Poland. 

Another great name in Polish literature is Sta- 
nislas Konarski. He was not a poet, but a philo- 
sopher. He is credited with creating a new phase 
in the intellectual life of his country. He was born 
in the first year of the eighteenth century. He be- 



longed to an aristocratic family, and in his day was 
on friendly terms with the great thinkers of all 
Europe. He was a practical educator aud a powerful 
promoter of political reform. 

Poland can boast at least one very charming 
poetess, Elizabeth Uruzbacka. She belonged to the 
first half of the eighteenth century. She was not 
versed in any language but her own and wrote 
pure national verses, contributing materially to 
the development of a distinctively national lit- 
erature. 

Poland has a larger proportion of Jewish popula- 
tion than any other part of Europe. That race 
has indeed been most cruelly persecuted there, 
as every where, but when the indignities and out- 
rages of Spain and other parts of Christendom ren- 
dered life a burden to that people, they could find 
in Poland comparative immunity from persecution. 
The Polish Jews are easily distinguished by their 
ignorance, superstitions and general inferiority, as 
compared with German Jews. 

Russia proper has suffered little from the perse- 
cution of Christians by Christians, but the Polish 
Slavs are intense papists, and the monstrous meas- 
ures resorted to by the Russian church and govern- 
ment to " convert " them to the Greek faith form 
one of the most revolting pages in the annals of 
persecution. As late as the fourth decade of the 
present century inoffensive and saintly nuns were 
treated with all the brutality that Russian bigotry 
and savagery could devise. 








M 



•M. 





I MEDIEVAL GERMANY. 




CHAPTER XXXVIII. 



Ancient Teutons — The German Race — Introduction of Christianity — The Merovingian 
Kings — Charles the Hammer and the Saracens — The Reign of the Stewards — Charle- 
magne— Ludwig the Pious— Otto the Great— Frederick Barbarossa— The Inquisition 
and Frederick II.— Decline op the Empire— The Hanseatic League— "The German 
Order of the North " — Conversion of Prussia. 






K-*§^E{5§— ^H 



Rhe 



lf ill 



N tracing the course of 
Roman history, occasional 
and far-off glimpses were 
caught of the Germans. 
They appeared upon the 
stage of events as brave 
and fierce barbarians, occu- 
pying a vast and illy de- 
fined territory, requiring the genius of 
a Caesar to subdue them, and the per. 
sistence of imperialism to keep them 
*&?!&$ in subjection. They cannot be said to 
liiSf have contributed to or retarded civiliza- 
tion, but were aloof from it, except 
as brought into uncongenial contact 
with it. 

In pointing out the objects of inter- 
est in the medieval period, attention 
was called to the greatest of German monarch*. 
Charlemagne, who belonged no less to Prance than 
to Germany, and who received the crown as empe- 
ror at Rome. He rises into the air the veritable 
Mont Blanc of Alpine royalty, visible from afar 
in every direction. We have also seen something 




of Germany in connection with Italy. But all 
these fugitive glimpses must have served only to 
sharpen the appetite for more specific and orderly 
information in regard to that people, once composed 
of hostile tribes, but now a homogeneous race. 
The Germans, as the term is sometimes used, include 
the most important branch of the great Aryan 
race, a division of the human family including not 
only the English and Scandinavians, but the Hindoos, 
Persians, Greeks, Romans, Celts and Slavs. By the 
aid of comparative philology, the oneness in origin 
of all these great nationalities can be established, 
but it is in its popular sense that the term is here 
used. 

In the old days of Roman conquest and Gallic 
invasion, Germany, Prance, Spain and the north- 
ern part of Italy were to the soldiers and senators, 
the plebeians and patricians of the Tiber, one vast 
world of " outer darkness." It was in 3S0 B. C. 
that Pytheas, a Greek navigator, first sailed into 
the Baltic, and in B. C. 113 occurred the invasion 
of Roman territory by the northern horde. Marius, 
Caesar and later leaders of Roman legions won lau- 
rels (and sometimes lost them, too) in fighting the 



28 



( 22 3) 



— • — 1 



MEDIEVAL GERMANY. 



'ft 'l:' 



Germans. They had neither cities nor villages, but 
were nomadic. Their vices were indolence, drunken- 
ness and gambling ; their virtues were respect for do- 
mestic ties, bravery and fidelity. They worshiped the 
forces of nature under a multitude of names. Taci- 
tus, in his " Germania," gives a very flattering de- 
scription of the people. They were prepared to 
accept civilization, but 
Rome was a conqueror, 
not a civilizer. 

The most noted of 
the Germans were the 
Goths. They accepted 
Christianity in the 
fourth century, and 
from them it gradually 
spread to all Germany. 
The story of the first 
real step towards civili- 
zation is interesting. 
Some German pirates 
brought home from the 
Levant a Christian boy, 
Ulfila, who conceived 
the idea of evangelizing 
the people with whom 
his lot was thus cast. 
He translated the Bible 
into their language, and 
it is supposed that he 
even invented a Gothic 
alphabet. A part of his 
translation of the New 
Testament is still ex- 
tant, preserved in the 
library at U'psala, Swe- 
den. He was nut perse- 
cuted, nor were his fel- 
low workers in the cause. The old Germans, like 
their descendants of to-day, were religious liberals. 
Ulfila was an Arian, or Unitarian, and although 
Rome adopted the Athanasian doctrine of the Trin- 
ity, Germany always leaned strongly towards hetero- 
doxy. "After the invention of a Gothic alphabet by 
Ulfila, we hear no more,"' says Bayard Taylor, "of a 
written German language until the eighth century. 
There was at least none accessible to the people." 
The Latin was cultivated a little in connection with 
politics and religion. By the year 570, Europe, 



outside of Germany, was very generally Christian- 
ized, but the greater part of the Germans were still 
Pagans. Their final and complete evangelization 
was the result of military necessity, dictated by 
political expediency, rather than the triumph of the 
Cross upon its merits. So many pagan customs 
were retained, under a change of name, that the 

transition was almost 




% wm 



THE BATTLE OF TOURS 



imperceptible. 

As western Europe 
emerged from the obscur- 
ity of barbarism, the vast 
regions now known as 
Germany and France 
were inseparable. Clovis, 
who founded the Mero- 
vingian dynasty in the 
last years of the fifth 
century, ruled over both 
as one. That dynasty 
continued from 48G t > 
638, a century and a half, 
during which the Franks 
or French were specially 
conspicuous. It was a 
sickening succession of 
crowned criminals. The 
people were the victims 
of a family feud running 
through generations. The 
Nibelungen Lied, the 
Iliad of Germany, to be 
referred to more especial- 
ly hereafter, celebrated 
in rude song the horrible 
story of Merov'ngian 
atrocities. These kings 
and queens (for the 
women were as bad as the men) practiced all hea- 
thenish vices while professing the Christian name. 
Taylor tells us that during the long and bloody 
feuds of the Merovingian kings the system of free- 
dun i and equality which the Germanic races had so 
long possessed, was shaken to its very base, the fcen- 
deney being to augment the power of the nobles, 
the civil officers and the dignitaries of the church. 
Dagobert, the imbecile and vile, was the last as 
Clovis was the first of this line of sovereigns. The 
form and semblance of authority lingered in the 



->fr 



MEDIEVAL GERMANY. 



22 5 



family after him, but the reality of power, which 
had teen gradually slipping away, distinctly passed 
to what may be called the dynasty of the Major 
domi or Stewards, of the Royal Household. 

From 638 to 708 these Stewards, beginning with 
Pepin, held the reins of power. The second of 
them was Charles Martel, to whom France and 
Germany are indebted for one of the most import- 
ant victories of all history. The Saracens having 
gained a firm footing in Spain, crossed the Pyrenees 
350.000 strong and threatened to carrv the Crescent 
in triumph over all Western Europe, and perhaps 
extinguish the light of the Cross. It certainly 
seemed as if Islam was about to possess all the West. 
It was in October, 732, r 
that Charles Martel, sur- 
named Charles the Ham- 
mer, gave battle to the 
invaders near Poictiers. 
It is said that when night 
fell, nearly two hundred 
thousand dead and 
wounded lay upon what 
seemed to be the indeci- 
sive field. When the next 
morning came, Charles 
prepared to renew the 
fight, but found that the 
enemy had retreated. It 
was the Gettysburg of 
the war between the Saracens and the Christians. 
The soldiers of the Crescent never again attempted 
to meet the Franks ami Germans upon their own soil. 
Those Yankees of Northern Europe had won a bat- 
tle decisive of that point, although it was many 
years before the Southwest was freed from the Sar- 
acens. It is known as the Battle of Tours. 

After several generations the Stewards found it 
expedient to assume the title as well as the reality 
of royalty, and when Pepin the Short died (768) he 
was •• king by the grace of God." The pope had be- 
stowed the title upon him, also the title of " Patri- 
cian of Rome." He left two sons, one of whom soon 
died, leaving the other, Charles the Great, sole sov- 
ereign of France and Germany. He wore the 
crown forty-three years, being during the latter part 
of his reign Emperor of Rome. 

Charlemagne was in the main a German. He 
established his court at Aix-la-Chapelle, where he 




U'DWHi THE PIOUS. 



was finally buried. While he sought to clothe him- 
self with the faded jrarple of imperial Rome, he 
none the less devoted himself to the development 
of the German people into a great and civilized 
nation. He established schools, organized local gov- 
ernment, collected with great care the songs, tradi- 
tions and chronicles of the people, evidently hoping 
to build tip the Germanic character upon a native 
basis. He was seven feet high, and no less gigantic 
in intellect than in body. Vast and beneficent was 
his scheme. Germany seemed upon the eve of a 
great career. 

Ludwig the Pious, son and successor of so 
great a sire, was the weak and abject tool of the 

priests. He closed the 
schools, or gave them into 
the hands of the ecclesi- 
astics, and worse still, he 
totally destroyed the bal- 
lads, songs and legends 
of the Germans which his 
great father had collect- 
ed. Of all that wealth 
of Teutonic folk-lore, 
nothing survived, unless 
it be the fragment of the 
"Song of Hildebrand." 
Germany was now thrust 
back into barbarism, and 
its development retard- 
ed for centuries. In the last years of the tenth cen- 
tury, Germany had a ruler capable of making his 
nation grand and prosperous — Otto the Great. But 
he was haunted by an evil ambition. Instead of try- 
ing to develop his own legitimate realm, he frittered 
away his resources and opportunities in vainly trying 
to grasp that delusive and illusive phantom, the Ro- 
man Empire. He was determined, like many less 
notable German emperors, and two still greater men 
of his line, Charlemagne and Frederick Barbarossa, 
to make Aix-la-Chapelle the capital of an empire 
which should include Italy, and be a real revival of 
the glory of the Caesars. It was a dreary and 
bloody endeavor to realize the impossible. 

Frederick I., called Barbarossa for his red beard, 
was elected emperor by the sovereign votes of the 
German princes in 115'3, and wore the crown until 
he was cut off in one of the Crusades in the year 
1190. He was a Suabiau, Suabia being then a 



■5 V 



\i6 



MEDIEVAL GERMANY. 



prominent German state, long since extinct. Bar- 
barossa did much to restore peace and justice within 
his realm. He made repeated attempts to bring the 
Lombards into subjection, but no sooner would he 
return to Germany, than the standard of revolt 
would be raised. It was after his sixth expedition 
into Italy that the news 
of the Saracen capture 
of Jerusalem was heard, 
and the fanatical zeal of 
Europe, including that 
of Frederick and his 
knights, was aroused. 
This valiant king lost his 
life when near the bor- 
ders of Syria, drowned 
while bathing in a river. 
That was in 1190. 

After several troublous 
years, Barbarossa's grand- 
son, Frederick II., came 
to the imperial throne. 
In his reign the ambi- 
tious Pope Innocent III. 
established the Inquisi- 
tion, and determined to 
make Italy one of the 
crown diamonds of the 
church. The pontiff and 
the emperor played fast 
and loose with each other 
during the lifetime of the 
former, after which Fred- 
erick determined to make 
good his hereditary claim 
to Italy. For this he was 
excommunicated by Pope 
Gregory IX. In 1228 he 
undertook a Crusade, and as the result- of diplomacy 
rather than valor, secured possession of Jerusalem 
and the country round about for ten years, justly 
claiming the crown of Jerusalem as his reward. The 
pope did all lie could to defeat that bloodless victory 
of the Cross. Upon the king's return the people were 
so generally in sympathy with him and against the 
unjust pontiff, that the latter was driven from Rome 
and glad to regain the keys of St. Peter by remov- 
ing the anathema he had laid upon the sovereign. 
Frederick established his court at Palermo, Italy, 




FREDERICK II. PUTTING ON THE CROWN OF JERUSALEM. 



and was essentially an Italian rather than a German 
emperor. Boldly did lie confront the arrogance of 
the church, and without being in design a religious 
reformer, wrought a great work in preparing the 
way for Luther and his co-laborers, being a protest- 
ant but not a Protestant. Brave, heroic, noble and 

persistent, his is one of 
the most illustrious names 
in European history. But 
the record of this Freder- 
ick has a stain. His life 
was largely spent in try- 
ing to crush the repub- 
lican cities of Italy. That 
great wrong was not, 
however, without its 
comjjensating good. It 
operated as an important 
exemption of the German 
free cities from imperial 
intervention. So fully 
occupied was he in the 
south that the north en- 
joyed beneficent neglect. 
He died in 1250, and, 
after a feeble and mel- 
ancholy struggle for ex- 
istence, the dynasty to 
which he belonged, the 
Hohenstaufens, became 
extinct. 

No other monarch of 
the medieval period de- 
serves mention. The elec- 
tors became corrupt to 
the lowest, point, and 
openly sold the imperial 



crown to the highest bid- 
der. At one time the Duke of Cornwall, England, 
bought the prize, his revenue from the tin mines of 
his duchy making him the Vanderbilt of his day. 
He did not, however, attempt to exercise imperial 
jurisdiction. The German j>eople were far more 
respectable than the empire as such. 

By 1410 there were three claimants of the German 
crown, also three claimants of the jiapal tiara. It 
may be remarked parenthetically that the really 
significant event of this period was the Hussite 
war, which was the morning-star of Protestantism, 



l^~ 



MEDIEVAL GERMANY. 



227 



hi'. as it might be called, the signal-gun of that 
great conflict between papal authority and the right 
nl' private judgment, in which Germany took the 
leading part, and from the commencement of which 
dates the close of the medieval age. Luther was 
iint the originator of the great movement which 
bears his name. That honor belongs to John Huss, 
with whom our next chapter will begin. 

Before closing this account of medieval Germany 
notice must be taken of the Hanseatic League, and 
the state of civilization which produced the cities 
belonging to it. Late in the fourteenth centurv 
several commercial cities sprung up in Germany, 
mostly in the north. They were largely the result 
of the Crusades. Those expeditions had made the 
people of Europe acquainted with oriental luxuries, 
and created wants which could only be supplied by 
commerce. Lubeck, Hamburg and Bremen were 
the first cities in importance to grow out of this de- 
mand. Those were marts of exchange for Eastern 
and Western commodities. They constituted the 
" Hansa," and drew into their alliance, among oth- 
ei's, the cities of the Rhine. They constituted a vast 
commercial and naval power, bound together by the 
common tie of traffic. This Hanseatic League had 
its agencies in every commercial city, from Lisbon 
to Novgorod. Their vessels plowed the Mediterra- 
nean and whitened the Baltic and the North seas. 
Carthage was outstripped, and a spirit of enterprise 
stimulated which was a cardinal factor in dispelling 
the blackness of the Dark Ages. Then fur the first 
time in Europe there were " merchant princes." 
The key to the Hanseatic policy is well supplied in 
1 he saying of those princes, " If the emperor claims 
authority over us, then we belong to the pope ; if 
the pope claims any such authority, then we belong 
to the emperor." The league was politic and thrifty. 
One of the emperors tried to destroy it. but failed ut- 



terly, and the exultant merchants said among them- 
selves, " The Devil tried to shear a hog, but found 
it 'great cry and little wool.'" 

This league and the "German Order in the 
North " cared neither for the pomp of kings nor the 
solemnity of ecclesiastics. The latter had an inde- 
pendent realm and was a gradual growth from the 
same root of secular thrift which gave rise to the 
bmader league. Unfortunately both lacked the 
unity and system necessary to develop a permanent 
political nationality, but as a " power dif- 
fused " deserves very high rank. The German Or- 
der was an order of knights, growing out of the 
Crusades as did the Knights of St. John and the 
Knights Templar (the two latter belonging to 
Italy). The merchants of Bremen and the other 
cities of Northern Germany fostered this order, 
and by their patronage gave it a commercial or sec- 
ular spirit iptite apart from the religious character 
of the other orders. 

But to the German Order must be accredited the 
honor of Christianizing the Prussians, the latest 
portion of the German people to discard paganism. 
Their spiritual welfare was watched over by " the 
Brothersof the Sword," a branch of the German Or- 
der. Like the greater part of medieval evangelization, 
the con version of the Prussians was wrought by force. 

The Hanseatic League dates from 1241, and in 
the same century German architecture made great 
strides. Ho, too, did university education, but more 
particularly in the Italian part of the empire. 
Some idea of the political condition of Germany 
can be formed from the statement that at the end of 
the Hohenstaufen dynasty there were one hundred 
and sixteen priestly rulers, one hundred ruling 
dukes, princes, counts and barons, and more than 
sixty independent cities, not counting, of course, the 
petty states and republican cities of Italy. 






3T 



k. 







./&*»-** 



'» GERMANY AND THE REFORMATION. 




-~yw=sm / "m^^~- 





CHAPTER XXXIX, 



Toe Great Transitional Period — John Huss in Prague— The Hussite War— Fall op the 
Byzantine Empire — Invention of Printing and Pater— Martin Luther— Diet op Worms 
—Translation of the Bible — Luther's Opportunity antj Policy — The Anabaptists— The 
Augsburg Confession — The Victory' of Prudence — The Thirty-Years War — Gustavus 
Adolphus and Wallenstein — The Peace of Westphalia — The Desolations and Results 
op the Great Conflict Between Protestant and Catholic— Lutheran Church in 
Europe and America. 




[IE first definite and des- 
2)erate resistance to the es- 
tablished church in Ger- 
many was the Hussite War, 
and the peace of Westpha- 
lia which terminated the 
Thirty- Years War was the 
establishment on the partial ruins 
of Rome of Protestantism as the 
state religion of Germany. This 
transitional period extended from 
1410 to 1G48. It was a memorable 
epoch for the whole world in many 
ways. During it America was dis- 
'covered, gunpowder and the print- 
ing press invented, or rather intri »- 
duced into Europe, making, with 
Protestantism, four great powers in 
civilization, each adequate to a thorough and uni- 
versal revolution. The glory of the former must 
be shared by Italy and Spain, of the latter by Ger- 
many and England, while the other two belong to 
Germany alone. Gunpowder radically changed the 
methods of warfare, and thus proved revolutionary 
to an extent not generally appreciated. Curiously, 
the first Protestant war with its guns sounded the 



death knell of chivalry and gave promise of the 
era of heavy battalions, as against sword and armor. 
John Huss was born in 1369, and educated at 
the University of Prague, Bohemia, where he filled 
a professor's chair, and afterwards the rectorship. 
Before his day a few religious men had preached 
against the corruptions and abuses of the church, 
but Huss gave to the movement a tremendous impe- 
tus, lie opposed the doctrine of absolution; the 
worship of saints and images ; traffic in offices and 
indulgences from purgatory, and the practice of 
administering only the bread of the sacrament to 
lay communicants, reserving the sacramental wine 
for the clergy. The latter point was made specially 
prominent in the controversy, and conflict followed 
the teaching of Huss. The University was di\ ided, 
the Romish sympathizers finally seceding and 
establishing the University at Leipzig. The einperi >r 
at that time was Sigismund. He was not partic- 
ularly interested in the matter, but was drawn into 
the contest. An (Ecumenical Council was called 
at the City of Constance, and Huss was guaranteed 
a safe conduct to and from the council by the Em- 
peror. He attended, in the hope of being able to 
defend his doctrines in such an august body. But 
he was denied the privilege, and condemned, with- 



(228) 



GERMANY AND THE REFORMATION. 



229 



out ;t hearing and contrary to the pledge given him, 
to be burnt at the stake unless he recanted. This 
he would not do, and so, on the sixth of July, 1415, 
this great man suffered martyrdom. 

The blood of John Huss aroused a terrible 
furor, especially among the Bohemians. Nobles 
and people united in indignant protest against the 
council. That body stayed in session three years 
and a half, the burn- 



ing of IIuss being the 
one thing accomplish- 
ed. Soon after its dis- 
solution the Emjieror 
departed for the East 
to wage war against 
the Turks upon the 
Danube, thinking lit- 
tle, apparently, about 
the Hussites. But they 
were terribly in ear- 
nest. They organized 
under the leadership 
of John Ziska, a noble 
of rare military genius 
and heroism. Having 
found the jjledges of 
princes and prelates 
untrustworthy, they 
took matters into their 
own hands, resolved 
to protect themselves 
and command respect 
for their rights of con- 
science. Many of them 
were wild fanatics who 
anticipated the speedy 
second coming of 
Christ, but others were cool, brave champions of 
duty. Ziska introduced among his soldiers the 
"thunder-guns," small field-pieces which had first 
been used at the battle of Agincourt, between 
the English and the French, three years before. 
He also introduced the use of iron-plated flails with 
which to crack the helmets of the knights. Be- 
tween the guns and the flails the peasants (for such 
the most of them were) of Ziska were an over- 
match for the trained and disciplined regulars who 
rallied from far and near, at the call of the pope 
and the Catholic princes, to crush the Hussites. 




John Hues Lecturing in the University of Prague. 



The papal authorities cared far more for the 
rebellion in Bohemia than for the Moslem inva- 
sion on the Danube. The secular princes would 
have given up the contest in 1420, but the legate of 
the pope forbade any compromise with the heretics. 
For several years the conflict raged. In 1426 a 
Catholic army 200,000 strong was utterly routed 
by the Protestants, variously called " Hussites,'' 

" Orphans," and 
" Taborites." Ziska 
died of a plague, 
but his followers ral- 
lied under another 
leader and brave- 
ly demanded their 
rights. Unfortunate- 
ly they were not al- 
ways united, and the 
enemy was swift to 
take advantage of 
any dissension. In 
1434 the Catholic 
forces so far suc- 
ceeded in crushing 
the Taborites that 
from that date the 
Bohemian Reforma- 
tion ceased to be 
dangerous to Rome, 
except as it had 
sowed the seed of 
Protestantism, and 
prepared the way for 
it. The next year 
Emperor Sigismund 
died, and with his 
death expired the 
began with Rhodolph, 



Luxemburg 



dynasty which 
successor to the Duke of Cornwall 

A few years before (14S3) the Eastern or Byzan- 
tine empire had fallen. The Roman empire of 
Constantine and Justinian, so long a bulwark 
againt the Saracens, fell at last, and Islam gained 
in Eastern Europe quite as much as it had lost in 
the West — Turkey avenged Spain. The Roman 
church looked on with indifference, caring more to 
suppress Protestantism than to check Mohamme- 
danism, especially as the inroads of the latter were 
made at the expense, mainly, of the rival church. 



Bpr 



^ 



2 3< 



GERMANY AND THE REFORMATION. 



There was some talk of another Crusade, but it 
died out barren of even endeavor. The people and 
princes had become too secular to engage in a 
"holy" war. 

A little before the fall of Constantinople, about 
1450, a German named John Gutenburg conceived 
the idea of casting movable types and setting them 
together to form 
words. It was a 
simple thing to do, 
but it was none the 
less the greatest 
discovery of all the 
ages, and did more 
than any other 
agency to enlighten 
Europe. It was a 
gradual discovery. 
The great demand 
for playing-cards 
must be credited 
with the parent 
idea. The figures 
used in making the 
"kings," "queens," 
'•' jacks," etc., of a 
pack were first cut 
on wooden blocks, 
to be dipped in ink, 
and then jrressed 
upon the card 
paper. This device 
led to the carving 
of letters and 
words upon blocks 
so as to make a 
page. That was 
done in Holland as 
early as 1420, by means of which books were printed. 
The "Devil's Testament," as cards have been call- 
ed, thus led to supreme good. Another preparation 
for the discovery was the invention of paper made 
from linen, a great relief from the expense of 
parchment and a prerequisite to printing. Paper- 
making in Germany dates from the beginning of 
the fourteenth century. John Gutenburg deserves 
much but not all the credit of types. Another name 
to be held in honor is that of Faust, a man of wealth 
who assisted Gutenburg, who was a poor man. The 



people suspected that printed books were the work 
of the Devil, anil the priests eagerly encouraged the 
idea. This was not simply because they wished to 
prevent popular intelligence (ignorance and super- 
stition going together), but because the making of 
manuscript books was an important branch of in- 
dustry, and nne which priests and monks monopo- 
lized. Their craft 
was in danger. 
They saw in mova- 
ble types the death 
of their highly 
profitable monop- 
oly. But none the 
less surely and 
swiftly did the art 
of printing spread, 
not only in Ger- 
many but all over 
Europe. One of 
the original Gut- 
enburg Bibles was 
recently sold in 
New York City for 
$8,000. 

Martin Luther, 
who really did 
more for civiliza- 
tion than any man 
of his time, was 
born at the little 
Saxon town of 
Eisleben, Novem- 
ber 10, 1483. His 
father was a poor 
miner. Young Mar- 
tin was a promis- 
ing boy and early 
conceived the idea of getting an education. He sang 
songs beneath the windows of the rich, among other 
things, as a way of eking out a support in the pur- 
suit of his studies, which he prosecuted at the uni- 
versity of Erfurt. He joined the order of Augustine 
monks, ami was very highly esteemed by his associ- 
ates and superiors. In 1508 Luther was appointed 
lecturer in Greek, and later, of theology at the then 
new university at Wittenberg. After two years he 
was sent to Rome on a special commission, where he 
beheld with amazement the secular character of the 




GERMANY AND THE REFORMATION. 



231 



*ft 



papal court. His eyes were opened, but he had no 
thought of separation from the mother church un- 
til long after. In 1517 Pope Leo X., a great lover 
of art and luxury, undertook to replenish his ex- 
chequer by a wholesale traffic in indulgences. They 
were hawked about the country, the peddlei of them 
in Germany, Tetzel, going so far as to sell pardons 
for all sins actually committed not only, but 
licenses to commit others with impunity- This 
aroused the righteous indignation of Luther, 
and on 
the 31st 
of , Octo- 
ber he 
boldly 
nailed to 
the door 
of the 
church at 
Witten- 
burg his 
ninety- 
five not- 
ed theses, 
or prop- 
ositions 
in denial 
of the 
right to 
thus abet 
crime and 
vice. 

This 
holy zeal 

aroused fierce and bitter opposition. Dr. Luthei 
was denounced as a Hussite. A council was called, 
and he was guaranteed immunity to and from 
it. He accepted, notwithstanding the fate of 
Huss. An attempt was made to condemn him in 
disregard of that guaranty, but the Emperor. 
Charles V., best known in connection with Spam, 
refused to be a party to sucli perfidy, and Luther 
departed from the Diet of Worms unmolested, after 
having boldly defended his position. 

By a preconcerted plan he was kidnapped on the 
road by his friends and taken in disguise to the 
friendly castle of Wartburg, where he spent his time 
in making a translation of the Bible into the Ger- 
man language. " In that great work," says Mr. 



29 




Taylor, •' he accomplished more than a service to 
Christianity; he created the modern German lan- 
guage. Before Ins time there had been no tongue 
which was known and accepted throughout the 
whole empire." He was assisted in this great "^ork 
by Philip Melancthon and other scholars, it was 
done with the utmost care, and is a monumeni 
marking the dawn of German literature 

The Emperor of Germany was also K.'ng jt 
Spain, Naples, Sicily and Spanish America, spend 

ing very 
little time 
in his iiii 
perial do- 
minions 
Betweei. 
wars wit! 
theTurks 
and the 
French 
he could 
not give 
much at- 
tentionto 
ecclesias- 
tical mat- 
ters in 
Germany. 
This con- 
dition of 
t h i n g - 
gre a 1 1 ;. 
favored 
the Prot- 
estant cause. Luther's policy was to win to his 
support as many as jjossible of the petty sov 
ereigns. By his Bible and his preaching he aimed 
to reach the popular heart, and by his political pol- 
icy to secure the protection of the real rulers of 
Germany. A popular uprising in Southern Ger- 
many occurred in 1525, the oppressed peasants 
making a bold strike for their rights. Luther 
wrote and spoke vehemently against them. His 
writings of a political nature present him in a 
very bad light. The only excuse for him is that by 
the policy he pursued he secured immunity for the 
great cause nearest his heart. 

That uprising was a very serious calamity, it 
was a failure, and a costly one in every respect. It 



2 3 2 



GERMANY AND THE REFORMATION. 



was the result in large part of religious fanaticism, 
John of Leyden, leader of the Anabaptists, a sect 
of Millenarians who entertained numerous fantastic 
notions, was finally suppressed, and Lutheraiiism 
came out of the contest strong. In 1529 seven 
reigning princes, headed by Saxony, and fifteen 
sovereign cities, joined in a solemn protest against 
the resolution of the Emperor and the Catholic 
States to outlaw and crush out Luther and the doc- 
trines promulgated by the Diet of Worms. 

The next year a diet was summoned by the Em- 
peror to meet at Augsburg. A statement of doc- 
trine, prepared by Luther 
who was absent and Melanc- 
thon who was present, was 
offered as the views of the 
Protestants. That statement, 
called the " Augsburg Con- 
fession," is still the creed of 
the Lutheran church and is 
substantially identical with 
the creeds of the Evangelical 
churches of to-day. 

Luther escaped martyr- 
dom, being as prudent as he 
was hold. Wars with other 
nations favored his immu- 
nity and the spread of his 
doctrines. Military necessity 
secured a truce, from time 
to time, and the father of 
the Keformation died before 




GCSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 



the great struggle for religious progress fairly began, 
his death occurring February IT, 1546. Martin 
Luther was the friend and counselor of all Protest- 
ant rulers, beloved by a vast following among the 
people, the first and greatest of the brilliant galaxy of 
reformers who were the pioneers of present relig- 
ious liberty. 

The Thirty- Years War was the next feature of 
German history worthy of mention. It dates from 
an outburst of mob violence at Prague. May 33, 
1618, about a century after the Reformation was 
fairly begun. At that time four-fifths of the Ger- 
mans were Protestants, including many of the 
princes : but the Ilapsburgs continued to support 
the Papacy. The empert >r at that time was Matthias. 
He was not for war, but the Jesuits were eager for 
it and plotted to make a local disturbance general. 



and the brother and successor of Matthias, Ferdi- 
nand, was wholly with them. So little, however, 
did the Protestant Electors appreciate the situation 
that they voted for Ferdinand without considering 
his ecclesiastical affinities of serious importance, 
and that notwithstanding the fact that he had as a 
Duke declared that he would rather rule over a 
desert than heretics. The bitterness of polemical 
controversy in the Protestant church was a great 
source of weakness. Calvinists and Lutherans 
were intense in their animosity to each other, and 
lines of theological thought almost too fine to be 
discernible served as ram- 
parts behind which hostile 
sects showered abuse at 
each other. While the Cath- 
olics were harmonious, the 
Protestants invited attack 
by their dissensions. The 
Emperor conceived itpossible 
to uproot Protestantism by a 
war of extermination against 
it, and the Protestants them- 
selves were largely respon- 
sible for his thinking so. 

At that time England, Hol- 
land, Denmark and Sweden 
were Protestant and the 
practical ruler of France, 
Cardinal Richelieu, had no 
sympathy with Ferdinand. 
The Protestants could have 
suppressed him, had they been at all sensible. Their 
blind factiousness encouraged him and involved the 
country in war for a generation, and a more desolat- 
ing, brutal and fiendish struggle was never waged any 
where by any people. The Christians of that empire 
seemed to forget all scripture but the passage, " I 
came nol to send peace, but a sword." To follow the 
bloody track of that mighty slaughter through its 
devious windings for thirty long years, would be a sur- 
feit of horrors. When once the Protestants had their 
eyes opened to the situation, they formed a union for 
mutual defense and chose for their leader Christian 
IV., king of the then powerful Denmark. Eng- 
land and Holland furnished substantial aid. But 
there was no clearsighted and highminded appre- 
ciation of the struggle, on the uart of those most 
interested. 



^t- 



U£« 



GERMANY AND THE REFORMATION. 



2 3i 



There were several great reputations made during 
that war. but the names most entitled to recognition 
were those of Wallenstein und Gustavus Adolphus. 
The former was a soldier of fortune who allied him- 
self to the Catholic cause. He had vast wealth, 
secured by two marriages, and he bought important 
estates which made him a prince. Wallenstein had 
a genius for war. He supported and paid his army 
! iv plunder, serving the Hapsburgs with conspicuous 
success. He was distrusted as aiming at imperial 



princes he would have made short work of the 
Hapsburgs, but he was regarded with suspicion and 
absolute animosity in some instances. He won 
several important victories, the most important of 
all being the one at Lutzen, November 16, 1632, 
which cost him his life. He fell at the head of his 
victorious troops, and even in death was " The 
Swede of Victory." Gustavus Adolphus gave vital- 
ity to the cause which cost him his own life. 

The end was not yet. Year after year the eon- 



1 






) 




f 



ft 



PEACE OF WESTPHALIA. 



1 



honors, and suspected, at last, of designing to desert 
to the Protestant cause, and finally assasinated at 
the evident instigation of the Emperor in Febru- 
ary, 1634. Gustavus Adolphus was quite the equal 
of Wallenstein in military genius and a man of 
high character. He came to the throne of Sweden 
in 1611, when he was seventeen years of age. A 
splendid specimen of a man in every way, he real- 
ized the actual issue at stake and embarked in the 
cause of Protestantism in Germany when he was 
thirty-four years of age, having already achieved 
important victories over the Russians. Had he 
been cordially supported by the German Protestant 



flict raged. It developed into a struggle for life on 
the part of Protestantism and a struggle for terri- 
torial acquisition on the part of the petty princes 
and the foreign states. France was especially anx- 
ious that Germany should be so weakened that her 
own area could be extended northward, and with 
most consummate skill did Richelieu play his part 
with that object in view. Finally, in 1648, a peace 
was negotiated at Westphalia, and the guns of that 
most atrocious of all wars were spiked. And surely 
it was time. A population of thirty millions had 
been reduced to twelve millions. The livestock 
and products of the empire had been proportionate- 



ajv' 



! 34 



GERMANY AND THE REFORMATION. 



ly reduced. The civilization of Germany was set 
back two centuries. Demoralization and depopula- 
tion, poverty, crime and misery combined to pro- 
duce a result of appalling desolation. " After the 
Thirty Years' War," says a great historian, " Ger- 
many was composed of 203 more or less indepen- 
dent, jealous and conflicting states, united by a 
bond which was more imaginary than real ; and this 
confused, unnatural state of things continued until 
Napoleon came to put an end to it. All branches 
of industry had declined, commerce had almost en- 
tirely ceased, literature and the arts were suppressed, 
and except the astronomical discoveries of Coperni- 
cus and Kepler there was no contributions to human 
knowledge. Politically the change was no less dis- 
astrous. Germany, as a whole, lost her place 
among the powers of Europe. The Holy Roman 
Empire became a shadow." Famine and pesti- 
lence completed what had been begun by a war 
waged by one branch of the church for the exter- 
mination of a rival branch, resulting, however, in 
universal amnesty for all Germany except the Prot- 
estants of Austria. The Pope, Innocent X. tried to 
nullify the treaty and keep up the war, but his bull 
was disregarded and not allowed to be read in the 
empire. The horrible crusade against twenty-five 
million of Protestants was unavailing. The new sect 
was indeed crushed out of Spain, France and Italy, 
but in Germany, as in Holland, Sweden, England 
Switzerland and Dennmark, it had come to stay. 
The name of Lutherans is borne by about 40,- 
000,000 of people at the present time. No man 
born urwn the continent of Europe ever had 
so grand a monument as that in perpetuation of 
his name and fame. In nearly every country of 
Christendom is the Lutheran church established. 
Its membership in the United States is fully equal 
to the total population of the thirteen states at the 
time they declared themselves independent of Great 
Britain. In Germany this church is a conservative 
element. Curiously, the name is not officially rec- 



ognized by the church itself, but custom has so long 
applied it to the reformed church in its direct out- 
growth from Luther that it is no longer resented. 

The great name in the annals of the Lutheran 
church of America is Muhlenberg. There were 
several members of the family who rose to emi- 
nence, the latest being the author of the well-known 
hymn, " I would not live alway." That Dr. Muh- 
lenberg was great-grandson of Heinrich Melchior 
Muhlenberg who in 1743 came to this country as a 
missionary, and founded the Lutheran Ministerium 
of Pennsylvania. He had been an instructor in 
Francke's Orphan-house in Germany, and so deeply 
was he imbued with pietism that the American 
branch of the Lutheran church is more spiritual, 
orthodox and conservative than the parent tree. 

It is doubtful if Luther would feel as much sym- 
pathy, were he now upon the earth and in his nor- 
mal frame of mind, with Protestant as with Catho- 
lic Germany, outside of the church which bears his 
name. The liberalism of Modern Germany may 
be called an outgrowth from the Reformation of 
the sixteenth century, but the connection is more 
historical than actual, the child bearing but little 
resemblance to the father. The present papists of 
Germany are more in accord with Luther than 
Tetzel. Writing in 1871, that great Catholic 
scholar Dollinger gave it as his solemn opinion 
that " no other man in the whole Christian era has 
given to his race as much as Luther gave to his — 
language, a manual of faith for the people, the 
Bible, the hymns. He alone has left the ineffacea- 
ble stamp of his own spirit alike upon the German 
tongue and the German mind. The very men 
among the Germans who from the depths of their 
souls abhor him as the terrible heresiarch and the 
betrayer of religion, are forced to speak in his 
words and think in his thoughts." The great up- 
rising with which his name is associated was indeed 
religious primarily, but in effect it was hardly more 
a reformation than a renaissance. 




A 




fc 




CHAPTER XL. 



The Military Beginning of New Gersiany — After the Thirty-Years War— Rise of Prus- 
sia — Frederick William— Frederick the Great and Maria Theresa — Division of Poland 
—Liberalism in the Abstract— French Revolution and Germany-— Napoleon in Ger- 
many—Jena, Blucher and Waterloo — 1848— William I. and Bismarck— Schleswig and 
Holstein— The Seven-Weeks War— Needle and Krupp Guns— Austria's Humiliation— 

THE IIkHENZOLLERNS AND NEW GERMANY — THE SPANISH CROWN AND THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAN 

War — The Seven-Months War ; Its Heroes, Victims, Battles and Sieges— Paris, its 
Resistance and Capitulation — Terjis of Peace— Alsace-Lorraine and the Great Indem- 
nity — Reconstructed Germany— Present States — Bundesrath and Reichstag— Compul- 
sory Education and the Army — Area and Population of Present Germany. 





k— §3®e#"- -* 



HK great Thirty-Years War, 
which extended from 1018 
to 1648, was distinctively 
religious in origin and de- 
sign ; the Seven-Years War 
(1756-63) grew out of ter- 
ritorial greed. Frederick 
the Great of Prussia had seized 
the province of Silesia, and Maria 
Theresa wanted to recover it. Af- 
ter three bloody wars (1740-4;; ; 
1744-45 : 1756-63) the attempt was 
entirely abandoned. That decisive 
advantage of Prussia had much to 
do with the fact that it has at last 
supplanted Austria as the head of 
Germany. In one sense, then, New 
Germany begins with the close of the 
Seven-Years War ; but in a higher sense it dates 
from the Thirty- Years War, which determined the 
religious boundaries of continental Europe. 

It was the middle of the seventeenth century 
when the great war of the Protestants and Catholics 
closed. Hildebrand estimates that German civiliza- 



tion was thrown back two hundred years by that 
desolating conflict. The picture which that bril- 
liant essayist draws of Germany in the eighteenth 
century is glowing in the extreme : " Hundreds of 
nourishing cities were reduced to ashes ; ground 
which had been tilled and plowed for ten centuries 
became a wilderness ; thousands of villages disap- 
peared ; trees grew in the abandoned houses." The 
first event of real note was the rise of Prussia, 
already suggested, from an insignificant principality 
to the rank of one of the five great nations of 
Europe. 

The first king of Prussia was crowned at the be- 
ginning of the eighteenth century, and the Univer- 
sity of Berlin was founded the same year. That 
first of the Hohenzollerns to receive the royal crown, 
Frederick I., was not remarkable for anything. 
Not so his son and successor, Frederick William I. 
He was a very marked character. He came to the 
throne in 1713, just a year before the first of the 
Georges was raised from the Electorate of Hanover, 
one of the many petty states of Germany, to the 
British throne. It was about that time too that the 
Emperor of Germany, Charles VI., issued what was 



12 ■- 



(235) 



A?= 



236 



NEW GERMANY. 



called the " Pragmatic Sanction," establishing the 
order of succession to the throne for his dynasty, 
in consequence of which Maria Theresa, not yet 
born, succeeded to the crown of her father. There 
were thus the beginnings of several important mat- 
ters. Frederick "William I. wao busy all his life with 
beginnings. By his parsimony and meanness he filled 
the coffers of the crown and accustomed his subjects 
to hardships. He had but one extravagance, a 
weakness for a body-guard of giants. For this ec- 
centricity he squandered many thalers. A rude 
barbarian who made life in his household (private 
and official) one long misery, this king, when he 
died in 1740, was sincerely mourned by none. It is 
only charity to believe that a vein of insanity ran 
through his composition. A few months later 
Charles VI. also died. The former was succeeded 
by Frederick II., called Frederick the Great, the 
latter by the Empress Maria Theresa. 

The childhood and youth of Frederick were mis- 
erable owing tn the brutality of his father. He 
was a close student of Voltaire, whom he admired. 
and from whom he derived many broad and hu- 
mane ideas, which resulted in important reforms. 
By him torture was abolished and religious liberty 




FREDEKICI- 



established; witchcraft was no Longer classed among 
the crimes. Frederick was in full sympathy with 
that class of philosophers of whom Voltaire was the 
chief. Of late years France and the whole world 
have learned philosophy of Germany, but in the 
eighteenth century the order was reversed. Fred- 



erick was a man of war, however, and not a stu- 
dent, except as studies and letters were a recreation. 
Hardly had he seized the scepter when he drew the 
sword and rushed into war with Austria. For five 
years with only slight rest there was bloodshed, oth- 
er countries being drawn into it. In 1745 peace 
was restored, and on terms which were so advan- 
tageous to Prussia that Frederick was dubbed the 
Great thus early in his reign. 

To those five years of war succeeded eleven years 
of peace. During that period Frederick did much 
to strengthen Prussia. Waste lands were restored, 
and civil institutions improved. The cultivation of 
the potato, strenuously resisted by the peasants, 
was introduced, and the general condition of the 
people greatly improved. In 1742 the King of Ba- 
varia was chosen emperor of Germany by the elect- 
ors, and crowned Charles VII. Maria Theresa in 
that dark day repaired to Hungary and threw her- 
self upon the loyalty of the Hungarians. Their 
chivalric rally to her support made her one of the 
most powerful of sovereigns. In 1745 the emperor 
died, and his son was glad to surrender all claims to 
Austria to be confirmed in the title to Bavaria. The 
figure-head husband of the great Maria Theresa was 
nominal emperor. She arranged a coalition against 
Prussia with France and some minor powers, to go 
into effect in the spring of 1759, but Frederick stole 
a inarch on his enemies and took the initiative him- 
self. For seven years the war raged. After the car- 
nage and sacrifices of that struggle peace brought to 
Prussia increase of territory and general importance. 

In one thing only were Frederick and Maria 
Theresa agreed — in the partition of Poland. That 
infamy, as seen in an earlier chapter, was mainly 
attributable to Catharine II. of Russia, and quite 
reluctantly consented to by the Austrian empress. 
The kings of Poland were elected, and the sove- 
reign chosen in 1765 was a liberal, who allowed the 
Protestants religious liberty. The Catholics, who 
were largely in the majority, created civil war. This 
state of affairs was seized upon as a pretext for 
charging the Poles with unfitness for nationality. 
And so, on the 5th of August, 1772, those three 
crowned robbers took possession of about one-third 
of the kingdom of Poland, dividing between them 
about 1,000.000 square miles and 4,500,000 popula- 
tion. The region received by Frederick was peo- 
pled by Germans although Poles. 



*T 



NEW GERMANY. 



4- 



Frederick lived until 1786, and during the last 
years of his life the nation enjoyed peace. He re- 
joiced, as did Catharine, in the success of the Ameri- 
can colonies. In the abstract, both the Prussian and 
the Russian sympathized with the spirit of freedom, 
but neither ever allowed sentiment to interfere 
with ambition. 

Maria Theresa died in 1780, and her son, who 
had been crowned Emperor Joseph II. hi her life- 
time, survived her ten years. Both tried to im- 
prove the condition of their subjects by giving 
them just government, without loosening the reins of 
absolutism. The son was the most earnest in this 
endeavor. He was, in his way, 
a radical reformer, who tried 
to make his people noble in 
purpose and prosperous in 
every way. But his heart was 
better than his head, and he 
was grievously disappointed 
in the results attained. Im- 
bued with the progressive 
ideas of the age, he tried to 
make Austria a model state. 
His epitaph, written by him- 
self, was peculiarly apjsrojjri- 
ate : " Here lies a prince 
whose intentions were pure, 
but «ho hail the misfortune 
to see all his plans shattered." 
Some good, however, resulted 
from the spirit or atmosphere 
of the court. The empress was a devout Catholic, 
although somewhat jealous of Rome ; the emperor 
was not a Protestant, but he was the avowed enemy 
of papal arrogance. He spoke harshly of priests, 
and yet Austria remained a Catholic country. 
Frederick was a sneering skeptic. 

Out of the French Revolution grew general war 
on the continent. The banished and fugitive prin- 
ces and nobles of France fermented trouble, and 
the Republic at Paris found itself involved in mili- 
tary controversy with both branches of Germany 
(for Prussia was now the rival and peer of Austria). 
The conflict was waged in a somewhat sickly way 
until Napoleon came to the front. 

In the Napoleonic war the battle of Austerlitz 
was the especial humiliation of Austria, but it did 
not stand alone. " Marengo's field " was won by 




Napoleon at Austria's expense June 14, 1800, and 
his Marshal, Moreau, achieved the brilliant victory 
of Hohenlinden on the third of December follow- 
ing. In 1805 Austria secured the alliance of Eng- 
land, Russia and Sweden against France. Napo- 
leon thereupon marched to the very gates of Vienna 
and gained, December 2nd of that year, the great 
victory of Austerlitz. But Prussia still stood aloof. 
When, however, the conqueror organized the Con- 
federation of the Rhine, designed to absorb the free 
cities and small principalities of Germany, and 
eclipse both Austria and Prussia, the latter took 
alarm. In 1800 war was declared by Frederick 
William. Two battles were 
fought in October of that 
year, Auerstadt and Jena. 
The first defeat was bad 
enough, but the second was 
utterly prostrating and deep- 
ly humiliating. Unlike Aus- 
terlitz, Jena was avenged. 
Waterloo retrieved the reputa- 
tion of the Prussians and the 
fall of Paris, fifty year later, 
completed the redress. Even 
before Waterloo was fought 
Bli'icher had defeated a por- 
tion of the French army. 
The battle of Katzbach and 
Mockern. comparatively trivi- 
al engagements, proved Prus- 
sian victories. He was com- 
mander-in-chief of the Prussian army when the bat- 
tle of Waterloo was fought. Napoleon hoped to 
defeat Wellington before his Prussian ally could join 
him, and he came very near doing it. " Night or 
BlUcher," exclaimed Wellington. Only two days 
before, Bliicher had been defeated at Leipzig, but 
he came to the rescue on the ever-memorable eight- 
eenth of June with forces enough to turn the 
scale, and convert the impending defeat of A\ el- 
lington into the most stupendous and important 
victory of modem times. 

After the suppression of that " scourge of God," 
Napoleon Bonaparte, Germany, in common with all 
Europe, enjoyed a season of peace for thirty year-. 
During that time literature and science made greal 
progress. The terms of peace -and reconstruction, 
adopted after Waterloo, insured civil and religious 



2 3 8 



NEW GERMANY. 



liberty to the people. They could worship as they 
pleased, and every state (there were 39 in Germany) 
was guaranteed a representative government. The 
educated class were especially encouraged by the 
liberty enjoyed to demand more, and be content 
with nothing short of self-government. Not that 
all felt that way, but that among the students there 
was a very great pressure for republicanism. At 
last, in 1848, there was an outbreak of democracy. 
It accomplished very little. Many of the young 
men engaged in the vague and half -formed rebellion 
were obliged to seek safety in flight, and thousands 
found new and better homes in America. In Ger- 
many the uprising was mainly 
useful as political education, 
alike to subjects and sovereign. 
Indeed, all Europe received a 
most wholesome and bene- 
ficent development in the 
direction of larger liberty. To 
the United States that upris- 
ing proved highly important. 
A new class of emigration 
coming to these shores per- 
ceptibly raised the standard 
and improved the character of 
immigration from continental 
Europe. About that time, it 
may be added, the Irish fam- 
ine drove hither an enormous 
number of ignorant peasants. 
The German influx was some- 
thing of a counteractant. 

In 185? the King of Prussia, Frederick William 
IV., a weak and feudalistic sovereign, was stricken 
with apoplexy, and his brother William, then sixty 
years of age, was made Prince Regent. At once the 
latter began the inauguration of some reforms in 
administration, aud when he became William I. 
(1861) a new page was turned in German, and in- 
deed, European history. Although an old man, he 
was blessed with great vigor of body and mind, and 
his reign became second only to that of Frederick the 
Great in point of influence upon the destinies of the 
people. He early recognized the consummate genius 
of Bismarck. Those two names must always be 
linked in fame. Neither ever showed sympathy 
with the cause of personal freedom, but sought the 
aggrandizement of the nation in the interest of the 




dynasty. As we write, Germany is in a ferment 
over the imperial rescript, or official manifesto, of 
the Emperor, to the effect that Germany is not gov- 
erned by a ministry accountable to a parliament, but 
that the ministers are the mere tools of the sovereign, 
and that the sovereign is the state. In this document 
is seen the hand of the premier. 

Bismarck was born on the family estate April 1, 
1813. He early showed a taste for public life. His 
career began in diplomacy, 1852, except that he had 
previously been a short time in parliament. Kaiser 
William was not slow in recognizing his intense 
loyalty to imperialism, and his consummate ability 
as a statesman. He had from 
the first two ideas — the for- 
mation of a German empire 
with Austria left out, and the 
humiliation of France. The 
first was never concealed. 

Bismarck attracted general 
attention for the first time in 
connection with the Schleswig- 
Holstein war. That was begun 
December 7, 1864. At first 
Austria helped Prussia, ex- 
pecting to have one of the 
duchies, Schleswig or Hol- 
stein, for its share of the 
spoils. Against these two great 
German powers was arrayed, 
besides those little duchies, 
the feeble kingdom of Den- 
mark. Of course the end could 
not be doubtful. A diplomatic war followed the 
close of actual hos- 
tilities. In that cor- 
respondence and 
those negotiations 
Count Bismarck 
(for he was not 
then a prince) won 
the admiration of 
the world by what 
may properly be 
called deceptive 
truthfulness. He 
said what he 
meant, and meant 
what he said. So unusual a thing was that in dip- 




EISMARCK. 



NEW GERMANY. 



2 39 



lomacy that his utterances were misinterpreted. The 
result was a misunderstanding which served as a pre- 
text for Prussia to declare war against Austria, 
which it did in June, 1866. 

On one side of the Seven- Weeks War, as it was 
called, was Prussia with nineteen millions of peo- 
ple ; on the other, Austria with, including the allied 
German states, fifty millions. It seemed a rash pro- 
ceeding on the part of Prussia to seek a quarrel 
against such odds. But hardly had the war begun 
before it was over, resulting in the utter overthrow 
of Austria. The Prussian army was supplied with 
the needle-gun and Krupp guns. The former were 
a great improvement upon the musketry of the Aus- 
trians, while the latter were no less superior to the 
cannons of the enemy. The respective commanders- 
in-chief were very unevenly pitted against each 
other. Prussia had that Wellington of the period, 

Von Moltke, while 
Austria had only 
Marshal Benedek. It 
was on the second of 
July that both sides 
rallied and met in 
full strength. '• Mar- 
shal Benedek," says 
a recent historian, 
" after being forced 
back from the fron- 
tier had taken posi- 
tion on the Elbe, 
with his front cover- 
ed by that stream 
and the Bistritz. His 
right was protected 
by the fortress of Josephstadt, and his left by the 
fortress of Koniggratz. Near his center was the 
village of Sadowa. and on the heights overlooking 
this village Benedek established his headquarters. 
His army numbered about 200,000 men. On the 
morning of the 3d of July the Prussian army 
began the engagement, resulting in Austrian defeat 
all along the line. This battle and victory is some- 
times called Sadowa. sometimes Koniggratz." The 
vanquished lost 20,000 killed, 18,000 prisoners. The 
victors lost 10,000 men. The battle was decisive. 
The Prussians followed up their advantage with 
swiftness, allowing no time for recuperation or alli- 
ance. There was no small likelihood of French in- 



3° 




VON MOLTKE 



tervention in favor of Austria. To head that off, 
the war had to be pushed to a speedy conclusion. 

When the work of reconstruction came, the 
real object of Bismarck was disclosed. Schleswigand 
Holstein were almost forgotten. Austria ceased to 
be the great central and imperial power of Ger- 
many, and Prussia more than took its place. In- 
stead of the old loose federation, with Austria at 
the head, came that close and really national union, 
the North-German Confederation, and that not so 
much with Prussia as the head as with Germany ap- 
pended to Prussia. The people were at first de- 
lighted. The old dream of German nationality was 
realized at last. 

In December, 186?, the constitution of the new 
union was submitted to the several states and rati- 
fied. All the German states, except Bavaria, Wur- 
temberg and Baden, twenty-two in number, be- 
longed to the Union, and formed indeed one nation, 
under a common military, postal and financial sys- 
tem, similar in unity to the United States of 
America. Since then the authority of United Ger- 
many has been so far extended that the Hohen- 
zollerns may be said to have the hereditary title to 
a firmly consolidated empire which embraces all 
Germany except Austria. 

The new attitude of Prussia alarmed France, at 
least stimulated a desire to humiliate the " upstart" 
nation. The question of the Spanish crown fur- 
nished a pretext or occasion for war. There was 
talk of bestowing that crown, then without a head 
on which to rest, upon a Hohenzollern. The 
French professed to see in this a great indignity. 
For that family to be on two thrones not contigu- 
ous to each other, but on each side of France, was 
not to be tolerated. An imperious demand was 
made upon William that he should give a pledge to 
the effect that no member of his family should rule 
Spain. The demand was flatly refused. A decla- 
ration of war followed at once. The prince who 
had been proffered the crown had declined it, but 
that was not enough to satisfy Louis Napoleon. 
The formal declaration of war occurred July 19, 
1870. The French people were delighted. In a 
few days both France and Germany had their ar- 
mies in the field. On the fourth of July the French 
crossed the German frontier, assuming the ag- 
gressive. A long war was almost universally antici- 
pated. King William was at the head of the German 



■* sTv 



4- 



!4-0 



NEW GERMANY. 



army, in theory, but now, as in the war with Aus- 
tria, Von Moltke was the real commander-in-chief, 
with the Crown Prince, Frederick William, next in 
rank. The Emperor, Louis Napoleon, was also the 
nominal head of the French army, giving the 
Prince Imperial his first baptism of fire; but 
Marshals MacMahon and Bazaine were the real lead- 
ers. For his blunders the latter was banished, 
while the former was accredited with doing the 
best that could be done and was subsequently hon- 
ored with the presidency of the French Republic. 
The first 



battle of the 
war was 
fought at 
W e i s s e n- 
bnrg Au- 
gust 4th, 
in which 
the French 
were defeat- 
ed. Two 
days later 
another de- 
tachment of 
the two ar- 
mies met 
;it Worth, 
with the 
same result. 
The main 
army of the 
French was 

also attacked at Saarsbrueken.and driven back upon 
Metz. The battle of Vionvillc, on the frontier, was 
fought on the 16th, neither army gaining any con- 
siderable advantage. The decisive battle of the war 
was fought August 18th, and is known as the battle 
of Gravelotte. Both armies fought desperately, but 
the French were compelled to give way. The utmosi 
activity followed, the Germans steadily gaining up- 
on their adversaries until finally, September 1st, the 
battle of Sedan was fought. Before night came on 
Napoleon III., who was present with his army, 
wrote to King William, "Not having been able to 
die at the head of my troops, I lay my sword at 
your majesty's feet." The French prisoners num- 
bered 25,000. The entire army surrendered. 

The war seemed to be over, but events weretrans- 



ENTRY OF GERMAN ARMIES INTO PARIS 



piring at Paris which postponed the final settle- 
ment for some time. Paris rose in political revolu- 
tion against the empire not only, but boldly defied 
the invader. The Emperor could deliver his im- 
perial crown, but not the nation, certainly not the 
capital. Henceforth the war was a siege, or a 
series of sieges and bombardments. Strasburg held 
out nobly, and Paris desperately. The besiegers 
cut off the supplies of Paris. Strasburg fell Sep- 
tember 27th, Metz a month later, and on the 28th 
of the succeeding January Paris formally sur- 
rendered. 

In the 
settlement 
which fol- 
lowed, the 
provinces 
of Alsace 
and Lor- 
raine were 
wrenched 
from the 
power of 
France, to 
the great 
grief of the 
people who 
are Ger- 
mans by 
blood, but 
French in 
their sym- 
p a t h i e s. 

France thus lost a territory of 5,500 square miles and 
more than one and a half millions of people. The 
siege of Paris and the reduction of the military spirit 
of the French people had occupied, all told, a period 
of seven months, and the losses of property had fal- 
len chiefly upon France. The terms of peace added 
to the losses of territory and perishable property the 
exaction of a money indemnity (cash in hand, too) 
of five thousand million francs ($1,000,000,000). 
The promptness with which the people rose to the 
demands of the occasion was astonishing. Con- 
vinced that the only way to rid Paris and France 
of the hostile army was to raise the indemnity, 
they took their hard-earned savings from their hid- 
ing places, poured them into the treasury faster than 
the government could issue bonds, and in excess of 




NEW GERMANY. 



24I 



the national requirement. In a few years it was 
found that Germany was injured far more than 
France by that indemnity. The increase in the 
national debt imposed no serious burden upon tax- 
payers, while the spirit of wild speculation crazed 
the Germans. It was a curious instance of " the 
biter bitten." The French people were enriched by 
the exchange of hoarded, unproductive coin for 
interest-bearing bonds — rentes. 

During those seven months there had been seven- 
teen great battles fought and fifty-six minor engage- 
ments ; twenty-two fortified places were taken ; 
385,000 soldiers (including 11,360 officers) were 
taken prisoners. The losses of cannon were 7,200, 
and of small arms 000,000. Such prodigious cap- 
tures and indemnity were never known before in 
the annals of war. 

We turn now to the reconstruction of the Ger- 
man Empire and its firm establishment upon a 
Prussian basis. What the Seven- Weeks War had 
fairly commenced the Seven-Months War rendered 
complete. The Teutonic dream of liberty and 
union had now been one-half realized — the latter 
had been secured. It was to a large extent at the 
expense of liberty, but it was not at first appreci- 
ated that unity meant imjjerialism. 

The present German Empire consists of four king- 
doms, namely, Prussia with its thirteen provinces, 
and Bavaria, Saxony and Wurtembuig ; six Grand 
Duchies, Baden, Hesse, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 
Mecklenburg-Shetitz, Oldenburg and Saxe- Weimar, 
Eisenach ; five Duchies, Saxe-Meininger, Saxe-Co- 
burg-Gotha, Saxe-Altenburg, Brunswick and A 11- 
halt ; seven Principalities, Schwartzburg-Rudol- 
stadt, Schwartzburg-Sondershauen, Waldeck, Reuss- 
Elder line, Reuss-Younger line, Schaumburg-Lippe 
and Lippe-Detmore ; three free cities, Hamburg, 



Lubeck and Bremen, and the " imperial-lands," 
Alsace-Lorraine. The King of Prussia is by virtue 
of that kingship, president of the confederacv, em- 
peror or Deutscher Kaiser. 

Corresponding to our Congress is a Bundesrath 
and Reichstag. The former, or senate, has at least 
one representative from each state, Alsace-Lorraine 
alone excepted, and some have several, the "empire 
state " of Prussia seventeen. The Reichstag has 
one member for each district of 100,000 inhabitants. 
If no dissolution occurs, the Diet or Congress ex- 
pires by constitutional limitation in three years. 
Each state has its own constitution and local self- 
government. 

Universal education is compulsory, and therein 
largely may be found the secret of Prussian superi- 
ority in war over botli Austria and Fiance. The 
relative military strength of these nations, by num- 
bers and expenditure, are given in a subsequent 
table, but the rjower of education admits of no sta- 
tistical measurement. Every German is liable to 
military duty, and must enter the army 'at the age 
of twenty years. After three years of actual service 
he is put upon the reserve roll, in time of peace for 
four years. At the expiration of that time he is 
enrolled in the "landwehr,"or militia, for five years, 
and then finally in the "landsturm," a home-guard, 
until the age of fifty. 

Prussia has an area of 137,060 square miles, and 
a population in 1880 of 27,278,911, which is about 
equal to the total of the other states constituting 
the German Empire, the entire area of the empire 
being 212,091 square miles, population December 1, 
1875, 42,727,360. The system of military pro- 
scription is a constant incentive to emigration, 
and very materially lessens the population of 
the empire. 







v ~ v 



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m,':a^i»^ii fe-^<: ^fe ^^fj 



¥ 




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BnjQg[frJ|U»Uil«UIUMM^ 



INTELLECTUAL GERMANY. 





CHAPTER XLI. 

Kingdom of the Mind— Tardy and Sudden Development op German Thought — An Intel- 
lectual Quadrangle — German Literature, Lessing, Klopstock, Wieland, Herder, 
Schiller. Goethe, Richter and Heine— The Court of Weimar — German Music, Keiser, 
Handel, Bach, Gluck, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Wagner— German 
Philosophers — Kant, Fichte,Schelling, Hegel, Buchner and Haeckel— German Univer- 
sities—Leibnitz and Berlin— Halle University and the Halle School— Heidelberg 
University and its Library— German Specialists— Humboldt 



3^ T ~n^r^-"f^~^;^[^lv:/l-vl-l'A^ML2in^ 



rp^- 





N following the ordinary 
course of history the proud- 
est claims of Germany to 
lonorable distinction hard- 
ly attracted attention, be- 
ing entirely disconnected 
from political or military 
affairs. In all other coun- 
tries "' the scholar in politics " has been 
a very considerable personage ; but In- 
tellectual Germany may be said to have 
constituted a world by itself, sublimely 
indifferent to and independent of the 
fortunes of state. 

" The Aborigines of Germany," says 
Taylor, " had their bards, . their battle- 
songs and their sacrificial hymns when 
they first became known to the Ro- 
mans." Charlemagne gathered those crude be- 
ginnings of literature, so far as possible, into a 
library which his imbecile and superstitious son, Lud- 
wig the Pious, committed to the flames. In the 
Nibelungenlied we have a no less crude attempt at 
poetical composition. That barbaric epic resembled 
Homer only as the jagged rock resembles the pol- 
ished statue. Poor in itself, it led to nothing bet- 




ter. On the contrary, it was not until the magnetic 
genius of Luther set Europe aglow that any name 
worthy of mention appeared in the literary annals 
of Germany, and even Luther excelled more as a 
translator than an author of originality. The seed 
which he sowed perished as utterly as did the grain 
which Karl the Great had garnered. The cruel 
heel of the Thirty- Years War crushed the intel- 
lectual life of Germany, and it was not until the 
middle of the eighteenth century that it revived 
and became a power. AVe shall see that English 
literature was a gradual growth of many centuries : 
but the darkness of Medieval Germany was unre- 
lieved by any flashes of light. There was nothing 
precocious about its intellectual development. 
When, however, the light broke, it fairly flooded 
the land, nay, rather, the whole world. Hardly hail 
the morning star appeared before the mid-day sun 
ruled the heavens. Herein Germany was phenome- 
nal and in the highest degree sensational. 

Intellectual Germany may be said to be quadran- 
gular, literary, musical, philosophical and erudite. 
Each side of this quadrangle has such marked in- 
dividuality as to require distinct consideration. 

German literature, in any high sense, began 
with and reached its summit in that splendid gal- 



(242) 






INTELLECTUAL GERMANY. 



H- 



axy. Leasing (1729); Klopstock (1724); Wieland 
(1753); Herder (1744) ; Schiller (1759); Richter 
(1762); Heine (1799). The figures appended to 
each name give the year of the birth of each. It 
will be seen that they all belong to the eighteenth 
century, and in actual literary labors they were al- 
most contemporaneous. In them we have the great 
immortals of the purely literary phase of German 
thought. 

Lessing was a Saxon. His Minna Yon Bornhelm 
was the first national drama of Germany, and pro- 
duced a profound sensation. But it was as a critic 
that he excelled. He set in motion the critical fac- 
ulty of the nation, substituting intelligent doubt for 
blind credulity. He died in 1781. It has been 
pertinently said of Lessing, " To him religion was 
not obedience, but insight ; morality not duty, but 
wisdom ; poesy not inspiration, but taste." His 
Laocodn, a series of critiques, was a prodigiously 
revolutionary work. 

Klopstock was also born in Saxony- Strange as 
it may seem at this day, it took great courage to 
even attempt, in his time, to build a German litera- 
ture. Even Frederick the Great, with all his admi- 
ration for literary ability, scouted the idea. Klop- 
stock was not deterred by the absence of encourage- 
ment, and, it may be added, of genius. He was a 
poet of only mediocre power. " He was the father 
of German poetry, not because he created it, but 
because he made it possible — not on account of his 
genius, but on account of his standpoint." The 
pioneer poet of his country, he blazed a few trees 
as he painfully picked his way through the Black 
Forest. He died in 1803. 

Wieland, like Klopstock, produced nothing which 
was in itself particularly meritorious. A prose 
translation of ShaKspeare was the first introduction 
of the great dramatist to the German public. 
Oberon, a romantic epic, was Wieland's best produc- 
tion from 1772 until his death, 1813. He resided 
at Weimar, and with Goethe, Schiller and Herder 
rendered that otherwise petty court one of the 
grandest in all history. He was a natural poet, al- 
beit of no very high order. Weimar is a small city, the 
capital of the Grand Duchy of Saxe- Weimar, which 
may be said to live upon the remembrance of the 
eminent authors just named. No other town was 
ever blessed with such an array of talent at one time. 

Herder was a Prussian, the son of a school- 



master, and very much of his life was spent in edu- 
cational labors. It may be said that teaching was 
his trade, literature his relaxation. He was mere 
critical than creative. His central idea was thai; 
the highest works of art, literary, or otherwise, are 
the most distinctively national. By instilling that 
conviction into the German mind, he, like Lessing, 
Klopstock and Wieland, contributed greatly to the 
development of a thoroughly national literature. 
Perhaps the best known of his works is Letters on 
Hebrew Poetry. He too died in 1803. 

In all the chief cities of Germany may be found 
statues in honor of the most popular of all the poets 
of that j>eople, Johaun Christoph Friedrich von 
Schiller, and upon the 
hundredth anniversa- 
ry of his birth, 1859, a 
" Schiller - fund " of 
several hundred thou- 
sand dollars was rais- 
ed, the income from 
which is to be devoted 
to the maintenance 
of indigent authors. 
In him the Germans 
saw realized in a pre- 
eminent and peculiarly popular form the ideal 
national poet for whom Lessing, Klopstock, Wie- 
land and Herder prepared the way. He excelled in 
two lines, as a dramatist and a lyrist. His Robbers 
and Walteiiftein are masterpieces of dramatic litera- 
ture. His minor productions are remarkable for ex- 
quisite finish and splendor of diction. A military 
surgeon by education, he made great sacrifices to his 
lofty art. He died at Weimar when only in his 
forty-sixth year. Three years before he had been 
made a baron of the realm by the Emperor Fran- 
cis II. Carlyle says of Schiller, " He was a high 
ministering servant at truth's altar, and bore him 
worthily in the office which he held." 

John Wolfgang Von Goethe, a native of Frank- 
fort-ou-the-Main, is acknowledged as the foremost 
man of literary Germany. For many years he w r as 
recognized as an almost autocratic authority. His 
great novel Willielm Meixter is the most famous 
work of fiction in the German tongue, the only one. 
in fact, which may be said to enjoy a world-wide repu- 
tation, unless it be his Sorrows of Werther. He was 
a profound and varied student of nature, being 




VON SCHILLER. 



244 



INTELLECTUAL GERMANY. 




well-versed in many sciences. He lived to the ripe 
old age of 83, retaining his superb and manifold 

faculties to the last. His 
was a life of luxury, 
his very labors being 
sources of delight to 
him. Born of wealthy 
parents, he never knew 
the hardships and dis- 
appointments of or- 
dinary experience. In 
him we see the best re- 
sults of good fortune. 
Of his greatest work, 
Faust, Bayard Taylor, 
to whom the English- 
GOETHE - reading public is in- 

debted for a masterly translation, has this to 
say : 

"' There is nothing in the literature of any coun- 
trv witli which we can compare it. There is no 
other poem which, like this, was the work of a 
wbole life, and which deals with the profoundest 
problems of all life. It is so universally compre- 
hensive that every reader finds in it reflections of 
his faith and philosophy. * * The poem embod- 
ies all the finest qualities of Goethe's mind — his rich, 
ever-changing rhythm, his mastery over the ele- 
ments of passion, his simple realism, his keen irony, 
his serene wisdom, and bis most sacred aspiration. 
The more it is studied the wider and further it 
spreads its intellectual horizon, until it grows to be 
so far and dim that the physical and the spiritual 
spheres are blended together. Whoever studies 
Fmist in connection with the works of other Ger- 
man authors cannot but admit that the critic is not 
wholly mistaken who asserts that the single ele- 
ments which separately made his compeers great 
have combined to make one man greatest ; that 
Klopstock's enrichment of the language, Lessing's 
boldness and clearness of vision. Wieland's grace, 
Herder's universality, and Schiller's glory of rhythm 
and rhetoric are all united in the immortal works 
of Goethe." 

From Goethe to poor Heinrich Heine is a long 
step ; but the latter name is too frequently men- 
tioned in general literature to be passed over in 
silence. A Jew by birth, he was by no means "a He- 
brew of the Hebrews." On the contrary, he was 



singularly deficient in the thrifty qualities of his 
race, and he hated business intensely. Audacious 
in ridicule, he paid no heed to the probable effect 
upon his own fortunes of his merciless criticisms 
and lampoons. He was the poet of every-day life, 
his subjects being simple and his treatment brief. 
Fifty years ago he published his first volume of 
poetry. Its popularity was wonderful. Most of his 
time was spent in Paris, where he died in 1856. He 
was deeply imbued with democratic ideas and radi- 
cal principles. Indeed, he was more French than 
German in his type of mind and tastes. It was 
thirty years from the publication of his first volume 
until his death, during which period he may be said 
to have possessed without enjoying a wide popu- 
larity. With all his faults, Heine exerted, on the 
whole, a wholesome influence upon German litera- 
ture, especially in rebuking affectation and knock- 
ing from under it the stilts of romanticism. His 
later productions were not up to his early ones in 
merit, for his intellectual faculties were as prema- 
turely senile as Goethe's were abnormally vigorous 
at fourscore. 

It remains to speak of only one more member of 
the German family of letters, Richter, better known 
by his literary name of 
" Jean Paul." He was 
the humorist par excel- 
lence of German auth- 
ors. His private life 
has been called " a long I 
inheritance of priva- 
tion." His death oc- 
curred in 1825. He 
was neither great nor 
small : he was unique. 
His admirers class him hichter. 

with Hood and Douglas Jerrold. 

The Germans are remarkable for their love of 
and attainments in music. During the sixteenth 
century there were a few symptoms of musical tal- 
ent, but that was all. In the seventeenth century 
the princes began to have operas performed at their 
courts. The first public performance of an opera 
in Germany was at Hamburg in 1078. In that pe- 
riod lived Keiser, a composer, who once enjoyed a 
splendid reputation. He wrote much, but his ope- 
ras and cantatas were harsh, and deficient in melo- 
dious strains. But the great name of this period 




INTELLECTUAL GERMANY. 



2 45 




was Handel, born in Halle, Saxony, 1685. Most, of 
his life was spent abroad, espe- 
cially in London, where he died 
in 1759, but he was none the less 
a thorough German. He com- 
posed much which was not of the 
very highest order, more p»articu- 
larly in the operatic line. His 
genius lay in the direction of ora- 
torio. The Messiah is his grandest work, and in all 
music can be found nothing more sublime. Mo- 
zart declared it impossible to improve his choruses. 
The Messiah was written for the city of Dublin. It 
made him the musical idol of England, which he 
remained until his death. His bones rest in West- 
minster Abbey. 

Bach is an illustrious name in musical history. 
John Sebastian, born at Eisenach in 1085, was the 
Bach, but for more than two centuries the family 
was distinguished as musicians. The first to gain a 
place in history was Veit. He was a Hungarian, 
and settled in Thuringia in 1600. The one mem- 
ber of the family to gain a world-wide reputation, 
served as organist and concert-master in various 
places until at the age of thirty -eight he was chosen 
musical director of the St. Thomas School, Leipsic. 
There he spent twenty -seven years, and the promi- 
nence of Leipsic as a center of musical education is 
very largely due to John Sebastian Bach. He was 
a voluminous composer. " In nearly every field of 
his art," says Frothingham, " he was a discoverer, 
in some he was a prophet of future discoveries. 
The fame of Bach has been increasing since his 
death. For generations to come they who study 
the difficult science of music will go to him as stu- 
dents of literature or painting go to the grand 
masters." 

For the improvement of dramatic music the pub- 
lic is very especially indebted to Christopher Gluck, 
who was born in 1714. He was educated at Milan 
Mid spent much of his time abroad, but his influ- 
ence was most felt in his native land. After hearing 
Gluck's great opera of Iphujenia at Weimar, Schil- 
ler wrote, " Never has any music affected me so 
purely, so supremely, as this ; it is a world of har- 
mony piercing straight to the soul, and dissolving 
it in the sweetest, loftiest melancholy." His death 
occurred at Vienna, November 15, 1787. 

A still greater name in music is Joseph Haydn, 



the son of a poor Austrian wheelwright and sexton. 
He early drifted to Vienna. In 1760, when he was 
twenty-eight years of age, his hitherto luckless life 
turned, arjc. for thirty years his circumstances were 
easy and auspicious. He was a very devout Papist. 
Haydn is accounted the father of symphony and of 
the stringed quartette. Instrumental music receiv- 
ed from him its most rapid development. The 
Creation is one of 'us oratorios. The leading qual- 
ities of his comvjo ' ions are said to be lucidity of 
uheir treatment and finish in 
Death came to him in Vienna, 



md docilely at the 
was Mozart, who 




His older sister, 



ideas, symmetry in 
their development. 
May 26, 1809. 

Among those who sat lovingh 
feet of the father of symphony 
spoke of him as " papa Haydn." 
He was born at Salzburg in 1756, 
and died at Vienna in 1791. 
Short as was his life it was long, 
musically speaking. He besran 
to play the piano with very con- 
siderable accuracy as early as 
four years of age. He began 
composition at eight years of age. 
Maria Anna, was also a remarkable musician. 
While they were very small children the father made 
concert tours with them, and everywhere they ex- 
cited amazement and admiration. The last seven 
years of his life were given to composition, undis- 
turbed by the necessity of teaching or performing 
for a livelihood The splendid operas, II Nozze di 
Figaro and Don Giovanni, were the most illustrious 
of his compositions. Although Mozart lived and 
died in Vienna, was composer to the court, and is 
considered the greatest composer of the world, from 
the combined versatility and power of his genius, 
Farnham writes of his burial, " On a dismal day of 
rain, unfollowed by a single friend, the bodies of 
Mozart and fifteen other dead were hurried through 
the streets of Vienna to the common burying- 
ground of the poor, and his grave is now unknown." 
This was the melancholy end of one whose name is 
imperishable. 

In the latter half of the eighteenth century there 
lived at Bonn a tenor singer to whom was born in 
1770 a son, who may be called the Mont Blanc of 
music, Ludwig von Beethoven. He was a student 
of Haydn and Mozart, and like them he long resided 
at Vienna. He seemed to have fairly entered upon 



246 



INTELLECTUAL GERMANY. 




B3ETH0V"3iT. 



a brilliant career when deafness came upon him. 

For a large part of 
his life he was total- 
ly deaf. But he none 
the less effectively 
gave his life to com- 
position. His afflic- 
tion isolated him 
from society and 
tinged his produc- 
tions with melan- 
choly. Symphonies 
and sonatas, remark- 
able for richness in 
ideas and sentiment, no less than for fidelity to the 
highest laws of composition, show him to have been 
a man of stupendous power. In a strictly intellect, 
ual point of view Beethoven ranks at the very head 
of his profession. This sad and solitary man died 
in the year 1837. 

In 1809 there was born in the family of a wealthy 
Hebrew of Hamburg, Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy. 
After receiving a thorough education and devoting 
some time to travel, he made his home at Leipsic. 
He established the conservatory there, and contrib- 
uted powerfully to its development as the musical 
capital of the world. His was a sweet and lovely 
character, a charming life and a high order of gen- 
ius. The oratorio of Elijah was his, but he was 
most at home in the composition of piano music. 
As a pianist he was one of the greatest in his day, 
and that is much tc say, for Liszt, Schumann and 
Chopin were contemporary masters of the piano- 
forte. Of his works it is affirmed by a competent 
judge, " They are a worthy culmination of the art 
and science of his predecessors, the latest master- 
pieces of the purely classic school, and just preceded 
the rise of the music of the future, exquisite and be- 
yond criticism, except that they are, as Tennyson 
would say, ' faultily faultless."' 

The " music of the future " calls to mind the name 
of Wagner, the last in the musical list of Intellect- 
ual Germany. This son of a police actuary was 
born at Leipsic in 1813. He became especially 
well known in America from the composition of 
the Grand March for cur Centennial Celebration, 
1876. He composed those popular operas, the Fly- 
ing Dutchman, Lchengrin and Tannhauser. But his 
great work is the threefold opera of the Nibelun- 



yen Ring. In the summer o^ 1876 it was performed 
at his home, Beireuth, in a theater of Ins own de- 
sign, by an orchestra composed of the best musi- 
cians of Germany. The term " music, of the fu- 
ture," was originally bestowed in derision, but so 
brilliant was the success at Beireuth that scorn was 
turned to admiration. Like Browning and Walt 
Whitman in poetry, and Carlyle in prose, Richard 
Wagner truly says of himself. " I move with entire 
freedom, and disregard of all theoretical scruples." 

German philosophy is a term often heard, as if 
there were a unity in the metaphysical life of Ger- 
many. There are indeed clearly traceable and 
strongly marked national peculiarities of thought 
and style, subtile resemblances ; but each great 
name stands for a distinctive idea. 

The father of German philosophy was Inimanuel 
Kant, born at Konigsberg, Prussia, in 1724. He 
was a Scotchman by ancestry, although in habits of 
life and modes of thought preeminently Teutonic. 
Spinoza, who is sometimes spoken of as a German, 
belonged the Dutch City of Amsterdam and the 
Hebrew 1 ice. Kant first attracted the attention of 
the intellectual world by his Critique of Pure Unison, 
which was an era in philosophy. In style it is 
cumbersome and awkward to the last degree. He 
regarded psychology as the basis of philosophy and 
the search for the First Cause as fruitless. Kant 
lived to the ripe old age of eighty, and to the last 
remained serenely self-centered in his quiet little 
home of Konigsberg. Fame seemed to make no 
impression upon him, and the great critic was in- 
different to criticism. 

Next to Kant the great name in German philoso- 
phy is Fichte, a disciple and peer of the mas- 
ter of transcendentalism. Jena, then the leading 
university of Germany, offered him the profes- 
sorship of philosophy in 1793. His life was not 
like Kant's, serene. His extreme liberalism raised 
up enemies. He was driven from Jena, only to 
find chairs of philosophy awaiting him at Erlaugen 
and Berlin. His life terminated in 1814. 

Schelling and Hegel, personal friends, were the 
founders of bitterly hostile rival schools or theories 
of philosophy. The former was born in Wurtem- 
berg in 1775, the latter in Stuttgard in 1770. Just 
what the philosophy of either was, is still a matter 
of dispute between philosophical students and writ- 
ers. Schelling lectured at Berlin for many years, 



— 1 9 



INTELLECTUAL GERMANY. 



2 47 



reaching the eightieth year of his age. In 1818 
Hegel came to Berlin as a university professor, 
where he resided until his death. 1831. Numerous 
were the disciples of these metaphysicians, and 
powerful was the influence upon the nation of their 
philosophy. ~Not that any considerable proportion of 
the people perplexed themselves with their abstruse 
theories and disputatious ; but the spirit of free 
thought, of downright skepticism, which pervaded 
the metaphysicians came to be the most distin- 
guishing characteristic of the German mind. The 
country of Luther and the pietists became the 
land of unbelief. Instead of the bitter scoffing of 
the French school, there was a loftv, calm and inl- 



and shows their essential and sublime harmony. 
He may be said to unite the reasoning of Herbert 
Spencer with the patient research of Charles 
Darwin. 

Germany is noted for its universities and its eru- 
dition. The University at Berlin, founded in 1810, 
grew out of a scientific society organized little 
over a century before by the great pioneer of Ger- 
man philosophy, Leibnitz, a graduate of Leipsic, 
and a man of wonderful versatility. So far ahead 
of his age was he that when philosophy gained a 
foothold it came quite independent of his writings. 
The university which grew out of his society has 
over three thousand students in constant attend- 




ilEIDELBEEG. 



perious contempt for all which was thought to 
savor of superstition. 

The most positive and intelligible expression of 
disbelief is the Force and Matter of Prof. Buchner. 
That brilliant no less than learned German dis- 
tinctivelv asserts and elaborately argues that what 
is known of nature proves both the non-existence 
of a personal deity and the mortality of man. He 
goes further than the very radical Spencer, Mill 
and Haeckel. He positively denies where they 
merely decline to asseverat' 1 . 

What Denslow calls " the most important scien- 
fcific and philosophical work of this century," The 
Evolution of Man, was produced by Ernst Haeckel. 
This latest, if not greatest, of German philosophers 
was born in Potsdam. Prussia, February 16, 1834. 
He belongs to the University of Jena as lec- 
turer on zoology. He applies philosophy to science, 



ance, and numbers among its former professors of 
renown. Humboldt. Xeander, Schleiermacher, Vir- 
chow, Eichte, Fichte, and Hegel. 

The university of Halle was founded in 1G94. In 
1817 it absorbed the university of Witteniburg 
which dated from 1503. Its rank is especially high 
in theology and cognate branches of learning. The 
great critical student of the Bible, Gesenius, was one 
of its professors from 1810 to 1843. In those palmy 
days of the institution there were over a thousand 
students. There are about that number at the pres- 
ent time. The " Halle School'' is a term applied to 
the religious views which long distinguished Halle as 
the great seat of evangelical learning in Germany. 
The founder of that school was Spener, while 
Francke, Breithaupt and Lauge were eminent names 
in it. Unlike most Germans, including the clergy, 
the members of the Halle School devoutly believe 



3 1 



^Hh 



H 8 



INTELLECTUAL GERMANY. 



in special Providence, plenary inspiration, and are 
truly orthodox in belief. 

. The oldest of the twenty-two universities of the 
present empire is that at Heidelberg, a romantic 
place, also famous for its schloss, or castle, founded 
in 1356 ; the youngest is that of Strasburg, founded 
1872. About twenty thousand students attend 
these universities. The one at Heidelberg has a 
library of 200,000 volumes, a zoological museum, 
and other facilities for the study of scientific sub- 
jects. It is a famous resort for medical and divinity 
students. Many foreigners repair thither to perfect 
their education. 

The peculiarity of German scholarship is its 
exceptional thoroughness. The professors devote 
themselves to minutely small fields of research, and 
by exploring every nook and corner, are enabled to 
thoroughly understand them. It is this peculiarity 
which has placed modern Germany at the front in 
erudition. Every branch of study, philological, his- 
torical or scientific, has received from that micro- 
scopical method a fullness of development which 
would have been impossible otherwise. By this 
careful and exhaustive method the Germans have 
been enabled to make many highly important con- 
tributions to the stock of human knowledge. To 
German erudition belongs the credit of discerning 
the path of civilization in prehistoric times by the 
clew of comparative philology, and this is only one 
illustration among many of hardly less importance to 
the world. German erudition is not personal like the 
literature, philosophy and music of Germany. It 
was and is the all-pervasive atmosphere of the na- 
tion in its intellectual development. 

We cannot better close this chapter than by re- 
ferring to Alexander von Humboldt, who, taking it 
all in all, deserves the very highest rank hi intellect- 
ual Germany. Born at Berlin September 14, 1769, 




HUMBOLDT. 



astro- 



it has well been said that he was to science what 
Shakspeare has been to the 
drama. He combined patient 
research into minutia with 
grand powers of centraliza- 
tion, discerning the relations 
of nature's infinite parts to 
her grand totality. Parbach, 
Mullerus and Copernicus, 
Germans all, contributed to 
astronomy in its mere infan- 
cy, but Humboldt pointed 
out the connection between jmenomena, 
nomical precession, 
geological transfor- 
mations, and botan- 
ical and zoological 
development, showing 
the inexorable reign 
of law. " We associ- 
ate the name of Hum- 
boldt," says Ingersoll, 
" with oceans, conti- 
nents, mountains and 
volcanoes ; with the 
great plains, the wide 
deserts, the snow-tipped craters of the Andes ; 
with primeval forests and European capitals ; with 
wildernesses and universities ; with savages and 
savans ; with the lonely rivers of unpeopled wastes ; 
with peaks and pampas and steppes, and cliffs and 
crags ; with the progress of the world ; with every 
science known to man and every star glittering in 
the immensity of space. The world is his monu- 
ment ; upon the eternal granite of her hills he in- 
scribed his name, and there upon everlasting stone 
his genius wrote this sublimest of truths : ' The 

UNIVERSE IS GOVERNED BY LAW.'" 




COPERNICUS 




ItL 





CHAPTER XLII 



German and Semi-German— Date of the Dual Empire— Austria as a County— The Haps- 
burg and the hohenzollern — rhodolph and ottocar— the duchy and archduchy 
op Austria — Modern Austria — Hungary and the Magyars— Hungarian History — The 
Hapsburgs in Hungary— Old and New Policy— "Kaiser" op Austria, and Emperor- 
King — Present Government op the Empire — Reichsrath and Reichstag — Religion and 
Education— Bosnia and Herzegovina— Lichtenstein — Cities of the Empire— Letters. 




i^-§=3xe4)— ^ 



HE German empire is (lie 
culminating point, politi- 
cally, of German history ; 
but it does not by any 
means include all of Ger- 
many. Before we can dis- 
miss from consideration 
the Teutons, and pass on to their 
neighbors, the French, we must 
finish the record of German and 
£ fSj'j'S- semi-German nations not included 
in that imperial confederation, the 
chief of which has its capital at 
Vienna. 

The present duality, suggested by 
the title to this chapter, with the 
peculiar system of government in- 
volved, dates from 1807, since 
which time there has been harmony and every pros- 
pect of a permanent union. Prior to that time the 
proper mode of expression would have been, Austria 
and Hungary. Austria may be said to be an out- 
growth from a county. Rhodolph, son of Albert 
IV., Count of Hapsburg, was the founder of it. 
He was born in 1218. He was a bold, rude fighter. 
By degrees he extended his authority until in the lat- 
ter part of the thirteenth century he was elected 



Emperor of Germany, or, as it is some times ex- 
pressed, " King of the Romans, by choice of the 
Electors of Germany." The intelligence of his elec- 
tion was conveyed to him by his nephew, Frederick 
of Hohenzollern. Thus at the very threshold do we 
meet the two great royal family names still regnant 
in the two nations .if German-speaking peoples. A 
contemporary bishop who was not a little displeased 
with the election, exclaimed, "Sit fast, great God, 
or Rhodolph will occupy thy throne ! " 

The most formidable rival of Rhodolph for im- 
perial greatness was Ottocar of Bohemia, originally 
a very powerful sovereign. For some time there was 
war between them, resulting in the subjugation of 
Ottocar. That king was obliged to confine his sov- 
ereignty to Bohemia and Moravia, surrendering all 
claims to the Duchies of Austria, Styria, Carinthia 
and Carniola. At Vienna, then as now the capital 
of Austria, Rhodolph fixed his royal residence and 
made it the paramount object of his life to secure 
Austria as a permanent possession for the House of 
Hapsburgh. 

The duchy, or rather archduchy, of Austria, the 
nucleus around which has grown the empire of that 
name, has an area of 13,270 square miles, is bound- 
ed on the south by Styria, on the west by Bavaria. 
on the east by Hungary, and on the north by 



( 2 49) 



;pr 



■<u 



2 5° 



AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 



Bohemia and Moravia. Intersected by the Dan- 
ube and divided into Upper and Lower Aus- 
tria by the river Enns, it has now a popula- 
tion of about three millions. The Austro-Hun- 
garian monarchy is an empire with an area of 240,- 
:!48 square miles and a population of over thirty- 
seven millions of souls. It was not until the reign 
of Ferdinand IV., in the present century, that the 
duchy of Austria was raised to the dignity of an 
archduchy. The son of Rhodolph, Albert I., was 
also Emperor of Germany. His grandson, Fred- 
erick III , was not., but Albert V., of Austria, be- 
came Albert II. of Germany. That was early in 
the fifteenth century, and from that time on for 
four centuries the election of Emperor of Germany 
fell to the House of Hapsburg almost as a matter 
of course, and Austria had no separate history 
worthy of note during that period. 

Turning now to Hungary, we find the countries 
of the Hungarian crown to consist of Hungary prop- 
er, Transylvania, Croatia and Slavonia, with an 
area of 99,717 square miles and a population of 
about fifteen millions. Hungary proper has an 
area of 68,583 square miles and a population of 
about eleven millions. Nearly one-half of the peo- 
ple are Magyars, and they give to the country its 
distinctive characteristics. Nexi to them in num- 
bers and influence are the Slavs. The Magyars 
came into notice in the latter part of the ninth cen- 
tury. They are allied at once to the Turks ami the 
Finns. They have been aptly described as " a 
high-spirited, proud and generous people, richly 
gifted in every respect, in body strong, mentally 
bright, and possessed of an inexhaustible energy." 
In practical results, however, they can boast but 
little. That portion of the Roman Empire which 
they overran had been swept over before by the 
Huns and the Avars, the former leaving little be- 
hind them to mark their ravages except the name 
which the country now bears. 

Hungarian history is divided into three divisions. 
The first period, from 88i to L301, was tempestuous 
and bloody. The dynasty of the Arpads ruled, and 
the country was in a chronic state of war. From 
the latter date to 1526 the monarchy was elective, the 
kings being chosen by the nobles. Feudalism was 
supreme. Of the Arpads. Stephen I., crowned " II w 
Apostolic Majesty " in 1000, was the most illustri- 
ous. The elective system proved repressive to the 



public interest. The nobility discouraged the devel- 
opment of any third estate, and the common people 
were serfs. But Stephen, who is the pride of Hun- 
gary, was really the great misfortune of the country, 
especially in this, that he made the Latin language 
the official language of the country, and its only 
vehicle of civilization, and this ostracism of the ver- 
nacular tongue continued until the current century. 

In 1526 the rule of the Ilapsburgs began, and 
remains to this day. The only serious attempt to 
shake off that yoke was under the leadership of that 
highly sensational revolutionist, Louis Kossuth, 
whose carreer of meteoric splendor about the mid- 
dle of this century 
drew to him the 
gaze of the world. 
A journalist by 
profession, a bril- 
liant orator and 
sincere patriot, he 
succeeded in stir- 
ring up a powerful 
revolt against Aus- 
tria, and after be- 
ing compelled to ' 
seek safety in flight 
he found his way 
to this country, 
where his speeches kossuth. 

in the years 1851-52 excited the utmost enthusiasm. 
But the meteor 

disappeared with- "v 

out any perma- (i* \~0,V 

nent effect upon I K3 ^tr 

either the heavens A \ [^ ^M 

above or the earth 
beneath. Hun- 
gary is a truly 
loyal portion of 
the empire of the 
Ilapsburgs. On 
two occasions it 
may be said that 
Hungary rescued 
the Ilapsburgs 
from ruin. 

When Maria 
Theresa tottered 
upon her throne it was 





MARIA THERESA. 

the heroism and chivalric 



AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 



2 5 l 




" olv 



_s \J- 



AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 



2 53 



devotion of the Magyars which saved her from de- 
-i ruction, and a little later, when Napoleon was un- 
certain whether to destroy the house or marry one of 
the daughters, it was Hungarian influence which 
decided him. But for all that, the Hapsburgs never 
respected Hungarian rights and prejudices until 
after the revolution of 1848 had nearly succeeded in 
securing a separation of Hungary from Austria. 

The policy of the emperors was to try to remodel 
the institutions of the country, and make them 
conform to the German plan. So far from suc- 
ceeding in the eradication of what might be called 
indigenous ideas, this policy re- 
sulted in strengthening, vivify- 
ing and intensifying those 
national peculiarities. Francis 
Joseph, who came to the throne 
in 1848, was early given a very 
impressive practical lesson on 
this subject, the result of which 
is seen in the fact that Hun- 
gary is absolutely equal in the 
scale of national institutions to 
Austria. 

At the risk of being a little 
tedious, it is proposed to give 
the political institutions of this 
dual kingdom, quoted, with 
some condensation, from that 
excellent English authority. 
Mr. Frederick Martin. 

Francis I., who reigned from 
L792 to 1835, was the first 
" Kaiser'" of Austria, and when 
his sou Ferdinand IV. abdicated in 1848 in favor of 
Francis Joseph, the latter became emperor-king. 

The present constitution dates, however, from 
1867. Eacli of the two countries, Austria and Hun- 
gary, has its own parliament, ministry and govern- 
ment, the connecting links being a common sov- 
ereign, army, navy and diplomacy, together with 
a controlling body, known as the Delegations. 
The latter form a parliament of 120 members, 
equally divided between the two countries, the dele- 
gates being chosen by the lecal legislatures, the lat- 
ter bodies having two branches, substantially the 
same as the senate and house of our legislatures. 
The local legislature or diet is called Reichstag, in 
Hungary, Reichsrath in Austria. The delegations 




FRANCIS JOSEPH I 



of each country sit in a body by themselves, pos- 
sessing co-ordinate authority and power, but if they 
cannot agree on measures when thus acting sepa- 
rately they meet as one body, and the final vote is 
binding upon the entire empire. This imperial diet 
is confined in its jurisdiction to foreign affairs and 
war. There are three ministers for the whole em- 
pire, namely the ministry of war, of foreign affairs 
and of finance. There is a ministry at Austria 
and another at Hungary. The former consists of 
the Interior ; Public Education, Justice and Eccle- 
siastical Affairs ; Finance ; Agriculture ; Com- 
merce and National Defense. 
The Hungarian departments, 
or executives, are, Presidency 
of the Council ; Finance ; 
National Defense ; Ministry 
Near the King's Person; In- 
terior ; Education and Public 
Worship ; Justice ; Commu- 
nications and Public Works ; 
Agriculture, Industry and Com- 
merce ; and the Ministry of 
Croatia and Slavonia. The 
imperial cabinet is responsible 
to the Delegations, the local 
cabinets to their respective 
diets, the Reichstag and Reich- 
srath. as the case may be. 

Religious toleration is en- 
joyed throughout the empire, 
but the Roman Catholic church 
has a great preponderance. 
There are no less than three 
hundred abbeys and five hundred convents in the 
empire. The perfect equality of all religious creeds 
and civil marriage were established in 18G8. Until 
within the last twenty years the masses of the peo- 
ple were in dense ignorance. Public schools are 
now maintained, and in the strictly German part of 
the empire primary education is almost universal. 
There are eight universities in the empire. They 
are situated at Vienna, the capital of Austria, 
Pesth, the capital of Hungary, Prague, Graz, Inns- 
bruck, Cracow, Czernowitz and Lemberg. The first 
and second are the most extensive, the former hav- 
ing about 250 teachers and 3000 pupils, the latter 
over 120 teachers and 2000 pupils. 

According to an article of the treaty of Berlin, 



L t* 



2 54 



AUSTRIA -HUNGARY. 



(1878) Bosnia and Herzegovina were to have their 
public affairs administered by Austria-Hungary. 
Those provinces, formerly belonging to Turkey, 
added a territory of 24,247 square miles and a pop- 
ulation of 1,212,172 to the empire. These figures 
are based on a census of 1879. About one-third 
of the population of this new territory are Moham- 
medans, a still larger proportion Greeks, and a sixth 
are called Romanites. The Christians, both Greeks 
and Romanites, were well pleased with it. 

The little principality of Lichtenstein, inclosed 
in the Austrian province of Tyrol and Vorarlberg, 
is practically a part of the empire. It contains 
only 08 square miles and a population of less 
than ten thousand. The people pay no taxes 
and perform no compulsory military duty. It is 
a fertile although mountainous little country. 
The prince resides at Vienna, rather than at his 
capital, Vaderz. 

It only remains to speak of the cities of this em- 
pire. There are only nine having a population of 
over 50,000. Vienna has a population of over a 
million and is one of the grandest cities on the 
globe. The other Austrian cities are Prague, 189,- 
949; Trieste, 109,324; Lemberg, 87,109; Gratz, 
81,119 and Brunu, 73,771. The Hungarian cities 
are, the capital, Pesth, or, as it is sometimes 
called, Buda-Pesth, which has a population of 131,- 
735, Szegedm, 70,179; Maria-Theresiopel, 50,323. 
Taken as a whole, the empire is eminently rural, 



with a strong tendency, however, toward concentra- 
tion of population in cities. 

'• Intellectual Germany," as the term is used in 
this book, includes all the Germans, Austrian no less 
than Prussian ; but in the domain of letters Hun- 
gary has a distinct record. 

The Magyars, who settled in Hungary as early as 
the middle of the ninth century of the Christian era, 
had a language so well defined and matured that it 
has undergone but few changes in a thousand years, 
It was not until the eighteenth century, however, 
that it so much as began to be a vehicle of lit- 
erature. Latin was the language employed by 
writers. The Hungarian newspaper press deserves 
especial mention for its ability and services in de- 
veloping a vernacular literature. Kossuth was by 
no means alone among the editors of that country 
who rose to eminence, although he alone acquired 
world-wide fame. This language can boast some 
highly creditable, if somewhat commonplace, prose 
books, but as a recent writer upon the intellectual 
development of Europe justly observes, " Its true 
inauguration as a literary language, as the bearer of 
a national civilization, as the expression of a national 
genius, the Hungarian language received by the pub- 
lication in 1817 of Himfy's Love, by Sandor Kinfal- 
udv." A competent critic pronounces that volume of 
'• epics with strong lyrical tone," resplendent with the 
luster of true genius. Others have followed him until 
Hungary has a very respectable national literature. 




J iw 

Mb 






^s^^ss ^mBHasm ssmmBssBm mu s ssBm amsss?? 1 ^^^ 




BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS 






rHE Two Countries Compared — Belgium as a Separate Kingdom— Religion and Education 
— The Kingdom of the Netherlands — Java— Dutch Government and Schools — Topog- 
tiapht and Resources — The Dutch in History— Imperial and Medieval — The Nation 
and its Great War— The Throes of the Dutch Republic— The Period of Prosperity- 
The Fall of the Republic— Dutch Art; Van Eyck to Ary Scheffer — Waterloo. 



^S^-t^OD^f— Ti 



i ^m 



ELGIUM and the Nether- 
lands are two distinct na- 
tions in their present politi- 
cal existence ; but in the 
blending of the historical and 
the actual they cannot be 
dissociated. The provinces 
of Belgium are Antwerp, 
Brabant, Flanders (East 
and West), Hainault. Liege, Limbourg, 
Luxembourg and Xainur, several of 
these names being suggestive of the 
Dutch Republic. The names Brabant 
and Limbourg are also found in the list 
of the Netherland provinces, besides 
Holland (North and South), Zealand, 
Utrecht, Friesland, Guelderland, Over- 
yssel, Drenthe and Groiiningcn. The 
Dutch of history constitute, for the 
most part, the past of both the kingdoms under 
consideration. 

Neither of these kingdoms may be called a nor- 
mal development. On the contrary, the great pow- 
ers of Europe, hostile to republicanism, drew arbi- 
trary lines of national distinction and fixed the 
boundaries of each nation to suit themselves. Be- 
fore reverting to the historical part of the subject of 



this chapter it may be well to set forth the present 
condition of the two kingdoms now under consider- 
ation. 

Belgium dates from 1830. It was then that it 
was cut nif from the Netherlands. The immediate 
occasion of the secession was a popular uprising in 
Brussels. The formal recognition of Belgium by all 
the governments of Europe did not occur until 1839. 
The first king was Leopold I. of Saxe-Coburg. The 
present king, Leopold II., was born in 1835, and 
came to the throne when his father died, 1865. The 
kingdom has an area of 11,373 square miles and a 
population of about six millions. It is the most 
densely inhabited country in Europe. Small as is 
the territory, the people are decidedly mixed. Ac- 
cording to an official report of 1878 there arc 2,256,- 
860 Belgians who speak French, 2,659,890 who 
speak Flemish, 38,070 who speak German, and the 
rest speak two if not three of the languages named. 
There are over one million proprietors of the soil. 
The government is a constitutional and hereditary 
monarchy. The greater part of the authority of 
state is vested in the parliament with its two 
branches. The executive jurisdiction belongs to 
the ministers, each being responsible within the 
scope of his respective department. The members 
of both houses of the legislative part of the govern- 



,32 



(255) 



2 5 6 



BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS. 



nieiit are chosen by the people, a property qualifica- 
tion being attached to the right of suffrage. The 
members of the lower house are elected for four 
years, of the upper liou.se for eight. The number of 
the latter is one-half that of the former. Evidently 
the Belgian government is about as nearly republi- 
can as it well could be and maintain the form and 
semblance of royalty. 

Nearly all the people are Romanists in religion. 
There are not more than 13,000 Protestants, all 



proper it exceeds the rural population. Amsterdam, 
Rotterdam and The Hague are large cities. This 
kingdom is second only to England in -colonial en 
tcrprise. These outside possessions are divided into 
three groups, namely, the possessions in Asia, or 
the East Indies ; second, six small West India 
islands; third, Surinam in South America. The 
South African possessions have slipped away from 
the mother country. The total population of these 
colonies is about twenty-three millions, and eight- 




told, and less than 2,000 Jews. Full religious lib- 
erty is guaranteed by the Constitution, and the 
clergy of all denominations are paid in part from 
the national treasury. There are four universities 
in the kingdom, located at Brussels, Louvain, 
Ghent and Leige. These institutions are in the 
hands of the priests and Jesuits. Elementary edu- 
cation is sadly neglected, about one-fifth of the 
adult population being unable to read or write. 

Turning now to the Netherlands we find a people 
living under a constitution which dates from that 
great year of revolutions, 1848. The area is 12,680 
square miles, the population about four millions. 
The city population is relatively large. In Holland 



een millions belong in Java alone, which is many 
times more important than all the rest of the colo- 
nies of the Netherlands. It has an area of 51,336 
square miles. Most of the people are agricultural 
laborers, nearly all the land being held either by the 
government or non-resident Dutch capitalists. The 
revenue derived is very considerable, mainly from 
the sale of coffee, with some sugar and spices. Java 
is an island. The Dutch took permanent posses- 
sion of it in 1677. The Portuguese had visited it as 
early as 1511, and a Dutch settlement was effected 
in 1595. In the fifteenth century the people em- 
braced Mohammedanism. Prior to that they were 
Buddhists. The Javans are very industrious and 



4& 



BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS. 



2 57 



i|itite skillful. The island is governed as if it were 
an immense estate managed for the exclusive benefit 
of distant owners and their resident agents. 

Keturning now to the home government, we find 
it substantially the same in character as Belgium. 
The entire legislative authority is vested in a body 
called the States General, with two branches. In 
theory the king has the veto power, but his exercise 
of it is very infrequent. The present king is Wil- 
liam III. The present kingdom was reconstructed 
by and dates from the Congress of Vienna, 1815, 



read nor write. The rising generation will make 
a much better showing in this regard. According 
to latest accounts there are 2, GOO public schools witli 
pupils to the number of 400,000. Besides these pub- 
lic schools there are a great many private schools. 
The universities of the kingdom are four, — those at 
Leyden, Groningcn, Amsterdam and Utrecht. 

The Netherlands, as the name suggests, is a low 
and flat country, literally wrested from the sea by 
the skill and industry of man. It is a delta with 
the Rhine, the Meuse and the Scheldt, as its watery 




VIEW OF THE HAGUE. 



when the sovereignty was vested in the ancient and 
illustrious house of Orange. The first king of the 
present realm was William I. He was succeeded in 
1840 by William II., and he in turn by the king 
now on the throne. This house traces its origin to 
Count Waldam who lived in Germany in the eleventh 
century. The prevailing religion is that of the 
Reformed Church, with about an equal number of 
Catholics. The government is impartial in matters 
of faith and worship, but the moral influence of the 
government is wholly Protestant. Education is 
slowly making its way among the common people. 
It is estimated that among the strictly rural popu- 
lation of the Netherlands, one-fourth of the male 
adults and one-third of the women can neither 



enclosures. Intersected by rivers and canals, much 
of the land is actually below the water level." Dikes 
and dunes protect the country from inundation. 
The result is a vast wealth of agricultural resources 
so rich indeed as to make the farmers of the Low- 
land preeminently prosperous. 

Turning now from the actual to the historical, 
we will follow the somewhat involved and devious 
course of that Semi-German people most widely 
designated as the Dutch. 

In the days of the Roman Empire the Belgag, 
Batavians and Tuscans were a part of the great 
German and Gallic region conquered by Julius Cae- 
sar. In the Carlovingian empire they lacked 
national individuality. In the sunshine and storm 



258 



BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS. 



of feudalism the Low Country grew into distinctive- 
ness. There were several dukedoms: Brabant, Lim- 
bourgand Luxembourg; eountships: Artois, Flan- 
ders and Holland ; bishoprics : Mechlin and Utrecht. 
Being upon the outskirts of the continent, and in- 
habiting a country then far from its present state 
of cultivation, even as compared to other parts of 
Europe, they were allowed to regulate their own 
affairs pretty nearly in their own way. The rod of 
imperialism was lightly felt. The fierce conflict 
with the sea which the people were obliged to wage 
cultivated boldness and energy of character. Lo- 
cated as they were upon the seaboard, having rivers 
which were arms of the sea, their position was pe- 
culiarly favorable to commercial development. 

, The feudal lords had 
/ their castles and arm- 
ed retainers, but side 
by side with them 
grew up and flour- 
ished marts of trade, 
fortified against inva- 
sion, prepared for war 
without being devot- 
ed to it. The com- 
mercial spirit of the 
old Phoenicians pre- 
heroism which would have 
The Medie- 




A Feudal Castle. 



vailed, coupled with 

done honor to Rome in her best days. 

val Dutch were the pioneers of modern commercial 

thrift. 

Late in the fourteenth century the Duke of Bur- 
gundy became also Count of Flanders, the Union 
having been effected by marriage. In 1477 the 
house of Hapsburg absorbed the Netherlands, and 
a great stimulus was given to Dutch commerce. 
For a time Austria, the Netherlands and Spain, 
with some minor possessions, owed allegiance to the 
same crown. They never formed one nation. 
When the empire of Charles V. was divided the 
Netherlands and Spain went together, and this un- 
natural union produced the most important results. 
At that time both peoples were enterprising, and it 
was a very great good fortune, so far as that went, to 
the Dutch that they were linked politically with the 
discoverers of America. The Spaniard sought 
gold and silver in the new world ; the Dutch were 
true to their strictly commercial instincts. But in 
any other regard the union was incongruous. 



The Reformation, which found its chief apostle 
in Martin Luther, found its readiest acceptance in 
the Low lands. As Philip of Spain was the very 
prince of bigots, he saw in his Protestant subjects 
vipers to be exterminated. The result was a war 
which began in 1560 and lasted until 1048. A 
more causeless, cruel, devastating and heroic war 
never stained the annals of history. For eighty- 
two years, nearly three generations, the struggle 
continued. At first the several provinces resisted 
oppression and held fast to their rights in an inde- 
pendent way, but in 1579 a union was formed at 
Utrecht between the seven Northern provinces, 
Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Friesland, GrOningen, 
Overyssel and Gaiolderland. Spain so far recognized 
this union as to enter into an armistice of twelve 
years, concluded in 1609. That armistice was sim- 
ply recuperative for the final struggle. On the 
Spanish side were those monsters of cruelty and 
treachery, Alva, Parma, Don John and Alexander 
Farnese, while upon the side of the Dutch were 
William of Nassau, Maurice of Nassau, John Bar- 
neveldt, and others of heroic mold. The commer- 
cial cities proved capable of the most patient endur- 
ance of hardships. It was a noble matching of 
patriotism against fanaticism. Finally, in 164S, the 
peace of Westphalia recognized the independence of 
the states forming the Dutch Republic. 

The present Netherlands, with some modifications, 
embraces that republic, while the present Belgium 
includes the Dutch provinces which Spain retained, 
and out of which Protestantism was stamped by 
the persistence of Spanish Catholicism. 

For a century the Dutch Republic was mistress 
of the sea and flourished beyond all precedent. 
Spain and Portugal were quite unable to maintain 
their maritime supremacy. The business-like air 
which pervaded the Republic enabled the bold sea- 
men and merchant princes of the Netherlands to 
sweep all before them, and it was with good reason 
that Admiral von Tromp paraded a broom at his mast- 
head as he coasted along the English channel. In 
1667 DeRuyter sailed up the Thames and blockaded 
the port of London. The Swedes and the Danes 
were awed into acquiescence. But England was not 
to be kept down. In the eighteenth century it 
gradually gained upon its republican rival. The 
wresting of New York from the Dutch was one of 
many instances in point. When the American 



f 



>kL 



BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS. 



2 59 



colonies declared war for independence the Dutch 
thought to improve the opportunity for recovering 
their lost prestige. But instead of doing that, they 
lost still more ground, receiving a blow from which 
there was never any recovery. In the meanwhile 
party spirit ran high in the Republic. One faction 
would gladly have made the chief magistracy heredi- 
tary in the Orange-Nassau family, while the other 
favored a pure republic. 

In the winter of 1794-95, the French army having 
conquered the Spanish possessions in the North 
(Belgium), inarched into the Republic and was 
hailed by one party as deliverers. That foreign in- 
vasion may be said to 

have dealt a fatal 
blow to the Dutch 
Republic. The Bata- 
vian Republic was 
declared in May, 1795, 
which lingered in ob- 
scurity until, in 1800, 
Napoleon hurled it 
aside and set up the 
Kingdom of Holland 
for Louis Bonaparte. 
Four years later he 
incorporated it with 
France. The Congress 
of Vienna re-estab- 
lished the Kingdom 



contributed much to the development of art in the 
Netherlands. The older 
brother invented, or 
perfected, a varnish 
which was of great im- 
portance in the preser- 
vation of paintings. 
The next preeminent- 
ly great name was Al- 
brecht Diirer of Nurem- 
berg, born in 1471. 
He is called the father 
of the German school of painting. It has been said 

that his art was great 





SATYIl AND NYMPHS— after RtTBENS 



of Holland, with the Orange-Nassau family on the 
throne, Belgium being a part of it, as seen already, 
until 1830. 

Since that time the Dutch have been content 
to quietly follow business pursuits. To-day they 
are notable for the vastness of their holdings of 
government and corporate bonds. Their surplus 
capital is enormous. Not given to ostentation, 
they seem to take a special delight in mere accumu- 
lation. 

In no other respect can the Dutch lay such high 
claim to preeminence as in art. The painters of 
the Flemish and Dutch schools are second only to 
the Italians in the number of their great names and 
the brilliance of their fame. The earliest of these 
was Hubert Van Eyck, who flourished in the last 
half of the fourteenth century at Ghent and Bru- 
ges. He excelled in the depth, power, transparency 
and harmony in his coloring. His brother Jan 



because it was the 
natural outgrowth of 
his own genius, race 
and time. The ac- 
knowleged head of the 
Flemish school of art 
was Rubens, born at 
Siegen, Westphalia, in 
1577. "As a painter," 
says Mrs. Shedd, " the 
qualities of Rubens 
consist in a truthful 
and intense feeling for 
nature and a warm 
and transparent color- 
ing. He had wonder- 
ful fertility of conception, and still more won- 
derful facility of execution ; his imagination em- 
braced every object capable of representation, 
and he could render with equal success the most 
forcible and the most fleeting appearances of na- 
ture." A pupil of Rubens of hardly less fame was 
Anthony Van Dyck of Antwerp. He was a masterly 
painter of portraits. He was alike successful in 
delineating strong characters and the simplicity of 
childhood. The next name to challenge attention 
is Rembrandt, born in Leyden, 1608. Truthful and 
picturesque, he possessed very remarkable power in 
all the technicalities of his art. His lighting was 
2)eculiar. On his canvas light is concentrated, and 
not diffused. Paul Potter, born at Enkhuysen in 
1625, was the first great animal painter, and it 
would hardly be too much to call him the foremost 
artist of nature. Landscapes from his brush show 
the utmost fidelity to the real and very delicate 



260 



BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS. 



gradations of perspective. The last to be men- 
tioned, but by no means the least, of these artists 
of the Lowlands, was Ary Scheffer, of Dordrecht. 
Born as the last century was on the eve of depart- 
ure, he belonged to the present century. He really 
belongs in that legion of honor, the great masters, 
for his genius resembled theirs in its religious char- 
acter. His best paintings have Christ as their cen- 



(whieh in the language and habits of the inhabit- 
ants is a connecting link between the two countries 
and peojiles) the most memorable battlefield in all 
the world, the spot above all others in Belgium 
which a traveler would wish to visit. That illustrious 
spot, it is hardly necessary to say, is Waterloo. The 
village of this name is in the province of South 
Brabant on the road from Charlevoi to Brussels, at 




BATTLEFIELD OF WATERLOO. 



tral figure. He also selected many subjects from 
the great poets Goethe, Schiller and Byron. 

Having now concluded the survey of the German 
and Semi-German peoples, inclusive of the lofty 
standpoint of the intellect, we are about to cross 
the Rhine where the nimble and vivacious French 
present a strong contrast to the proverbially phleg- 
matic Dutch, and in passing we find in Belgium 



the outskirts of the forest of Seignies. The two 
armies occupied ridges, and the valley between 
was indeed the valley of death. Agriculture long 
since resumed its sway over that field, but traces 
and relics of the immortal combat are still to be 
found there, mementoes of what Victor Hugo says 
was not a battle, but " the change of front of 
the universe." 






Old and New France— Ancient Gaul— Clovis and the Franks— The Merovingian Line — 
Charles Martel and the Saracens — The Carlovingian and Capetian Dynasties— The 
House of Valois with its Branches— From 843 to 1143 — Abelard and Heloise— St. Louis- 
Grand Master Knight Templar Molay — Serfs— Battle of Agincourt and Joan of Arc — 
The Renaissance and Rabelais — The Vaudois and John Calvin — The Massacre of St 
Bartholomew's Day. 



a.-"* hiia 



^-*^*# 



r is hardly an exaggeration 
to say that the prophecy, 
•' A nation shall be born in 
a day," was literally ful- 
filled in the case of France. 
When the mighty deeps of 
Paris were lashed into a 
fury which leveled the Bas- 
tile to the ground in one grand spasm 
of righteous indignation, old things 
passed away and New France was 
created. The French people of the 
present time are the product of the rev- 
olution of a century ago, and not, like 
the English people, the slow growth of 
many centuries. 

Rome not only conquered Gaul, but 
did much to civilize it. When the em- 
pire crumbled, the German and Gothic barbarians 
poured down from the north, coming both by land 
and water, and the country lapsed back into barbar- 
ism. The transition from Gaul to France was at 
first a reaction subversive of the progress made 
during the period from Csesar to Clovis. That prog- 
ress had two stages, religiously, but in actual civili- 
zation it was one gradual improvement. The sub- 
stitution of Olympic deities for the wild fanaticism 




of the long-bearded Druids was a very beneficent 
step, followed later by a quite general acceptance of 
Christianity. By a wholesome process of growtli 
the various institutions, ideas and methods of Ro- 
man civilization were adopted and thoroughly nat- 
uralized. There were prosperous cities, well-tilled 
farms and even colleges of some renown in Gaul. 

But in A. D. 481, the savage Franks, no longer 
held in check by the eagles of Home, crossed the 
Rhine and took possession of the land, and that 
without a struggle. The Gauls had been greatly 
benefited by the Roman conquest, but were not at 
all loath to exchange masters. Not only the old 
Gauls, but the Goths who had preceded the Franks 
in forming settlements in Gallia, took kindly to the 
change. Clovis, first of the Frank kings, accepted 
Christian baptism and seemed disposed to encourage 
the regular flow of the stream of civilization. But 
his acceptance of Christianity proved a great calam- 
ity. He was surrounded by orthodox priests and 
theologians, while in southern Gaul the Arian doc- 
trine had been espoused. The royal convert de- 
clared it a shame that such fair possessions should 
belong to heretics, and soon a desolating war was in 
progress. 

The destruction attributable to Clovis and his po- 
lemical advisers was trivial as compared with the 



"*Vp 



(261) 



k. 



262 



OLD FRANCE. 



desolation wrought by the rivalries of his four sons. 
When he died, 511, a long period of barbarism be- 
gun. The dynasty which he founded, called the 
Merovingian line (in honor of the otherwise obscure 
grandfather of Clovis, Meroveg) continued from 
496 to 741, sixteen generations. During all that 
time the dreary waste was unrelieved by a single 
ray of hope. By sad and bloody steps the laud re- 
ceded toward a savage condition. Gradually the 
bad became worse, but the royal family sank lower 
than the people, — so very low that it sank out of 
sight with Chilperic IV. 

The immediate occasion of the disappearance 
of the Me- 
rovingian //; / ,A - 
line and 
the acces- 
sion of the 
Carlovin- 
gian, was 
the inva- 
sion of 
Western 
Europe by 
the Sara- 
cens. The 
latter hav- 
ing defeat- 
ed Spain, 
crossed the 
Pyrenees, 
thi nking 

to subjugate France and Germany, then substan- 
tially one country. The feeble king could do 
nothing to check the invasion, but Charles, Mayor 
of Paris (an office which had gradually come 
to exercise almost regal authority), came to the 
front as general of an army composed of (rer- 
nians and Franks. He met the Saracens at Poi- 
tiers ami crushed them. He is known as Charles 
Martel (the Hammer) and the savior of Western 
Europe from Islam. He might have taken the 
crown at once, but preferred a ducal title. 

His son Pepin enjoyed the regal fruits of that 
splendid victory. He was not a memorable sove- 
reign. His claim to distinction is the fact that he 
was the son of Charles Martel and the father of 
Charlemagne. The latter reigned over the Franks, 
but was a German in realitv. The Carlovingian 




THE CORONATION OF HUGH CAPET 



line has been set forth in connection with German 
history. In the disintegration of the Carlovingian 
empire, which followed immediately the death of 
Charlemagne. Gaul (now become France) fell to 
the lot of a branch of that family which produced a 
series of rulers signally unworthy of sovereignty. 
Those imbecile and vicious kings followed each other 
in monotonous infamy until dSH, when Hugh Capet 
came to the French throne. The people were no 
longer Franks, a name suggestive of their Teutonic 
origin, but Frenchmen. The Capetian line held 
the scepter until 1328, through fourteen generations. 
We find little of note during this p/riod. The 

elevation 
of Hugh 
Capet was 
the result 
of nation- 
al necessi- 
ty and pa- 
pal inter- 
vention. 

There 
had come 
to be a po- 
tent set- 
tlement of 
Normans 
upon the 
west of 
F r a 11 c e, 
Norman- 



dy and Brittany. Under the Capetia ns these Nor- 
mans were fused largely with the Franks from over 
the Rhine, and the French nationality consists of 
Gauls, Romans, Teutons and Normans amalgam- 
ated. The distinctive France is, therefore, a braid 
with four strands inseparably interwoven. 

By the time the dynasty founded by Hugh Capet 
gave place to the Valois branch of the royal family, 
the nation had still another quadruple character; 
it consisted of the church, the king, the nobility 
and the people, developed in the order observed. 
The struggles and rivalries of these factors or pow- 
ers during the Middle Ages possess no marked pecul- 
iarity. Whether the king was of the house of Va- 
lois, Yalois-Orleans or Valois-Angouleme, the dreary 
waste of centuries presents very few sterling fea- 
tures. But before proceeding with the Bourbons it 



J, 



OLD FRANCE. 



263 



may be well to pause in our dynastic sketch to note 
the really noteworthy events and historical land- 
marks of France up to the accession of the last of 
the French royal families. 

The treaty of Verdun, 8-13, was the recognized 
date for the distinct creation of Italy, France and 
Germany. The coronation of Hugh Capet has been 
called "the triumph of German manners and feudal 
connections." Christian art and the burning of 
heretics in France began about the eleventh cen- 
tury. The conquest of England by William, Duke 
of Normandy, a disgraceful victory of French arms, 
dates from this century, but 
as it never seriously modified 
French civilization, while it 
did the civilization of Eng- 
and, it belongs to the history 
of the latter country. Upon 
both countries it and other 
causes entailed a long series of 
wars, during which the Brit- 
ish kings laid claim to France, 
in whole or in part, occasion- 
ally gaining a foothold in the 
land, notably at Calais. Prac- 
tically, it resulted in the pro- 
duction of that remarkable 
patroit and martyr, Joan of 
Arc, and a few interesting mili- 
tary episodes. That is about 
all, from the French point of 
view. The first Crusade was 
formally inaugurated at Cler- 
mont, France, and Peter the Hermit, who was its 
great apostle, was a Frenchman. So was the pope 
of the period, Urban II., and the famous Christian 
knight, Godfrey of Bouillon. That Crusade dates 
from 1095. In the subsequent Crusades France- 
bore a prominent part. It was specially conspicu- 
ous in the establishment and maintenance of na- 
tional amity and royal heredity. 

During the darkest part of the Dark Ages, France 
produced a great intellectual luminary, and, pro- 
phetic of its future national character, intellectual 
preeminence was linked with love and romance. 
Thus Abelard and his fair Heloise are the first names 
in French annals to gain immortality, apart from 
the accident of rank. The former was a great 
scholar and debater. Having- won distinction by 




PETER THE 



his learning and skill in dialectical subtleties, such 
as the medieval scholars were fond of, he was hired 
to teach Heloise Greek. They fell in love and were 
imprudent. To save him from disgrace (for he was 
a priest), she refused to be married, preferring to 
bear alone the burden of their mutual calamity. 
She suffered everything, but never wavered in her 
loyalty to him. He developed into a cold-blooded, 
selfish ecclesiastic, as mean as she was amicable. 
Their story is peculiarly pathetic, and to this day 
the French love to bedeck with flowers and bedew 
with tears the one grave of this couple. It is a per- 
petual shrine of sentimental- 
ism. But in addition to all 
that, Abelard did something 
to relieve the intellectual ster- 
ility and stupidity of his time 
and church. 

One sovereign in the long 
list so rapidly passed over de- 
serves special mention, Louis 
IX., known often as St. Louis. 
From 132G to 1370 he held the 
reins of government, a truly 
great and good man. He loved 
the people, and was unremit- 
ting in his zeal to serve them. 
He convoked a parliament (or 
states-general) ; established in- 
stitutions of justice ; issued 
humane edicts ; sought to 
maintain peace ; endowed hos- 
pitals and asylums ; encour- 
aged art ; practiced virtue in private life, and charity 
to the poor. Somewhat given to superstition, he 
was yet free from the character usually stamped 
upon the human mind by credulity. 

Early in the fourteenth century occurred the 
trial and condemnation of Jacques Molay, Grand 
Master of the Knights Templar. He was a victim 
of the cupidity of Philip the Handsome, and the 
servility to that monarch of Pope Clement V. The 
Order of the Temple had grown out of the Crusades, 
and was possessed of great wealth. Molay was 
burnt at the stake, and the order comjjelled to ex- 
ist only in secret. Its present prosperous condition 
is of very modern date. 

The serfs of the royal domain were liberated July 
3, 1315, by Louis X. He was a quarrelsome king, 



7 - 



33 



-S) 'Y 



264 



OLD FRANCE. 



and needed soldiers to fight in Flanders. That, and 
not philanthropy, prompted emancipation. The 
development of the power of the people became 
by this time a prominent feature. The burghers or 
commons, acquired very considerable authority. 
Speaking of France at this period, Guizot remarks : 
" There have been communes in the whole of Eu- 
rope, in Italy, Spain, Germany and England as well 
as in France. Not only have there been communes 
everywhere, but the communes of France are not 
those which, as communes, under that name and in 
the middle ages, have played the chiefest part and 
taken the highest place in history. The Italian 
communes were the parents of glorious republics. 
The German communes became free and sovereign 
towns, which had their own special history, and ex- 
ercised a great deal of influence upon the general 
history of Germany. The communes of England 
made alliance with a portion of the English feudal 
aristocracy, formed with it the preponderating house 
in the Britisli government, and thus played, full 
early, a mighty part in the history of their country. 
Far were the French communes, under that name 
and in their day of special activity, from rising to 
such political importance and to such historical 
rank. And yet it is in France that the people of 
the communes, the burgherdom, reached the most 
complete and most powerful development, and ended 
by acquiring the most decided preponderance in the 
general social structure. There have been com- 
munes, we say, throughout Europe ; but there has 
not really been a victorious third estate anywhere 
save in France." White declares that in the course 
of this sovereign's life the middle ages passed away 
and modern life began. 

From the accession of the first Valois King, 
Philip VI. to Charles VII. (1328 to 1453) France 
and England were almost constantly at war. The 
darkest day was October 25, 1415, when the battle 
of Agincourt was fought, resulting in a most terrible 
slaughter of the flower of French chivalry. The Eng- 
lish seemed to be absolute masters of the situation. 
Year after year the unequal contest was waged, in- 
vading Britons desolating the land with impunity, 
and laying successful siege to the cities. The first 
great check to English aggression came from the 
weird leadership of Joan of Arc. This strange 
girl was a peasant born. That was an age of wild 
hallucination. At the age of sixteen, 1428, she 



had a dream in consequence of which she fancied 
herself ordained by Providence to deliver her coun- 
try from the English soldiery, then ravaging the 
land. At first her '' mission '' was too incredible to 
be seriously entertained. The idea of a rustic maid 
raising the siege of Orleans (which she promised to 
do if given command of troops) was preposterous. 
But the situation was critical in the extreme, and 
her enthusiasm inspired confidence. She was given 
an opportunity to try the experiment. It was a 
glorious success. Her faith bred heroism in those 
about her, and by a spasm of patriotism the Eng- 
lish were forced to abandon Orleans not only, but 
to surrender many other advantages. Finally she 
was captured and subjected to treatment quite 
in keeping with medieval ideas of justice. The 
French made no effort to secure her exchange. 
They allowed her to be treated by the English as 
they saw fit. She was tried for heresy and witch- 
craft. For three weeks she was badgered by bish- 
ops and lawyers. Her sentence was imprisonment 
for life. That was too lenient, and she was afterwards 
accused of wearing man's clothes, forbidden in the 
book of Leviticus, and on that charge burnt in the 
market-place at Rouen (1431). And still the 
French court and peojjle were indifferent. Later, 
her name was enshrined and held in highest 
honor. 

The dawn of modern day in Germany is called 
the Reformation, or the revival of religion ; in 
France, the Renaissance, or the revival of learning. 
The former clustered about the name of Luther; 
the latter was less personal. The great reformer 
was able to rally to his support a powerful political 
following. The cause of learning had the sympathy 
of Louis XI. That monarch ruled from 14(1 1 to 
1483. He encouraged printing and scientific pur- 
suits. A monster of cruelty, the victim of super- 
stition and fear, he yet had his good points as a 
sovereign. Duclos says of him, " Lout 1 ? XI. was 
far from being without reproach ; few princes have 
deserved so much ; but it may be said that he was 
equally celebrated for his virtues and his vices, and 
that, every thing being put in the balances, he was 
a king. The term renaissance (pronounced re-na- 
sonce) is French for regeneration or second birth. 
A term which means in English a purely spiritual 
and religious experience of the individual soul, de- 
signates, in the French, an awakening of intellectual 



4 



OLD FRANCE. 



26q 



MI 



activity, and tliis difference fairly illustrates the 
representative characteristics of the two peoples. 

The first name in this movement is Francois Ra- 
bellais. He was born in 1483, and died at Paris in 
1553. He was a priest by profession, a humorist 
by nature. His writings are grotesque, coarse and 
often tedious, yet learned, thoughtful and generally 
sprightly. They consist of the account of the life 
and experiences of "Gargantua" and "Pantagruel." 
Through Rabellais' preposterous conceits runs a vein 
of sharp criticism upon the follies of his age, the 
corruptions of the clergy, the inanities of the school- 
men, the 
crime of 
despot- 
ism, and 
the evils 
of super- 
sti tion. 
His was 
a voice of 
laughter, 
but yet 
none the 
less "the 
voice of 
one cry- 
ing in 
the wil- 
derness, 
Prepare 
ye the 

way of the lord." The Renaissance was the fore- 
runner of both the Reformation and the Revolu- 
tion, of Calvin and Voltaire, of St. Bartholomew 
and the Fourteenth of July. 

The name of John Calvin is associated with the 
little Swiss stronghold of Geneva and the Presby- 
terian church in Scotland and later in America; 
but he was none the less a Frenchman. Born at 
Noyon in 1509 he came to the notice of the public 
through a treatise on Clemency, called out by the 
first persecution of the French Protestants. The 
latter were and still are called Huguenots. He re- 
ceived his Protestantism from a Lutheran teacher. 
But long before Luther, or even John Huss, there 
was a very considerable Protestant church in 
France. It consisted of the inhabitants of the 
small and somewhat isolated districts on the 



MASSACRE OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW 



eastern slope of the Cottian Alps, called Vaudois. 
They worshiped God, indifferent to the pope So 
long as the evangelical faith and simplicity were 
confined to that people all went smoothly; but 
when Europe was aroused by the boom of the 
Lutheran cannon they were condemned as heretics. 
Three thousand were burnt or put to the sword and 
the rest imprisoned or otherwise destroyed. The 
Vaudois were literally wiped out. That was in 
154(1. But in the Huguenots lived the faith and 
heroism of the Waldenses, as the Vaudois were 
sometimes called. 

Calvin 
took the 
precau- 
tion of 
getting 
out of 
I he coun- 
try be- 
fore he 
incurred 
the ven- 
geanceof 
the eccle- 
siastical 
authori- 
ties. He 
lived in 
Geneva, 
mainly, 
where he 




wrote on theology, preached, and exercised the func- 
tions of a stern persecutor until his death (1504). He 
was determined that Geneva should be not only 
Protestant, but orthodox. His burning of Servetus 
for TJnitarianisni was, on a small scale, entirely in 
keeping with the massacre of St. Bartholomew. The 
spirit of toleration and clemency was foreign to the 
thought and practice of the sixteenth century, es- 
j>eeially to the French of that day. At no time 
was the government of France other than Catholic. 
The massacre of the Huguenots begun on St. Bar- 
tholomew's Day, August 24, 1572, was the most horri- 
ble slaughter of innocent men in cold blood on 
record. It was more political than religious, a 
woman being the prime mover in the awful infamy. 
That woman was Catherine de Medici, the Italian 
mother of the weak king, Charles IX., the last but 






i66 



OLD FRANCE 



AU 



one <>f the house of Yalois. He reigned from 1 5(50 
td 1574, his mother being the chief power behind 
the throne. The ducal house of Guise espoused 
the cause of the Catholic party, or rather under 
tlic guise of zeal for the church the opposition was 
crushed. Thousands of Protestant churches had 
sprung up, and the new religion seemed to be pros- 
pering. It received encouragement, not simply on 
its own account, but because the other party in the 
state was forced by the circumstances of the situa- 
tion to espouse the Protestant or Huguenot cause, 
doing so in their own political interest, the same 
as the ruling faction had espoused the Catholic 
church. It thus followed that on the pretext, of 
religion, the way was prepared for the horrible 
political massacre known in history as the St. Bar- 
tholomew massacre, perpetrated by the Guise party. 
Neither Catherine nor the king nor the Duke of 
Guise scrupled to go to the utmost for the accom- 
plishment of their purpose. The first victim was 
the illustrious Admiral Coligny, who was assassi- 
nated in his bed-chamber that awful night. His 
blood was a signal for a general slaughter. Noth- 
ing like it ever took place during the Reign of 
Terror. The Huguenots, taken all unaware, fell 
by thousands that night, not only in Paris, but 
throughout the kingdom. The number of victims 
can never be estimated. The estimates for Paris 
vary from 1,000 to 4,000; for France, from 30,(100 
to loo.iioii. This slaughter was thought to be fatal 
to the Protestant cause. 

During the reign of Henry II. Protestantism 
made most rapid progress in France. This was 
due largely to the political license which it received. 
The first Protestant church in Paris was estab- 
lished in 1555. In the country at large there were, 
three years later, not less than 2,000 places of 
Piotestant worship, with congregations estimated 



at 400,000, all told. Speaking of the St. Bartholo- 
mew massacre, Anderson the historian says: "In 
all parts the massacre went on. The houses of the 
Huguenots had been marked with white, and the 
names of the inmates taken, that none might 
escape. Neither age nor sex was spared by the 
soldiers. The king himself took a position at one 
of the windows of the Louvre, and fired upon the 
flying Huguenots. For three days Paris was thus 
given over to the rage of Guise and his party." 

Such was the condition of French politics in 
that century that when Henry of Navarre, who had 
been a gallant defender of the Huguenots on many 
a battle-field, came to the throne, in 1589, as the 
first of the Bourbons, he did not scruple to abjure 
his Protestant faith, yielding to the dictates of 
political policy. He tried to be lenient to his old 
associates, but a fatal blow had been struck to the 
party which he had abandoned, and, recognizing 
the fact, lie made no real attempt to restore the 
lost cause. 

When the next spirit of change found embodi- 
ment in France, it was not in any form of Chris- 
tianity, but in Voltairean hostility to all religion. 
It was not, in name even, a movement in favor of 
Protestantism. It made no distinctions between 
Christians. On the contrary, it took issue against 
every form and aspect of religious faith. The im- 
portance of that awful night could not be over- 
estimated. It led by an inevitable sequence to 
the Fourteenth of July, 1789, and with all its 
appalling carnage served, like the fall of the Bastile, 
to plow the soil for the harvest of Latter-day 
France. The statue of Liberty which was unveiled 
in Paris July 14, 1883, was rendered possible, with 
all which it represents, including its symbol of peace, 
by the seed which grew in the furrows turned in 
that night of blood and horrors unspeakable. 



=5p" 







I I I I I I t i * i-t I t I t it i I M It I I It It M II II M M it II t \ 

FRENCH MONARCHY. 

-*—*•-*— i- i i t i t it 1 1 < t » t i i -i t i * t + -»-t — n - *+ ++++- f » t i ; ) ti -i-\ 







CHAPTER XLV. 



Henry of Navarre— Recantation and Toleration— Louis XIII. — Richelieu — Louis XIV.— 
The Grand Monarchy and Intellectual Progress — Persecution and Oppression — The 
Literati op that Period — Louis XV. and John Law — Finance and Colonization— France 
and the American War of Independence — The Encyclopedia and the Great Revolu- 
tionary- Writer?. 



•URING the reigns of 
her two sons, Charles 
IX. and Henry III., 
Catherine de Medici 
was virtually the sov- 
ereign of France, cov- 
ering the period from 
the deatli of her hus- 
band, Henry II., in 1559, to the ac- 
cession of Henry of Navarre, known 
in royal line 
as Henry IV., 
the first of 
the Bourbons. 
The Protest- 
antsmightwell 
have expected from him 
revenge for St. Bartholo- 
mew. But during the 
nearly seventeen years 
which had intervened at- 
tention had been directed 
to other things. The hor- 
rible queen mother had 
slain the Protestants by 
the tens of thousands during the reign of Charles, 
and then, when her son Henry III. came to the 
throne, she made terrible havoc with the Catholic 




HENRY IV. 





nobles of France. She seemed to be especially de- 
termined to destroy the "second estate" of the 
realm, so as to build up a veritable autocracy. The 
son naturally sympathized with this policy. He 
was not, however, in accord with her ecclesiastical 
policy, and formed an alliance with the King of 
Navarre, who was to be his successor on the throne 
of France. So desperate and unscrupulous were 
his opponents, the church party, that they procured 
his assassination. That brought to the throne 
Henry IV., a Protestant. But from considerations 
of policy he identified himself with the Catholic 
church, while granting toleration to the Protestants. 
The conflict between his real convictions and his 
sense of expediency had the result to make him 
charitable toward all shades of Christian faith. 

Henry IV. was cousin of his predecessor, and 
came to the throne by due course of heredity. His 
predecessor's war upon the Guises and other Cath- 
olic nobles had prepared the way for him to be jjop- 
ular with their foes, and his ehivalric record gave 
him a strong hold upon the whole nation. He had 
to fight, however, for his regal rights. The condi- 
tion of the country was turbulent in the extreme. 
The battle of Ivry, at which his fate was decided, 
was a costly one in the loss of life. His personal 
bravery invested the white plume he wore with a 
romantic interest, and made the name of Navarre 



(=67) 



4 



268 



TRIUMPH AND DECAY OF FRENCH MONARCHY. 



so dear to the hearts of his hero-worshiping subjects 
that even his final recantation was forgiven by the 
Huguenots themselves. It was not until 1594 that 
he was absolute ami undisputed in his claim to the 
crown. The famous Edict of Nantes, guarantying 
religious toleration, was issued in April, 1598. His 
recantation was never satisfactory to the popes, of 
whom there was several during his reign, and he was 
on unfriendly terms with that most Catholic king, 
Philip of Spain. One day as he was riding in his 
carriage, a papal fanatic, Francis Ravaillac, stabbed 
him to the heart. Catholic Europe rejoiced in the 
completion of the bloody work begun by the assas- 
sination of his immediate predecessor. 

The reign of his son, Louis XIII., extended over 
a period of thirty-three years (1610-1643). At first 
ho was a mere child under the control of his mother, 
Mary de Medici, a woman as weak as her kin Cath- 
erine had been cruel. She 
in turn, was controlled by 
another Italian woman, a 
lady of her court, who ad- 
j vanced her husband to 
the highest rank. The 
real ruler was Leonora 
Consini. The tutelage 
continued after the king 
came of legal age. In 
1617 this state of affairs was terminated by the as- 
sassination of Consini, the execution for sorcery of 
his strong-minded wife, and the brief banishment 
from court of the queen-mother. 

About this time the august figure of Cardinal 

Richelieu appear- 
ed upon the stage 
of political action. 
As a provincial 
bishop he had writ- 
ten some extremely 
dull books, mostly 
against the Prot- 
estants. He had a 
genius for govern- 
ment, not for lit- 
erature. Invested 
with the cardinal's 
hat, he came to 
court as the friend of the queen-mother, but very 
soon he developed into the master spirit of the gov- 




Mary de Medici. 




RICHELIEU. 



eminent, ami swayed the destinies of France with a 
more absolute hand than Catherine de Medici. His 
aim through life was threefold : to crush Protestant- 
ism, the nobility and Austria. He never for a mo- 
ment lost sight of either object, and pursued his 
purpose with a genius which has given his name im- 
mortal luster. He seemed, viewed from the stand- 
point of passing events, to vacillate. He varied his 
policy, now helping the Protestants in the Thirty- 
Years War, then putting down their sympathizers 
at home, and still again bending all his energies to 
cripple the nobility, irrespective of religion. His 
eventful life terminated in 1642, success having 
crowned his triple ambition to a very large extent, 
especially at home. 

The weak Louis XIII. did net long survive his 
great prime minister. Brave in war, bat in peace 
the mere tool of Richelieu, he gave place the year 
following the death of that illustrious statesman to 
Louis XIV., called Louis the Grand, in whom the 
imperial policy of the cardinal found its fullest em- 
bodiment, and by whom the way was quite fully 
prepared for the horrors which came during the 
reign of his grandson, Louis XVI. The Grand 
Monarch wore the crown from 1643 to 1715. The 
first years of his reign were his only in name. It 
was not until 1661, when he was twenty-two years 
of age, that he assumed the actual control of affairs. 
Cardinal Mazarin 
succeeded Cardi- 
nal Richelieu, and 
he continued the 
policy of his pred- 
ecessor, and ren- 
dered his work 
complete. When 
he died, early in 
1661, everything 
was ready for au- 
tocracy, and Louis 5j 
XIV. was the ideal 
autocrat. His motto was " The king is the state." 
The feudal barons had disappeared or been reduced 
to political nonentity. Lords were mere courtiers 
and pensioners. Under Richelieu and Mazarin the 
crown had become the government to the fullest 
possible extent, only the real wearer wore also the 
red hat of a cardinal. But under the new king, 
now fully arrived at manhood, the real and the seem- 




\ a_ 



TRIUMPH AND DECAY OF FRENCH MONARCHY. 



269 



ing agreed 



The debased and corrupt nobility ac- 
cepted the situation cheerfully, well pleased to spend 
their days luxuriously basking in the sunlight of 
court f avers. The king had for his Secretary of 
the Treasui y M. Colbert, one of the greatest of all 
the financiers of the world, and under his adminis- 
tration of revenue matters the royal coffers were 
well filled ; the times were good, so far as concerned 
the court and its retinue. France was the foremost 
nation in Europe. The other courts aped the 
splendor which characterized the Grand Monarchy 



had its dark side. The Edict of Nantes was revok- 
ed in an evil hour, and in consequence hundreds of 
thousands of Huguenots, many of them skilled arti- 
sans, fled. They were gladly received in Protestant 
countries, and they took their profitable industries 
with them. That monstrous mistake of the Mag- 
nificent King was ot incalculable benefit to Eng- 
land and loss to France. Then, too, he fancied he 
could regulate the affairs of all Europe and em- 
broiled his country in a war which brought almost 
the entire military force of the continent, including 














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BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OP THE PALACE OF VERSAILLES, THE RESIDENCE OP LOUIS XIV. 




f.fStlf 






French became the court language of the continent. 
In intellectual pursuits the French made great 
strides during the latter part of the seventeenth 
and the early part of the eighteenth century. Mon- 
taigne wrote his immortal essays, and Descartes his 
still greater work on philosophy. Brilliant dram- 
atists arose. The French language was brought to 
its piesent state of philological perfection. Archi- 
tecture flourished. Internal improvements of great 
importance were made. The land was cultivated 
intelligently and profitably. The nation prospered 
in war and in peace. The golden age of royalty had 
come, and to all appearance had come to stay. The 
glory of Versailles was world-wide. Even remote 
Siam was dazzled by its splendor. But the picture 



Great Britain, into alliance against the French. It 
was this coalition which brought out the Duke of 
Marlborough and secured for England the " glori- 
ous victory" of Blenheim. Terrible was the slaugh- 
ter of the French. It was Waterloo on a small 
scale, so far as glory and carnage were concerned, 
but peace did not come until nine years later. Blen- 
heim was fought in 1704. The long and desolating 
series of wars waged by Louis XIV. resulted in some 
substantial gains to France, but involved the masses 
of the people in most extreme misery. 

Literature can boast some illustrious names dur- 
ing this reign. The sweet-souled Fenelon and the 
eloquent Bossuet were the glory of the church. The 
disquisitions of Fenelon upon spiritual life are in- 



sL 



2 7° 



TRIUMPH AND DECAY OF FRENCH MONARCHY. 



stinct with immortality. Pascal with his abrupt 

and profoundly suggestive genius, belonged to that 
period. So did the genial and lively La Fontaine, 
the brilliant and creative Racine, Moliere, La 
Bruyere and Boileau. Great ar- 
tists flourished, Lebrun, Regnard, 
Mignard and de Sevigne ; also 
those great architects, Perrault 
and Mansard, who constructed 
the Louvre and Versailles. The 
French Academy had been found- 
ed in Richelieu's day, but many 
academies of great advantage to 
the cause of intellectual progress 
flourished. 

All things have an end. In 1715, 
at the age of seventy-seven, hav- 
ing reigned seventy-two years, 
this ideal of a despot, this Louis 
XIV. in whom all the faults and 
blight of absolutism found their 
fullest expression, died, worn out 
by vice and the cares of state. 
France was on the verge of an- 
archy. Ambition had been sated. 
There was no nation so high in 
the scales of national glory, none 
so low in the scale of happiness 
and real prosperity. The people 
bad been sacrificed to the extrav- 
agance of the court, and the 
court had experienced the vanity 
and vexation of such ineffable 
meanness. The magnificent sov- 
ereign outlived the popularity 
won by his grandeur. As the 
funeral train moved through the 
streets the people indulged in 
snouts of joy, — the shadow cast 
before by that great coming evenl . 
the French Revolution. 

The new king, Louis XV., was 
an infant when became to the throne. The regency 
was intrusted to the Duke of Orleans, until his death 
in 1723. He was a debauchee of fairly average abil- 
ity and character. The only thing to make his rule 
memorable was the encouragement he gave to the 
wild scheme of speculation originated and pushed by 
John Law, known as the "Mississippi Bubble." Law 




saw the possibilities of the Mississippi Valley and 
the advantages of paper money. Born in Edin- 
burgh, of humble parents, he laid his plans 
before more than one court. Louis XIV. had been 
deaf to his seductions, but the 
Regent was captivated. A bank 
of circulation and deposit was 
organized. Paper money was so 
easily made and popular withal 
that the government went into 
the business on what is now called 
the fiat plan. An era of wild 
speculation ensued. Everybody 
was getting rich. Tunes were 
flush. Of course this sort of 
thing was of short duration. The 
banks failed, the paper money 
lost its purchasing power, ami 
the whole scheme proved a bub- 
ble. The valley of the Mississippi 
was vastly more valuable than 
even Law had conceived, but it 
was not available until many 
years later. Indeed, it may be 
said that John Law was ahead of 
his times. This country has abun- 
dantly demonstrated the wealth 
of that valley not only, but the 
feasibility of a currency based on 
the good faith of the government, 
as well as the bank-note system. 
The disasters of the Law craze 
contributed largely to the general 
discontent with the existing order 
of things. 

There were some very able 
financiers during this period of 
vcrgence upon revolution. The 
extravagance of Madame Pom- 
padour and other royal favorites, 
taxed to the utmost the ingenuity 
of those having in charge the 
royal exchequer. It required genius of a high order 
to meet the public and private demands upon the 
king's purse. The people were burdened with ex- 
cessive taxation. 

During this period much effort was made to build 
up a New France. In India the French had a rea- 
sonable hope of rivaling England, and in America 



~? 



TRIUMPH AND DECAY OF FRENCH MONARCHY. 



they were well established and started in the execu- 
tion of truly imperial plans. From Quebec to New 
Orleans extended the country claimed by France. 
Brave and self-denying men, like LaSalle, Cham- 
plain and Marquette, wrought a great work in the 
new world. But the court was too corrupt to afford 
proper support, and nothing of a permanent nature 
remains as the fruit of all such sowing, except the 
French portion of Canada. In that portion of the 
British Empire may be found a people who repre- 
sent the Ante-Revolutionary Frenc'\ Their ances- 
tors left the old country 

before the new era, and 
their descendants suggest 
what France would have 
been had the Bourbons and 
Bourbonism remained reg- 
nant in the French nation. 
Louis XV. died May 10, 
1774, sixty-three years of 
age. His long reign, his ir- 
regularities and arrogance 
of power, had completed the 
destruction of the mon- 
archy. Its actual fall was 
now only a question of time. 
His successor, Louis XVI., 
and his well beloved queen, 
Marie Antoinette, were the 
victims of a series of wrongs 
for which they were not re- 
sponsible. They garnered 
the harvest of Bourbon 
crimes. This country owes him much, for it was 
during the reign of Louis XVI. that France was 
the very efficient, if somewhat secret, ally of the 
United States in the war of Independence. Lafay- 
ette was not the only eminent Frenchman of his 
day who succored us in time of need. The purse 
of France was liberally opened to us, and the funds 
Bupplied were quite as useful as the sword of Lafay- 
ette and his brave associates. Enmity to England 
was not by any means the only incentive to French 
sympathy with America. The spirit of freedom 
was moving among the dry bones of France, and in- 
tense interest was felt in the cause of American 
liberty on that account. Beyond a doubt the suc- 




STATTTE OF VOLTAIRE 



cess of the thirteen rebellious colonies, followed as 
it was by the establishment of a genuine republic, 
contributed largely to the revolutionary cause. The 
feasibility of self-government on a large scale was 
being demonstrated, and operated as a powerful 
irritant and stimulant. 

It is now time to call attention to the intellectual 
development of France during this latter part of 
the eighteenth century. The post of honor should 
be assigned to that coterie of learned and progres- 
sive meti who produced the Encyclopedia. LVAlem- 
bert and Diderot were 
the leaders. Voltaire con- 
tributed to it, but had 
his individual mission. The 
object of that great literarj 
work was the emancipation 
of thought by the dissemin- 
ation of knowledge. It was 
the work of men freed from 
the fetters of old opinions, 
the manacles of medieval 
superstition. It was a great 
pioneer, a proud monument 
i if modern intelligence and 
mental liberty. Besides this 
Encyclopedia three names 
should here be recorded, 
Voltaire, Rousseau and Buf- 
f on. The latter was a great 
naturalist, and as such did 
much to usher in the pres- 
ent day of scientific obser- 
vation and classification. Rousseau's was a strangely 
inconsistent and unlovely character, but he had a 
genius for the ideal, and a passion for the rights of 
man. He set forth the beauties an 1 claims of liberty 
with a persuasiveness which made his pen one of the 
more potent factors of his time. But the supreme 
name in the list of pioneers of the Revolution is 
that of Voltaire. He ranks as the great enemy of 
the christian church, but the church which he as- 
sailed, be it remembered, was very different from 
the Christianity of the present time, and he himself 
was a believer in a personal Deity ami the future life. 
Voltaire, more than any other man, was the father 
of the French Revolution. 



34 



M 

-8 J- 





Triumph of French Monarchy— The States-Geniral— The Third Estate— National Assem- 
bly—The Bastile— The Emigrants— Flight of the Royal Family— Eoyaltt in Prison— 
The Legislative Assembly— Change of the Calendar— The Jacobins— Trial and Execu- 
tion of the King— The Girondists and Thomas Paine— The Reign of Terror— The 
Directory— St. Bartholomew Avenged— Napoleon and the Revolution— Notable Char- 
acters of the Revolutionary Period: Mirabeau, Mari:: Antoinette, Charlotte Corday, 
Marat, Dan-ton and Robespierre— The Revolution and Napoleon. 



■-• - 



HE triumph of French 
monarchy over both feud- 
alism and the rights of the 
people reached its highest 
culmination in the dis- 
appearance from the poli- 
tics of the country of the 
States-General, or parliament of 
France. The king was then not 
only supreme,but single in author- 
ity, sharing nothing with any 
class, order or institution in the 
land. The reappearance of the 
States-General, the assembling 
once more of that body, was a no 
less distinctive recognition of the 
decay of absolutism. The d.ite of 
the former was 1614, while Louis 
XIII. won' the crown; the date of the latter was 
1789, when Louis XVI. began to feel the need of 
props for the throne. That period, 175 years, was 
one of splendid misery, of gilded and gorgeous in- 
famy. 

The States-General consisted of three estates, as 
they are generally designated, the nobility, the cler- 
gy and representatives of the citizens. The right, 



however, of the third estate to sit with the first and 
second estates was sharply contested. The former 
stood for thj bourgeois, or towns-folk, whose import- 
ance was a gradual growth. 

Louis XVI. found that he had evoked a danger- 
ous power, resorted to a perilous expedient. The 
first and second estates were tractable enough, but 
the popular or bourgeois element had acquired 
a self-poise and independence which alarmed his 
majesty. Hardly had this parliament been convened 
before a royal decree was issued for its dissolution. 
But the sovereign was not sovereign. When the 
order came, Mirabeau, the Patrick Henry of the 
French Revolution, boldly refused to obey the man- 
date. He belonged to and spoke for the third es- 
tate. The attempt was then made to disperse the 
body by the bayonet, but that plan utterly failed. 
Behind the bayonets were soldiers who were patriots, 
and they refused to obey orders. So far from 
breaking up the States-General, they formed a mili- 
tia called the National Guards. At the head of this 
noble military body was the grand Marquis Gilbert 
do Lafayette, whose services in behalf of American 
liberty had endeared him to the friends of freedom 
in his own land. The organization had for its 
avowed purpose the protection of the National 



^-V-) 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 



2 73 




l\\ 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 



! 75 




Assembly, the new and improved name assumed 
by the undismayed members of the States-Geueral. 

From States-Gen- 
eral to National As- 
-embly was a step of 
incalculable import- 
ance. It was with 
great reluctance that 
the clergy and nobil- 
ity joined the new 
body. The king tried 
most assiduously to 
maintain the royal 
prerogative. All sorts 
of petty devices were 
resorted to, but all to 
lafayette. no purpose. Mirabeau 

and his compatriots resolved to secure for their 
country constitutional 
government, and they 
were not to be baffled. 
The spirit of high resolve 
and heroic patriotism 
was absolutely dauntless. 
The first meeting of 
the National Assembly 
was held May 5, 1789, 
and it was on the 14th of 
the following July, that 
the Bastile fell, making 
a day forever fresh in 
the memory of every 
Frenchman. July Four- 
teenth is to France much 
what July Fourth is to 
America. The Bastile was something more than 
an ancient jail, as the Declaration of Indepen- 
dence was something more than a disavowal of 
allegiance to the British Crown. That prison was 
a body animated by the spirit of despotism in its 
most hideous form. Built by Charles V., in 13(39, it 
had been repaired, enlarged and made increasingly 
odious by subsequent nionarchs. It was not a prison 
for criminals, but for political offenders, uncon- 
victed, but obnoxious to royalty, or to some court fa- 
vorite. The only formula used in condemning one 
to the Bastile was the lettre de cachet. The pris- 
oner was left in ignorance of the cause or duration 
of his punishment, and not allowed to communi- 





THK BASTILE. 



cate with friends. Voltaire was once incarcerated 
there. On the fourteenth of July the populace lit- 
erally leveled the massive building to the ground, 
killed the governor, De Launay, and liberated the 
prisoners. The real leaders of the mob were women, 
respectable but plebeian. Paris, it may be remarked, 
is notable for the prominence of its women both in 
business and politics. The keys of the Bastile were 
sent to George Washington, and by him presented to 
the government of the United States, to be kept 
among the more treasured archives at the capital 
of the republic which French valor and gold had 
done so much to establish. 

The destruction of the Bastile was so swift and 
complete that it terrified the nobility. Many of 
them fled incontinently from the country, and be- 
came refugees at foreign courts. They were called 
and are known in history as emigres, or emigrants. 

They were very active 
throughout the Revolu- 
tionary period, plotting 
for the defeat of liberty 
and the reestablishment 
of despotism. 

The king and queen 
were very much alarmed 
by the great uprising. 
They could not be wholly 
blind to the significance 
of that destruction. It 
certainly boded no good 
to monarchy. The royal 
family retired to Ver- 
sailles, in the hope of 
being secure from popu- 
lar indignation without an abandonment of the 
throne. It was a half-way measure and ill-advised. 
Presently a vast mob, with fishwomen and the like 
at the front, marched thither. Emboldened by the 
royal flight and aggravated by the journey, they 
would have slain the king and queen had it not been 
for the kindly and brave intervention of Lafayette. 
He shielded the king and his household, at the same 
time inducing them to return to Paris. He acted 
in the capacity of a peacemaker between the mob 
and the crown. 

The king was now a prisoner in his own palace, 
virtually, and the populace had absolute authority. 
The leveling process begun at the fall of the Bastile 




'> 



>-k- 



276 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 



was rapidly carried to an unprecedented length. 
Titles were abolished. The king himself was Citi- 
zen Louis Capet, and the queen merely a citizeness. 
They were not even free, but rather prisoners in the 
palace of the Tuilleries. 

In an evil moment the royal couple tried to es- 
cape, and join the Emigrants beyond the border. 
They were foiled. Recaptured and in confinement, 
their condition was pitiable in the extreme. Just 
one year after the Bastile fell, and in commemora- 
tion of its fall, the people adopted a Constitution. 
That was a most important step toward freedom, 
and would have been even if the constitution had 
been despotic in character. The bare fact that the 
people had secured an organic law was of the most 
serious moment. That constitution compelled the 
king to swear fealty to it. His attempted flight was 
regarded as a violation of his oath. For that un- 
availing endeavor to flee, the royal household were 
imprisoned in a lonely castle. In the meanwhile 
the Emigrants had not been idle. They sought to 
aro.ise the fears and enlist the sympathies of other 
European monarchs and monarchists. Their ef- 
forts were by no means fruitless. Soon an army of 
no mean dimensions marched into France towards 
Paris, sent timber from Austria and Prussia both. 
The object of these military operations was to put 
an end to the Revolution. But that only made a 
bad matter wor-j for the king and his friends. The 
revolutionists were abundantly able to repel inva- 
sion and suppress discontent. 

The National Assembly was not quite democratic 
enough to suit the popular demand, and the more 
truly representative body, the Legislative Assembly, 
took its place for a short time. On the twentieth 
of September, 1 792, that too gave place to the still 
more democratic National Convention, as it was 
called. The latter decreed the total and perpetual 
abolition of royalty in France and the permanent 
establishment of a republican form of government. 

The French Republic began by making an un- 
wise change in the calendar. Unmindful of the im- 
portance of uniformity among all civilized nations 
in the measurement of time, the revolutionists pro- 
posed to make a radical alteration. Not only was 
time to be measured by days and months bearing 
new names (in itself of trivial consequence), but the 
establishment of the Republic was to supersede the 
birth of Jesus Christ for dating purposes. Instead 



of "' the year of our Lord," common to all Chris- 
tendom, France was to measure time by distance 
from the culminating point of the French Revolu- 
tion. And in place of weeks of seven days were 
established periods of ten days. The folly and 
inconvenience of a provincial, in place of a 
cosmopolitan calendar, seemed to be quite over- 
looked in a mad frenzy to break down the associa- 
tions of the Christian era with the new order of 
things. 

The Republican government was fatally deficient 
in conservatism, which is as necessary in reforma- 
tion as radicalism. 

The Anti-Christian and utterly revolutionary 
party was called Jacobins. The name applies, pri- 
marily, to a political society founded in 1789 and 
sujjerseded in 1794. Carlyle calls them "Lords of 
the Articles," adding, " they originate debates for 
the legislative ; discuss peace and war ; settle be- 
forehand what the legislative is to do." This society, 
or club, had its branches in all parts of France. At 
first Lafayette and other moderate republicans be- 
longed to it, but later it fell under the influence of 
Robespierre and Dantou. Mirabeau died early in 
the revolution ; Lafayette was left behind in the 
inarch of radicalism, and a reign of terror was in- 
augurated. From the declaration of the Republic 
to the fall of Robespierre, the last of the Jacobins, 
was less than two years, but in that brief time was 
wrought a work which shocked the humane sensi- 
bilities of the world and has never ceased to be a 
reproach to the cause of self-government. 

The king, " Citizen Louis Capet," was brought to 
trial for complicity "with the Emigrants in conspiracy 
against the republic, January 19, 1793. Upon 
his trial Thomas Paine, who had rendered the 
United States incalculable service as a journalist 
during the Revolutionary War, and who was then a 
member of the National Convention, made a pow- 
erful argument in defense of the king, or rather, in 
favor of mitigating his punishment to banishment 
to America. But the sentence of death was passed 
upon him, and he was guillotined January 21, 1793. 
The queen shared his fate, after a delay of a few 
months. The heir to the crown, the Dauphin, died 
in prison when about nine years of age, the victim 
of cruel treatment. 

The opposers of these extreme measures were 
called Girondists. A great may of them were 



"B V 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 



guillotined for their moderation. Mr. Paine, who 
belonged to that party, owed his escape from death 
to a fortunate accident and the tardy intervention 
of the United States. The accident referred to 
was this : his door was chalk-marked for execution, 
as was supposed, but in reality the mark was on the 
inside of the door of the adjoining cell, and when 
both doors were closed no sign of death was vis- 
ible. That blunder, trivial in itself, saved the life 
of Thomas Paine, and it was during his imprison- 
ment, while waiting for death, that he wrote his 
treatise on religion, called " The Age of Reason." 
Had it not been for that chalk-mark blunder the 
most notable attack on the Christian religion ever 
penned in the English language, before the present 
generation, would never have been written. Him- 
self an extreme, if not a violent radical, in religion 
and politics, Paine was quite too conservative to 
suit the leaders of the French Revolution. 

The Reign of Terror stands out in history as a 
horrid nightmare. For months Paris and France 
at large seemed wholly given up to the ravages of 
monstrous cruelty. In the name of freedom, equal- 
ty and fraternity the most outrageous and revolting 
crimes were perpetrated. The guillotine was kept con- 
stantly busy and bloody. It was not alone the ene- 
mies of the Revolution who were brought to the block- 
The mad frenzy of the period decimated the ranks 
of the revolutionists themselves. Many were the 
victims of their own policy. The most extreme 
radical of them all, Hebert, was brought to the guil- 
lotine by Robespierre on the twenty-fourth of 
March, 1794, and on the fifth of the next month 
Danton shared his fate. July 28th of the same 
year Robespierre himself was executed, thus com- 
pleting the circle and carrying the policy of terror to 
its logical sequence. The Convention was no longer 
put in the background by the leaders of the Ja- 
cobins. 

Early in the following year the National Conven- 
tion adopted a new constitution, and under that 
organic law the executive authority of the govern- 
ment was placed in the hands of a Directory, con- 
sisting of five members. The intractables resisted 
this substitution of regular authority for anarchical 
cruelty, and their resistance brought Napoleon 
Bonaparte to the front for the first time, who quelled 
the Parisian mob October 5, 1795. From that time 
on, other factors of more or less prominence 



entered into the history of France, besides the 
Revolution. The Reign of Terror was over, but 
revolutionary ideas remained, and have never 
ceased to be fruitful of great and greatly benefi- 
cent results. 

It is due to the truth of history to add that the 
honors of the Jacobin period were really insignifi- 
cant as compared with that one horror, the .Massacre 
of St. Bartholomew in 1572. More blood was shed 
that one night than during all the period from the 
fall of the Bastile to the establishment of the Di- 
rectory. After two centuries the supreme crime 
of French history was avenged. 

The wars of Napoleon form a separate chapter. 
The desperate resolution of the monarchical gov- 
ernments of Europe to prevent the establishment of 
a permanent republic in France furnished that 
" grey-eyed man of destiny " the opportunity to dis- 
tinguish himself, and out of the necessities of war 
erect an empire, transient, indeed, but none the less 
imperial. The inevitabledrift of war is toward abso- 
lutism. The executive functions of government were 
intrusted to a Directory which felt jealousy of Na- 
poleon's rising }iower. Put between the reestablish - 
ment of the old monarchy and the peril of a new 
dynasty there was no choice but to give loose rein 
to "' the man -on horseback." Napoleon's first po- 
litical office was that of First Consul, which title 
was bestowed upon him after the Italian and Egyp- 
tian campaigns. That was just as the eighteenth 
century was closing. The Directory gave place to 
three Consuls, the Corsican being the first. The 
other two were little more than figure-heads. 

With the dawn of the nineteenth century the Re- 
public of France ceased to exist, in point of fact, as 
a vital force, and notwithstanding a few spasmodic 
movements, was dormant for seventy years. The 
empire followed the consulate. After Marengo and 
Hohenlindeu Napoleon was made Consul for life 
with power to name his successor. That was the 
substance of imperialism. The full recognition of 
it soon followed. In 1S04 he was elected Emperor, 
not of France, but of the French, a distinction with 
some difference. The Grand Louis had claimed 
France as a family estate; the greater Bonaparte 
accepted its government as the gift of the people. 
Pope Leo had crowned Charlemagne at Rome ; Na- 
poleon, after a lapse of many centuries, summoned 
his successor, Pius VII., to Paris to give solemnity 



-78 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 



and eclat to his coronation at Notre Dame. The 
imposing ceremony occurred December 2, ? 804. As 
Emperor he henceforth waged war, made laws and 
carved out kingdoms. His achievements as a ruler 
were great, but for the most part they belong to the 
Consular period of bis rule. The Code Napoleon is 
still a grand monument of legal wisdom and ad- 
ministrative skill. Although bearing his name, his 
only credit is that he allowed the highest political 
wisdom of the French Revolution to crystahze. That 
was a great deal, and for 



undisputed leader of the revolutionary party until 
his death, April 2, 1791. He was not a republican. 
His theory of government finds its expression in the 
limited monarchy of Great Britain ; but he was a re- 
former whose plowshare ran deep down into the sub- 
soil of despotism. Had the improvements which he 
advocated been effected, the long strides toward jus- 
tice and liberty which he recommended been actu- 
ally taken, Louis Capet and Marie Antoinette might 
have been saved, and the Reign of Terror been 
averted. The genius of 



it he deserves libera' 
gratitude. The (lode 
Napoleon conserved the 
best results of what, with 
all its faults, was the 
grandest of all political 
uprisings, and whatever 
the mutations of the 
government since then, 
the country has never 
ceased to enjoy the 
benefits of that codifica- 
tion. Whether king, em- 
peror, president or com- 
mune has held sway in 
France during the pres- 
ent century, the common 
law of justice and the 
mechanism of public af- 
fairs have enjoyed a 
stability of incalculable 
benefit. Out of the wild 
horrors of the Reign of Terror came fortli a body 
of laws, and a system of administration, which have 
enabled France to prosper, whatever the form of 
government. 

It remains to speak more in detail of the specially 
consjjicuous characters of the revolutionary period. 

At the head of this list, not to mention here Vol- 
taire, Rousseau and the other inspirers of the move- 
ment, stands Honore Gabriel Requetti Mirabeau, the 
first, greatest and wisest of its parliamentary leaders. 
He was born in Provence in 1740. Massive, ugly 
and disfigured in person, his eloquence was of the 
very highest order. He entered the last States-Gen- 
eral ever assembled as a representative of the third 
estate, and almost from the first became the leader 
of the popular wing of that body. He remained the 




NOTRE DAME 



Mirabeau has at last 
found very substantial 
embodiment, and the 
French revolutionist's 
highest vindication is the 
present republic of 
France. 

A peculiar interest 
attaches to the melan- 
choly fate of Marie An- 
toinette, fifth daughter 
of Maria Theresa of Aus- 
tria, and wife of Louis 
XVI. A pure and lovely 
lady, she was unfortu- 
nate in having a very 
haughty manner and 
being a stickler for all 
court etiquette. She was 
never popular at court. 
Her virtues and her aus- 
terity combined to make 
her disliked. When the revolution began she was es- 
pecially unpopular with 



courtiers and the people. 
Under the trials and af- 
flictions of her royal hus- 
band, and their ill-starred 
children, she developed 
a heroism which has 
made her an object of 
adoration in the temple 
of posthumous fame. 
She shared the calam- 
ities of the Bourbons in a way to ieflect high 
honor upon the house of the Hapsburgs. After 
long imprisonment she was brought before the Rev- 
olutionary Tribunal October 13, 1793, where she 




Marie Antoinette. 



& - 



•k 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 



>79 



*?1 



defended herself with sublime indignation and elo- 
quence. But all to no purpose. On the third day 
following she was borne to the scaffold. The ride 
from prison to the guillotine occupied two hours. 
On either side of her 
tumbril were rows of 
soldiers, and the streets 
were filled with a jeering 
mob. The populace saw 
in her simply a con- 
spicuous representative 
of immemorial despot- 
ism and spoliation. 

The first place in the 
roll of dishonor, as 
guilty of perverting a 
revolution which was in 
itself sublime, belongs to 
Jean Paul Marat, a 
native of Switzerland. 
A physician by educa- 
tion, a dwarf in form, 
he became a popular idol 

on account of the vigor with which he assailed with 
his pen the upper classes, including the rich and the 
titled. From September 12, 1789, to July 14, 1793, 
Marat conducted a journal which was the organ of 
the most extreme Jacobinical ideas. Among other 
tilings he coolly maintained that the salvation of 
France demanded the guillotining of 270,000 per- 
sons. His was the task of making the press subser- 
vient to the monstrous policy of Danton and the 
other terror- 
ists. His jour- 
nal, issued un- 
der different 
names, sup- 
plied the oil to 
the lamp of 

popular frenzy and political horrors. 
Intense was the feeling all over 
France against him. Even Danton 
came to tremble lest he should be 
" hoist by his own petard." 

This man Marat met his fate at the 
hand of Charlotte Corday, a young lady of Norman- 
dy, beautiful, pious, intellectual and enthusiastic. 
She conceived it to be her patriotic and religious duty 
to assassinate Marat. Accordingly she came to Paris, 



35 




JEAN PAUL MARAT 




gained admission to his house, found him in a bath, 
plunged a knife into his heart and calmly awaited 
her fate. The assassination occurred July 13, 1793. 
A few days later she was guillotined. Lamartine 

expressed the verdict of 
history when he wrote, 
" In beholding her act 
of assassination history 
dares not applaud ; nor 
yet, while contemplating 
her sublime self-devo- 
tion, can it stigmatize or 
condemn." 

Danton was hardly less 
radical and relentless 
than Marat. He was an 
orator very popular with 
the lower classes of the 
Paris populace. His 
stentorian voice was al- 
ways raised for blood 
and vengeance. He fill- 
ed the position of Min- 
ister of Justice during the time when that meant 
chief of the guillotine. So long as the Girondists, 
or moderate republicans, furnished victims for the 
knife and block, Danton. Marat and Robespierre, 

the triumvirate of terror, 
cooperated, but when 
the thirst for blood de- 
manded victims from 
among the Jacobins 
themselves, dissension 
was inevitable. Danton 
was an atheist, Robes- 
pierre a deist. The latter 
was indeed hostile to all 
existing and organized 
religions, but he believed 
in a Supreme Being, and 
caused Danton to be exe- 
cuted for enthroning 
Reason as the God of 
worship. Danton fell 
April 5, 1794. 
Robespierre, the last of the Jacobin leaders to per- 
ish in the furnace of his own construction, was a 
lawyer of Arras. In the early part of the Revolution 
he bore an inconspicuous part. It was as the head 



DANTON. 



280 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 




Robespierre. 



of the Jacobin club that he realized his ambition. 
He was an earnest advocate of the execution of the 
king, and the prosecution of 
the Girondists. After the 
execution of Danton and the 
assassination of Marat he 
was virtually dictator of 
France. Then it was that 
he attempted to undo the 
.atheistic influence of Danton 
j&by a speech in honor of the 
Deity. He made himself 
ridiculous by posing in the 
character of a pietist, and to 
the laugh raised over his deism rather than to the de- 
testation of his cruelties, may be attributed his fall 
and execution. His power and prestige were drowned 
in ridicule. When his arrest was decreed he tried in 
vain to lift his voice in self-defense. The privilege he 
had so often denied to others was refused him, and 
the next day after he had been hurried to prison he 
was guillotined. His name will forever stand as a 
synonym for the horrors of the Reign of Terror. It 
was his bad preeminence to be foremost in disgracing, 
perverting and retarding what was, despite all per- 
versions, the grandest and most beneficent revolu- 
tion the world ever saw. 

In his history of the French Revolution, Lamar- 
tine, speaking of the period at which we have ar- 
rived says, " The Revolution had only lasted five 
years. These five years were five centuries for 
France. Never perhaps on this eartli did any na- 
tion ever produce in so short a time such an erup- 
tion of ideas, new notions, characters, geniuses, tal- 
ents, catastrophies, crimes and virtues. Men were 
born like the instantaneous personification of 
things that should think, speak or act." While 
there were turmoil and terror at home, there were 
brilliant achievements in battle. Napoleon was not 



the only great hero. Hocke, Jourdan, and Moreau 
were commanders of consummate ability, but they 
were not only eclipsed by the subsequent splendors of 
Napoleon, but by the stupendous intellect of Carnot, 
Minister of War, the Stanton of France. His work 
fur the armies of France in those days can only be 
appreciated by those who know something of the 
debt the United States owes Edwin M. Stanton. 

When Napoleon returned from Egypt (1799) the 
Directory had become very unpopular, and the way 
was prepared for that final crisis, known as the 
Revolution of the 18th and 19th Brumaire. That 
was the movement which supplanted the Directory 
with the Consulate. The fear of another Reign of 
Terror occasioned the transition. Napoleon was in 
command of the troops in and about Paris, and enter- 
ed the Council Chamber not togooutuntil he had in 
effect revolutionized the government. The proceed- 
ings of that memorable occasion, as narrated by An- 
derson, may well close this chapter : " He addressed 
them [the Council of the Ancients] declaring that 
the constitution had been violated, that it was not 
strong enough to save France from anarchy; he 
said that he had only accepted the command of the 
troops for the purpose of bringing the strong arms 
of the nation to the support of the deputies who 
constituted its head, and ended by promising to re- 
sign his power as soon as the danger was passed. 
He afterwaids entered the hall of the Five Hundred 
with four grenadiers to make a similar speech, when 
the whole assembly rose as one man with cries of 
' Down with the Dictator !' and crowded around him, 
one member even attempting his life ; but he was 
rescued by fresh arrivals of troops, and left the hall. 
In the confusion which followed, a report was cir- 
culated among the troops that the deputies had at- 
tempted their general's life ; and a detachment of 
grenadiers then entered the hall, and cleared it at 
the point of the bayonet." 





4-V 

1 NAPOLEON & 



i CAMPAIGNS. 









jaS/ r mV^ 





CHAPTER XLVII. 



Napoleon's Place in Histort— Birth and Early Career— The Italian Campaign— The 
Egtttian Campaign— Napoleon and the Allies Join Issues— Marengo and Hohenllnden 
— austerlitz and the column vendome— trafalgar, jena and vienna— on to moscowl 
and the Result— The Fall, Exile and Death of >'apoleon. 




^-■#M#~~^ 



HE genius of Riclielieu in- 
vested the name of France 
with the supreme splen- 
dors of royalty ; Voltaire 
and Diderot lifted it to the 
highest rank of intellectu- 
al progress, 
and Napoleon illu- 
mined the whole 
nation with mili- 
tary glory, raising 
a martial monu- 
ment which even 
the Franco-Prus- 
sian War could not 
level to the ground. 
Barbarian though 
he was, emulous of 
the fame of Alexander and Ca3sar, 
rather than the vastly higher honor 
of constructing a republican edifice 
worthy the present age upon the 
ruins of kingly despotism, he fills 
so large a place in the early jjart of the nine- 
teenth century that his campaigns demand conspic- 
uous consideration. In him weseethe supreme effort 
of the old idea of conquest to resist a loftier ambi- 
tion more consonant with the spirit of the age, 




namely the popular demand for equal rights and 
exact justice. 

Napoleon Bonaparte was a native of the small 
island of Corsica, then only recently added to 
French territory. He was born August 15, 17G9. 
His father was a lawyer who died in early man- 
hood, leaving the care of a numerous 
family to his energetic widow. Na- 
poleon was the second son. He was 
educated for the profession of arms 
at Paris. Being snubbed, as he 
thought, in his first army exjjerience, 
he applied for leave to tender his 
sword to the Sultan of Turkey. One 
can but regret the denial of his 
wish. He was made a lieutenant in 
the army at the age of sixteen. 
When RobesjHerre fell he was in 
danger of disgrace, if nothing worse, 
for he was suspected of sympathy 
with that monster. But his insig- 
nificance shielded him. His first 
distinction was won in devising an 
acceptable and successful plan for quelling the mob 
which assailed the convention in the Tuilleries soon 
after Robespierre had fallen. As the reward of his 
services then he was given command of the forces 
in and about Paris. 



(281) 



2»2 



NAPOLEON AND HIS CAMPAIGNS. 



The next spring Napoleon was sent to Italy to 
take command of one of the three armies engaged 
in the defense of the Republic against the " Emi- 
grants " and their monarchical allies. He was only 
twenty-seven years of age, very short and slim. 
His troops early and always loved to call him " The 
Little Corporal." The Austriaus whom he encount- 
ered there conceived contempt for his youth. At 
Monte Notte, Ajiril 12, 1796, he won his first victory 
over the enemies of his country. It was with good 
reason that he afterwards dated his patent of no- 
bility from that battle. His next exploit was the 
passage of his army over the river Adda at Lodi. 
The battle of Lodi was a brilliant victory, won by 
bravery and skill. So remarkable were his move- 
ments and their results, that lie soon attracted the 
attention of Europe, and was seen to lie a great 
soldier. He destroyed no less than five Austrian 
armies in that Italian campaign. So terrible was 
the destruction, that a year after he took command 
a treaty of peace was signed by which France 
gained great advantage and Vienna itself was spared 
the ravages of sack by the troops of Napoleon. 
Other treaties followed as fruits of that campaign. 
He returned to Paris to be received witli the honors 
due his genius and successes. 

Napoleon was something of an elephant upon 
the hands of the republic. To provide a safe outlet 
for the restless military energies of himself and his 
soldiers, who had fought just enough to want to 
keep on fighting, an expedition into Egypt was 
planned. It was indeed a wild-goose chase, if ever 
there was one. Soldiers and gavans set sail from Tou- 
lon in the summer of 1708, with no definite idea of 
what they did want. Turkish Mamelukes met them 
in hostile array. The "Battle of the Pyramids" was 
fought with success to the French arms. The British 
fleet, under Lord Nelson, attacked the French fleet 
at Alexandria, and won a naval victory which for a 
short time cut off Napoleon's communication Avith 
France, but he easily made himself master of Egypt, 
except the seaport town of Acre, garrisoned by Eng- 
lish troops. He marched into Palestine, and returned 
to confront a Turkish army, and gained the victory 
of Aboukir, which closed his Egyptian i ampaign. 
In the fall of 1799 he returned to France. The 
people hailed him as a glorious hero. His march 
through France was a mighty ovation, and the hon- 
ors and authority of First Consul came to him in 



the way set forth in the previous chapter. Europe saw 
in the new head of the French government an 
exceedingly dangerous character. Previous appre- 
hensions ripened into certainty, and from hence- 
forth it was only a question of time when the com- 
bined power of the other nations of Europe would 
crush him or lie them. For fifteen years the strug- 
gle continued, with only slight truces. Finding 
himself in hostility to all Europe, Napoleon seemed 
determined to conquer and reconstruct the whole 
continent, — not that either he or the allies clearly 
appreciated the irrepressibleness of the conflict at the 
outset, but that from the time the hero of Lodi and 
Aboukir became the First Consul there was no 
alternative for either of the two parties but uncon- 
ditional surrender. 

In May, 1800, Napoleon crossed the Alps by a 
way supposed to be impassable and swooped down 
upon the Austriaus. The battle of Marengo was 
soon fought and won. About that time another 
French army in Germany, under Moreau, gained 
the splendid victory of Hohenlinden. By mid- 
summer Napoleon was back in Paris, assiduously 
applying himself to the reconstruction of the gov- 
ernment of France. For several years he was en- 
gaged in developing the resources, improving the 
laws •and political institutions of the country. In 
lsiil he was elected emperor. All this while it was 
evident that no real peace had been negotiated and 
on both sides preparations were being made for an- 
other encounter. 

Early in 1805 Napoleon took the field. England 
made no secret of its hostility, and Russia and Aus- 
tria formally declared war against France. In 
October Napoleon entered Germany, and on the 
15th of November he took posession of Vienna, 
occupying the splendid palace of the Schonbrunn. 
Seventeen days later was fought the ever-memorable 
battle of Austerlitz. The energies which had been 
accumulating during the few years of peace were 
let loose. Napoleon won his most illustrious vic- 
tory on that day. Among the trophies of the bat- 
tle were twelve hundred Austrian cannons. They 
were afterwards melted down and used as the bronze 
for the famous column erected at Paris in memory 
of that victory in the Place Vendome. 

But the success of the French on the land had 
an offset in the defeat of the French navy in the 
battle of Trafalgar, fought in October of that year. 



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M^ 



NAPOLEON AND HIS CAMPAIGNS. 



283 




EHTREAT OF THE FRENCH FROM MOSCOW. 



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*£ 



NAPOLEON AND HIS CAMPAIGNS. 



285 



Lord Nelson very nearly annihilated the enemy. 
That did not, however, prevent Napoleon from be- 
ing absolute on the continent. It made England 
undisputed mistress of the seas. The French Em- 
peror none 

the less pro- 
ceeded to cut 
up Europe 
into king- 
doms, and 
parcel it out 
among his 
brothers and 
favorites as 
if it were a 
private es- 
tate. His el- 
der brother, 
Joseph, lie 
made king 
of Spain, 
and another 
brother be- 
came the 
king of Hol- 
land. Prus- 
sia had been 
neutral and 
was reward- 
ed with Han- 
over, the old 
possession of 
the present 
English dy- 
nasty. Sev- 
eral of the 
smaller Ger- 
man states 
were under 
Napoleonic 
"protection." 
But Freder- 
ick of Prussia did not long remain neutral. As soon 
as he declared war against Napoleon the Eagles of 
France flew to Prussia. The battle of Jena was 
fought, and the victorious French Emperor entered 
Berlin in triumph. Still another brother was given 
:i kingdom, and soon the royal family of Portugal 
took refuare in Brazil. There was disaffection in 



Germany which was quelled by the victories of Eck- 
miihl and Abensberg, followed by another occupan- 
cy of Vienna, and the treaty of Vienna. Thus the 
continent was prostrate at the feet of "The Lit- 

tie Corpor- 




al." That 
was in the 
fall of 1809. 
Napoleon's 
star had now 
reached its 
zenith. 

Flushed by 
his victories, 
he was em- 
boldened to 
undert ake 
the conquest 
of Russia. As 
the winter of 
1812-13 set 
in he set out 
for Moscow. 
After along, 
weary march 
he came in 
sight of that 
ancient cap- 
ital of the 
Muscovite 
Empire. The 
city was in 
flames. The 
people had 
set fire to the 
town, rather 
than afford 
shelter from 
the wintry 
blast, for the 
enemy. It 
was a des- 
perate but heroic expedient. The desired effect was 
produced. The army of invasion was compelled 
to return through the snow. The loss was terrible. 
Of the four hundred thousand French soldiers 
who started on that expedition only about fifty 
thousand survived. That was the most disastrous 
expedition in all history. It crippled the force of 



2 86 



NAPOLEON AND HIS CAMPAIGNS. 



du 



Napoleon beyond all recovery and made Waterloo 
possible. Fresh troojjs were recruited and a power- 
ful army was soon in the field. Napoleon had no idea 
of surrender. In August 
of 1813 he defeated the 
allies at Dresden, but 
was oblige'd, nevertheless, 
to retreat into France. 
Blucher led 130,000 
Prussians, and Welling- 
ton was at the head of a 
powerful English army 
in Portugal and Spain. 
Those two great captains, 
destined to conquer the 
great conqueror, slowly 
moved toward each 
other. France was now 
for the first time since 
Napoleon came to the 
front the battlefield. On 
the heights of Montmar- 
tre, overlooking Paris, 
was fought a battle which resulted in victory for the 
allies, and on the 31st of March, 1814, Alexander 
of Russia and Frederick 
of Prussia took posses- 
sion of Paris and dicta- 
ted terms of iieace. The 
Emperor was obliged to 
abdicate and accept im- 
prisonment upon the 
island of Elba. That 
little island was to be 
his " empire." There he 
was to hold miniature 
court. It was a sweet 
revenge to think of the 
great dictator as "crib- 
bed and cabined'' within 
such narrow limits. 

On the 20th of April 
Napoleon took his sor- 
rowful departure for that island but on the first of 
March next following he set foot upon the soil of 
France once more. He had eluded the vigilance of 
the allies. Tremendous was the popular enthusiasm. 





The Bourbon who had been placed upon the throne, 
Louis XVIII. , was powerless. Popular enthusiasm 
knew no bounds. Everybody seemed to be in 

ecstasies of delight over 
the return of the hero 
of Austerlitz. The sol- 
diers and people vied in 
enthusiasm. The king 
was glad to escape with 
his life, and Napoleon 
was Emperor once more. 
The war was renewed. 
The allies were not con- 
tent to allow the restor- 
ation of the empire. 
Early in June a com- 
bined English and Prus- 
sian army was quarter- 
ed at some distance from 
each other in the neigh- 
borhood of Brussels un- 
der Wellington and BlU- 
cher. Napoleon raised 
an army of 150,000 men to resist them. On the 
lsth (if June, 1815, was fought the battle of Water- 
loo. Wellington was al- 
most beaten, but Blucher 
came to his succor just 
in time to turn the scale. 
The defeat of the French 
was utter. On the twen- 
tieth instant Napoleon 
re-entered Paris, a van- 
quished fugitive. His 
plan was to find asylum 
in America, but he was 
avrested by the allies 
and sent to the lonely 
island of St. Helena 
from which he never 
escaped. Henceforth he 
was a close prisoner of 
war, the farce of a Lilli- 
putian empire being altogether abandoned. There 
he died. May 5, 1821, and with him perished (it may 
be hoped for all time to come) the last ambition of 
Universal Empire. 



~?n 



NAPOLEON AND HIS CAMPAIGNS. 



28' 







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LATTER-DAY FRANCE. 




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CHAPTER XLVIII. 

A Great Experiment and its Result— Louis Philippe — Louis Napoleon and his Coup d'etat 
—The Expire— The Siege of Paris and the Avenging of Jena— The Crisis— Centraliza 
tion in France— Importance of Paris— National Contentment, Land and "Rentes" — 
Religion and Education— Colonial Possessions— Contemporary French Literature- 



1 - SjJ_ 





K-~§3x£sj*oH 



'ITH the fall of the Emperor 
Napoleon a reaction in 
favor of monarchy set in. 
The French nation seem- 
ed to he tired of all that 
savored of newness, and 
to long for the old ways- 
Louis XVIII., a Bourbon in blood and 
character, was placed upon the throne. 
He did much to restore the ancient re- 
gime. His death occurred in 1834, and 
at that time the reaction seemed to be per- 
manent. The king himself had been less 
reactionary than the Council which sur- 
rounded him. But no sooner had his 
brother, Charles X., succeeded him upon 
the throne than the deptli and strength of the sen- 
timent among the people for liberty began to assert 
itself. Charles was disposed to be imperious and 
presumptuous. He carried things with a somewhat 
absolute will, the monarchical and democratic par- 
ties getting warmer and more bitter all the time ; 
until in 1830 the king was compelled to give up the 
struggle. His only safety, as an individual, was in 
abdication. The grim sjjecter of Louis XVI. terri- 
fied him into abdicating in favor of his cousin of 
the Orleans family, who was crowned Louis Philippe. 



The crafty cousin declined the scepter as a royal 
gift, thereby securing a popular confirmation of his 
authority, for so democratic a declination brought 
out, as expected and designed, an expression of the 
people. 

For eighteen years Louis Philippe ruled France, 
careful ever 
to respect the 
constitutional 
limitations of 
his preroga- 
tives. This 
king was not 
royal in vir- 
tues or vices- 
Without be- 
ing quite what 
would be call- 
ed a bad man 
he was sordid, 
avaricious and, 
tricky. His| 
best trait or 
characteristic 
was a sincere admiration for America and high ap- 
preciation of the just place among nations of 
the United States. If mediocre in mind and 




LOUIS PHILIPPE. 



(28 9 ) 



s> V 



k. 



290 



LATTER-DAY FRANCE. 



uneventful in career, lie was remarkably mod- 
ern in his sympathies. King though he was, Louis 
Philippe was in every sense a part of Latter-day 
France. His reign terminated, as it began, in abdi- 
cation. It had fairly demonstrated that the 
French, unlike the English, would not voluntarily 
accept monarchy, however hedged about by popular 
concessions. That was the one significant thing 
about the reign of the three post-Napoleonic kings, 
more especially the last and best of the trio. The 
great experiment of royalty in the France of the 
nineteenth century was thoroughly tried, and the 
fact of incompatibility fully 
established. 

When Louis Philippe laid 
down the scepter the election 
of a President was the first 
public business in order. 
Choice fell on Louis Napo- 
leon, " nejshew of his uncle," 
and that solely because he 
was the nephew of the man 
who had made France bril- 
liant with military glory. He 
was looked upon as a hair- 
brained, weak and harmless 
young man. But beneath his 
placid exterior beat a heart 
ambitious of imperial power. 
His secret purpose was to be 
to his uncle what Augustus 
Cffisar had been to Julius 
Cfesar. He proceeded cau- 
tiously. His age at the time 

of his election was forty years. He solemnly swore 
to deliver the trust to his successor four years later, 
but had 110 intention of doing so. The peasantry 
idolized the great name he bore. A few conspirators 
were taken into his secret, and the force of the gov- 
ernment put in position to uphold his usurpation. 
The first overt act contemplated was to amend the 
constitution, under which the President could not 
be elected to a second term. Finding that he could 
not peaceably carry his point, he executed that great 
political crime known as the Coup (P etat of Decem- 
ber 2, 1851. Arrests and assassinations were made 
with a ruthless hand, and before the country 
knew what was being done the republic had been 
strangled, and all the machinery of the government, 




civil and military, was employed to enforce con- 
formity to the will of the usurper. Two weeks later 
the form of an election was invoked to give the 
semblance of popular sanction to what had been 
done. The people were not prepared to resist, and 
the " plebiscite," or election, passed off as the con- 
spirators desired. The assumption of imperial au- 
thority thus had the appearance of popular approval. 
" The empire means peace," said the new emperor, 
and he was right for a long time. 

Louis Napoleon proved a man of great talent, if 
not absolute genius. His reign extended until the 
disasters of the Franco-Prus- 
sian war broke the spell of his 
power and revolutionized the 
government. Under him 
Paris was beautified as no 
other city ever was, and for 
the most part the peojfie 
prospered. The government 
was respected at home and 
abroad. However severely 
his method of coming to the 
throne was condemned, his 
use of power seemed to be in 
the main good, and it was 
generally thought that the 
empire had been reestablished 
upon a firm basis. Louis 
Napoleon was admitted into 
the brotherhood of royalty, 
and was perhaps more influ- 
ential for some fifteen years 
in the general affairs of 
Europe than any other member of that family. In 
the Crimean war the French bore a part commen- 
surate with the importance of the nation. Later, 
the bayonets of France protected the Pope in his 
temporality. Whenever the Emperor wanted the 
sanction of a " plebiscite " he had it. His first not- 
able failure was in trying to get England to unite 
with him in breaking the Southern blockade during 
the civil war in this country, and the kindred scheme 
to establish Maximilian of Austria as Emperor of 
Mexico. His hand in the former plot was not dis- 
covered at the time, but his part in the abortive 
usurpation in Mexico was known from the first. The 
success of the United States in crushing rebellion 
was a death-blow to Napoleon's intervention in 



71 



- is 

ah- ' 



LATTER-DAY FRANCE. 



29I 



American affairs. He was chagrined and somewhat 
humiliated, but not seriously weakened thereby in 
his hold upon the French scepter. 

To all appearances the empire was strong and 
sound when the war with Prussia began. Its real 
weakness was the utter corruption of the govern- 
ment. With a criminal at its head there was no 
soundness in the body itself. The empire was 
honeycombed by swindles of all sorts, and needed 
only the test of a great war to disclose its rotten- 
ness and overthrow its very foundations. 

The Franco-Prussian War has been described 
sufficiently, 
except the 
siege of Pa- 
ris, which 
was reserv- 
ed for this 
connection. 
The Ger- 
mans acted 
a subordin- 
ate part in 
the great 
drama of 
that siege. 
Within the 
limits of the 
beleagured 
city was go- 
ing on the 
contest that 
gave espe- 
cial significance to that episode of war. Practi- 
cally the hostile environment was little else than 
a great opportunity for republicanism to arise 
from the tomb and throw off the cerements 
of death. The Coup d'etat had not killed it. 
The long sleep seemed to have been refreshing 
to the vigor of liberty. At first there was bewilder- 
ment. Dazed by the unaccustomed light of free- 
dom, the Parisians were precipitated, at first, into a 
frenzied communism. All the horrors of the great 
revolution were revived. Leaders, maddened by 
long suppression and disasters in war, sprang to the 
front with the inauguration of another reign of ter- 
ror. Some very worthy people were cruelly slaugh- 
tered. The outlook was gloomy in the extreme. 
Once more women of the humbler class rushed 



wildly about as if they were daughters of the three 
Furies. Petroleum was used as an agent of indis- 
criminate destruction. The Column Vendome was 
one of the more conspicuous objects of destructive 
frenzy. 

But that delirium of retribution was brief, and 
not without its benefits. It served to show the 
depth and intensity of the sentiment for liberty. 
Humiliating as was the defeat of the French army, 
the fall of the empire was ample compensation to the 
people, and in the darkest hours oi the nation the 
hope of Republicanism shone as a star of the morning 
in the hori- 




Palace of the Tuilleries. the Residence of Napoleon in. 



zon of pop- 
ular opin- 
ion. 

Napoleon 
surrendered 
to the Prus- 
sians Sep- 
tember 2, 
1870, and 
the siege of 
Paris was 
complete on 
September 
19th. It was 
on the sev- 
enth of the 
next month 
that Gaiu- 
betta, the 
one great 
statesman of France, then Minister of the In- 
terior, with authority to act as Minister of 
War, escaped from Paris in a balloon, and at 
once set about organizing an army of relief. 
He hoped to break the siege by attack from with- 
out. But he could not. In January following 
Paris was obliged to open its gates to the enemy 
and submit to such terms as the conquering Ger- 
mans might dictate. Those terms were the surren- 
der of Alsace and Lorraine and the payment of an 
indemnity of 81,000,000,000, the Germans to en- 
tirely evacuate the country only after all the money 
had been paid. It was submission to these hard 
terms and the removal of the Government from Paris 
to Versailles that especially fired the frenzy of the com- 
munists. It was a proud day for Kaiser William, who 



1L 



292 



LATTER-DAY FRANCE. 



as a youth had witnessed Najioleon's march through 
Berlin, after Jena, to ride in triumph through the 
streets of Paris. France was humiliated and im- 
poverished, and the latest (and probably the last) of 
the Bonapartes was a fugitive, destined to linger 
only a few sad years in his retreat at Chisselhurst, 
England, from which Ms son and heir was to go 
forth, as a guest and a looker-on, to fall a victim 
to Zulu savagery, leaving the ex-Empress Eugenie 
desolate. Retribution and revenge could ask no 
more. 

It is needless to follow the fluctuations of French 
politics. The prudence and 
patriotism of the people tri- 
umphed. The rejjublic found 
in M. Thiers, the first presi- 
dent, a statesman equal to the 
emergency. As long ago as 
the reign of Louis Philippe he 
had risen to eminence. An 
author and a politician, he 
was trusted by the nation, and 
lie did not betray his trust. 
His successor, Marshal Mac- 
Mahon, although in sympathy 
with the imperial party, re- 
mained true to his oath as 
President of the Republic. 
At first the respective parti- 
sans of the Bourbons, the Or- 
leanists and the Bonapartists 
were hopeful, but as time 
wore on and the republic 
passed successfully through petty emergencies, the 
people settled down to the belief that the republic, 
no less than the empire, meaM peace, thanks 
largely, to the genius and patriotism of Leon 
Gambetta, whose death the first day of 1883 was 
a public calamity and to Jules Crew, elected 
President in 1879 and re-elected in 1885. 

The Republic of France is thoroughly centralized. 
The political divisions of the country are, 30 prov- 
inces, 80 departments, 302 arrondissements, 2,700 
cantons and 30,000 communes. The commune cor- 
responds to our city and town organizations. The 
maire, or mayor, is appointed by the national gov- 
ernment, and is under the supervision of the prefect 
of a department. There is an under-prefect f or each 
arrondissement. Cantons are divisions for elective, 




Jules Grevy— President of France, 1886. 



judicial and military convenience. The American 
and German respect for state rights is quite foreign 
to the French conception of politics. Paris and 
Lyons have some local self-government, but gener- 
ally speaking, France is a thoroughly centralized 
republic. 

Paris has an importance, as compeared with the 
rest of the country, quite unknown to any other city 
on the globe. London is not England, New York 
is not the United States, nor Berlin Germany, to 
anything like the extent that Paris is France. In 
the great revolutions of the last century and in sub- 
sequent uprisings, the city took 
the lead and controlled events. 
The gieat names of France, 
whatever the department of 
thought and action, belong to 
Paris. Lyons can make silk, 
the vineyards of the rural dis- 
tricts slake thirst, and Havre 
harbors ships ; but Paris is 
the focal point of all French 
genius, glory and achieve- 
ments. All the railroads lead 
thither and all the aspirations 
of the people tend to its ag- 
grandizement. So old that 
Csesar rebuilt it, yet so new 
that it is the very flower of 
modern civilization, it is the 
most luxurious city on the 
globe. 
The French may be set down 
contented people of Europe. The 
there is almost none at all, 
Basques of the department of 
have, many of them, gone 
to escape military proscrip- 
Frenchman prefers not 
only his native land, but his native commune. 
Eighty-five per cent, of the people are born, live and 
die in the same place. The real estate is divided 
among no less than 5,550,000 proprietors. No less 
than five millions of freeholders have less than six 
acres of land each. The public debt is also very 
widely distributed. In 1879 the total bonded debt 
of France was in francs 19,802,035,783, or nearly 
$4,000,000,000. The number of bondholders was 
4,380,933, or, in rough numbers, one government 



as the most 
emigration from 
except that the 
the Haute-Pyrenees 
to South America 
tion. The ordinary 



-Si 



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m- 



LATTER-DAY FRANCE. 



'93 



bondliolder to every $1,000 of the public debt. The 
greater part of this debt draws three per cent, in- 
terest, oue-third of it five per cent. The total an- 
nual revenue, or rentes, of the people from these 
bonds is 748,404,952 francs. There is no thought 
of paying the principal of this debt. It is held at 
home and constitutes a permanent and perfectly 
safe investment. Transactions in rente* and other se- 
curities are conduc- 
ted on the Bourse. 

The population of 
France in 1880 was 
37,166,000. The 

population of the 
provinces wrested 
from France by Ger- 
many as a part of 
the results of the 
Franco-German war 
may be set down at 
a million and a half. 
The number of the 
depositors in savings 
banks and holders of 
rentes numbered in 1879, 7,454,863. The people are 
economical, industrious and cheerful. The French 
masses are quite illiterate. Setting aside four millions 
of children under six years of age, and it may be said 
that thirty per cent, of the population can neither 
read nor write. Once Protestantism seemed likely to 
be the religion of the country, but by the latest census 
98.02 per cent, of the people are Romanists, only 1.6 
per cent. Protestants. All religions are equal before 




the law, except that state allowances for the clergy 
are confined to the Roman Catholics, Protestants 
and Jews. 

The present colonial possessions of France are 
utterly insignificant. They contain a population 
of about two and a half millions, but with the excep- 
tion of two thousand native- of France the colonists 
are barbarians, most of them downright savages. 

Slavery was abolish- 
ed in all the colo- 
nies in 1848. 

There have been 
some great authors 
in France since Vol- 
taire, but none of 
those belonging to 
this century can 
claim the very high- 
est rank except Vic- 
tor Hugo. His Leu 
Mist' rallies may just- 
ly be set down as 
the greatest novel 
ever written. Its 
popularity was prodigious and its influence incalcu- 
lable. Written for the purpose of showing that 
knowledge is the great reformatory agency in the 
world, it has a strength and vigor of thought almost 
Shakspearean. Dumas, father and son, deserve hon- 
orable mention, as does •" George Sand" (Madam 
Dudevant), but their place in literature is not among 
the immortals. Taine and Louis Blanc must be ac- 
corded exalted praise as critics and that is all. 






_ y^- y 7 7 7 / / / /\ \ \ \ \....\ y V 




CELTIC, GOTHIC AND MOORISH SPAIN. 



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71 



CHAPTER XLIX 



AAAA 



Iberia and the First Age op Spain— The Gothic Period— Theological Animosity— Invasion 
of the Moors — The Moorish Kingdom Established— The Light of Cordova— Z a rah the 
Luxurious— The Moorish Civilization— Arrevoes and the Religious Reaction— Fall of 
Cordova and Rise of Granada — The Alhambra— The Glory and Shame of Spain — The 
Fall of Malaga— The Conquest of Granada. 






K— ^E^f»-TH 




•* HE present nation of Spain 
comprises, in its home ter- 
ritory, an area of 195,775 
square miles. The term 
Spanish Peninsula, or The 
Peninsula, is used to des- 
ignate both that country 
and Portugal. The latter 
did not have a separate existence 
until a comparatively late date, 
and the old name Iberia applies to 
the entire peninsula region. The 
first inhabitants, railed Iberians, 
were Celts. The Phoenicians were 
the first to introduce civilization 
into the Peninsula. They estab- 
lished several trading posts along 
the coast. These were followed by 
several Greek colonies, and later still by Cartha- 
ginian settlements. During the second Punic Wars 
Spain was the base of operations for the Cartha- 
ginians under Hamilcar and Hannibal, the Romans 
under Scipio. After that it became a part of the 
Roman Empire. Then for the first time the leaven 
of civilization began to permeate the country. As 
a part of the great Roman Empire, Iberia produced 
many men of note. It was the birth-place of the 



Emperors Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus, Marcus 
Aurelius and Theodosius, also of the great moral 
philosopher Seneca, the poets Lucan and Martial and 
the accomplished rhetorician Quintilian. Very early 
and readily it accepted Christianity. It is thought 
by some that it was introduced by St. Paul himself. 

When the Northern horde overran the Roman 
Empire the Iberian Peninsula was a peculiarly 
tempting field for spoliation. That was at the be- 
ginning of the fifth century. Three kingdoms were 
formed, the Gothic or Visigothic, the Suevic and 
the Vandalic. The Vandals were soon driven 
across the Mediterranean, and their present descen- 
dants are called Berbers. During the century the 
Suevic kingdom was absorbed. The new order of 
things which succeeded the Roman sway was Gothic. 
There were thirty-six kings of the latter line, none 
of them deserving especial mention. Toledo was the 
chief capital of Gothic Spain, but Cordova and 
Seville were flourishing cities. For a time the Gothic 
kingdom included France. It rose to its highest 
degree of splendor under Euric who fixed his capital 
at Aries, where he died in 485. 

In the days of Gothic supremacy theological war 
was waged with the greatest fury. Euric was an 
Arian, as were the other earlier kings of his race, 
but the Franks were Athanasians. Finally, how- 



(294) 



■*» a. 



CELTIC, GOTHIC AND MOORISH SPAIN. 



2 95 



-W 



ever the power of Rome was felt and the Arian 
faith was supplanted by the doctrine of the trinity 
which Western Europe denominates orthodox. 
The clergy acquired more power in Spain than any- 
where else. The synods were petty parliaments and 
the bishops exercised 
judicial functions. 
The church could 
hardly have asked 
for more power than 
it enjoyed in Spain 
under the Goths. 
Xo meritorious liter- 
ary works belong to 
the Gothic period. 
It was a season of 
barbarism and retro- 
gression. Slavery ex- 
isted in its worst 
forms and the land 
was one dreary waste 
of misery and crime, 
a vast moral and in- 
tellectual desert. 

The chapter on 
the Saracen Empire 
served as an intro- 
duction to the period 
of Spanish history 
upon which we now 
enter. The Moors 
with their Crescent 
and " good Damas- 
cus blades," were 
invited to cross over 
and lend a helping 
hand to one of the 
factions in a civil 
war which was rag- 
ing between the 
Goths over the crown, which was elective. When 
they got there they proposed to stay. Their leader, 
Gebal-Tarikj had all the heroism of the best days of 
Islam. Like Cortez at Vera Cruz, he burnt his 
ships, and thus compelled his soldiers to protect 
themselves by the scimetar against the Goths (for 
hardly had they come over before the factions 
united to drive them back). A three-days' battle 
was fought which resulted in the complete victory 




of the Moors. In a very short time the invaders 
had driven the Christians to the mountains and 
taken possession of all the fertile plains and pros- 
perous cities of the Peninsula in the name of the 
Prophet. Gebal-Tarik was soon joined by Musa, the 

Governor of North- 
ern Africa, as Emir, 
or representative of 
the Caliph at Da- 
mascus. During the 
Ommiad dynasty 
Spain remained a 
province of the Sar- 
acen Empire ; but 
when that dynasty 
fell and there was 
division among the 
faithful as to the 
rightful leadership 
of Islam, it became 
independent, under 
the royal sway of a 
descendant of the 
old dynasty of the 
Ommiads. 

The Moors had 
crossed the Straits 
of Gibraltar in April, 
710, and twenty-two 
years later Charles 
Martel won the great 
victory which saved 
Europe north of the 
Pyrenees from the 
invasion, and made 
that chain of moun- 
tains the boundary 
line, in the West, 
for some seven cen- 
turies, between the 
two religions of modern times. Twenty-two years 
later the kingdom, in distinction from the depend- 
ency, was established, with Cordova as the capital. 

The first Moorish King of Spain was Abderahman, 
who reigned thirty years, and was a great soldier, a 
real statesman and a humane gentleman. The last 
was Abdallah the Unfortunate, sometimes called 
Boabdil. It was in the middle of the eighth cen- 
tury that the former came into his kingdom, 



37 



296 



CELTIC, GOTHIC AND MOORISH SPAIN. 



and almost the close of the fifteenth century 
when the latter withdrew from his, and the 
Moorish invasion of Spain was at an end for ever. 
During that long period there was almost constant 
war between the Moslems and the Christians, and 
these different religionists were at war among each 
other. Indeed, the Moors were fatally weakened by 
internal dissensions, rather than by the hostility of 
the Cross and the Crescent. 



middle of the ninth century. He encouraged all 
the arts of industry. The poor found profitable 
employment, especially in building and adorn- 
ing the capital, constructing roads and bridges, 
planting vineyards and raising grain. Men of 
distinction were invited to the court without re- 
gard to race or religion. To him succeeded a series 
of kings who were kept busy in trying to suppress 
insurrections and maintain what had been be- 




The question of final supremacy rested not so 
much on which church was the stronger as which 
was least rent and torn by its own rivalries, hates 
and ambitions. 

It was in Spain that the civilization of the Sara- 
cens attained its most glorious results. The best 
blood of Arabia and all the Moslem lands flowed 
thither and built up a nation of bravo soldiers, eru- 
dite scholars and skilled artisans. Cordova was long 
the seat of empire. The Christians were driven 
back and only allowed to establish themselves in the 
province of Asturias, about the Bay of Biscay. The 
second king to reflect honor upon the throne at 
Cordova was Abderahman II., who flourished in the 



queathed to them. In 912 another Abderahman, in 
name and character, came to the throne, under 
whom the kingdom was harmonious, but against 
whom a very formidable Christian army marched. 
Under Ramiro II. the two armies met near Sala- 
manca and a terrible battle ensued. - The Christians 
were greatly discouraged if not utterly defeated, 
while the .Moors were left in undisputed possession 
of their magnificent and fertile possessions. This 
king added greatly to the glory of Cordova. 

The city of Zarah, named after Ins favorite wife, 
was built as a suburb of Cordova, and if we may 
gi,ve any credit to Moorish chronicles, it was the 
most luxurious city of palatial residences ever 



\ 



CELTIC, GOTHIC AND MOORISH SPAIN. 



297 



reared upon this earth. Built at the base of a 
mountain, it enjoyed a delightful climate almost 
uninterruptedly. It was profusely supplied with 
fountains, gardens, parks and boulevards. The 
houses were built on one model and surrounded by 
gardens, terraces and 
every conceivable 
appliance of luxury. 
The central beauty 
of Zarali was a pal- 
ace with a roof sup- 
ported by four thous- 
and pillars of varie- 
gated marble, inclu- 
ding not only sombre 
shafts from Egypt, 
and white shafts 
from Italy,but state- 
ly malachite from 
Russia, procured 
through tfhe com- 
merce of "Novgorod 
the Good." The 
floors and walls were 
of the same material, 
all polished to the 
highest degree. Gold, 
burnished steel and 
precious jewels em- 
bellished the ceiling. 
It was luxury car- 
ried to the loftiest 
heights. 

But the chief glory 
of Cordova and its 
suburb was not ar- 
chitectural or ma- 
terial in any sense. 
Poetry, history, the 
exact sciences, oreosr- 
raphy, chemistry, medicine, inventions, discoveries, 
and all that goes to the formation of culture, found 
its natural center there. The value of the literature 
developed cannot be measured with any degree of 
accuracy, for the vandalism of the Christians who 
finally expelled the Moors, spared nothing. Whatever 
was written in Arabic character" was assumed to be 
the Koran, and doomed to the flames. The palaces 
were torn down, the gardens desolated, and the real 




treasures of the city destroyed. But much which 
made the Renaissance possible and beneficent may be 
traced to Cordova. Not that the Moors in Spain, 
any more than the Saracens generally, were actual 
creators of a distinctive civilization, but that they 

found, conserved, 
and to some extent 
fused, the civiliza- 
tions of Greece and 
India. They were 
apt scholars and 
faithful transmit- 
ters. 

The most illustri- 
ous name in Cordo- 
va's crown of glory 
is Averroes, a ripe 
scholar and pro- 
found philosopher. 
He was what would 
be called an agnostic 
in our day, too*broad 
and liberal to be tol- 
erated even in toler- 
ant Cordova. His 
philosophy seems to 
have opened the eyes 
of the devout be- 
lievers in the Pro- 
phet to the danger 
of religion from 
science. He was 
persecuted as a her- 
etic. His genius was 
the glory of the 
twelfth century, and 
his persecution was 
the triumph of the 
Koran over free 
thought and scien- 
tific inquiry, the turning-point, in fact, of the 
Moslem. Had his spirit of progress prevailed, the 
regeneration of Europe by the Moors would have 
been probable ; but orthodoxy triumphed, and the 
country was held within the narrow limits of a book 
having no scientific virtue, and Averroeism was 
obliged to await encouragement and development in 
Christian lands ages later. The Moors in Spain, 
like the Saracens in the East, marched nobly and 



- opv 



298 



CELTIC, GOTHIC AND MOORISH SPAIN. 



swiftly to the very door of modern civilization, but 
only to pause upon the threshold and draw back for- 
ever. No second Averroes came to lead the Moslem 
intellect out of bondage to a Book. 

In the year 123G the Christians took Cordova, 
the Moors no longer being succored by their breth- 
ren in Africa, nor able by themselves to withstand 
the assaults of their enemies. Granada then became 
the capital of the Moslem power in Spain, and so 
continued to be to the end. There the Mohamme- 



either. Jews and Christians were made welcome. 
If Granada could not boast the Mosque of Cor- 
dova, the Giralda of Seville, or the palace of Zarah, 
its Alhambra was even a more wonderful triumph 
of architecture than any of these. Its foundation 
is ascribed to Mohammed I., who died in 1373. It 
was a group of buildings with their surroundings, 
rather than one edifice, with the royal residence as 
its center. It was peculiarly Saracenic in this, that it 
combined the characteristic merits of every kind of 




THE CATHEDRAL AND PORT OF MALAGA. 



r 

IS 

ssir 



lir 



dans rallied and maintained themselves for two cen- 
turies and a half. A recent writer, speaking of the 
kingdom of Granada, says, " Its fertile valleys em- 
braced the garden of the Peninsula ; its industrious 
population carried agriculture to a degree of perfec- 
tion unknown to modern times ; its mountains 
yielded great quantities of the precious metals; its 
manufactures of silk and porcelain found a ready 
market in the courts of semi-barbaric Europe; the 
commerce of Alcmena and Malaga, its principalsea- 
ports, extended to the Indies," and lie might have 
added, to every port of trade. Within that succes- 
sor of Cordova, Granada, gathered a population 
of a half a million people, not all Mohammedans 



known architecture, lloman, Babylonian, Phoeni- 
cian, Persian, Greek and Egyptian. It was not 
only a royal residence and seat of government, but 
it was also a home of learning and intelligence. 
The barbarism of Christian Spain has wholly de- 
stroyed much and greatly defaced all, but enough 
remains to testify that the Alhambra was one of the 
marvels of the world, and its destruction a vast 
public crime. 

As in Condova, so in Granada, dissensions made 
conquest possible. The territory of Islam was 
gradually narrowed by Christian encroachments. 
New states of considerable power arose. Portugal 
came into existence in 1145 ; Navarre extended 



■?« 



^Js 



CELTIC, GOTHIC AND MOORISH SPAIN. 



2 99 



both North and South of the Pyrenees, and stron- 
ger than either were Castile and Aragou, especially 
the former. The two latter were united when Fer- 
dinand, King of Aragon, married Isabella, Queen 
of Castile. Each reigned in his or her own right, 
but being happy in their marital relations, they 
formed one sovereignty. Together they set about 
overthrowing the Moorish Kingdom, and they were 
successful. The glories of Columbus are thus 
blended, in a sense, with the shame of Boabdil, the 
honor of discovering a new world with the reproach 
of quenching the brightest light in the old world. 

The first campaign of destruction was directed 
against Malaga. That Liverpool of its day fell in 
148?. The people were sold into slavery or par- 
celed out among the victors as prizes of war in the 
most barbaric manner. The more beautiful females 
were sent, in large numbers, to Rome, Paris and 
other centers of power, as gifts, in accordance with 
the monstrous conception then common of inter- 
national comity. The captured city was repeopled 
with Christian Spaniards, and the conquerors were 
encouraged to plot further spoliation and slaughter, 
robbery and outrage. 

In the spring of 1491 Ferdinand raised a power- 



ful army and encamped with his host within a few 
miles of the battlements of Granada, determined 
to complete the work of conquest. Abdallah, or 
Boabdil, the king of the Spanish Moors, was in per- 
sonal command at Granada. The city was well 
adapted to defensive warfare ; but even in the pres- 
ence of impending ruin there was dissension, and to 
that cause, hardly less than to the prowess of the 
besiegers, the beleagured city owed its fall, for fall 
it did. On the second day of the year 1492 it was 
obliged to capitulate. The soldiers of the Cross 
took possession of the Alhambra in the name of 
Christ, and the vanquished king withdrew with his 
people to a small mountainous territory in the 
midst of the Alpuxarrus Mountains, where he was 
allowed for a short time to rule as governor, and 
vassal of the Christian monarch. But the Moors 
were unequal to the task of building a third king- 
dom ujxm Spanish soil. Not long after, Boabdil 
crossed the straits of Gibraltar and was lost among 
the Moors of Africa. With him did not, however, 
disappear the Arab from Europe. There lingered 
much of the old stock, but as a separate and puis- 
sant political power the Moor ceased to exist in 
Europe with the fall of Granada. 




if 



,* 




-Jr'-- f--'.- /-■:- /*VV ^\-Q 




CHAPTER L. 



Spain and Portugal— The Moors and Moriscoes— Persecution op the Jews— The Inquisition 

AND AuTO-DA-Fe— XlMENES AND ToRQUEMADA— BlRTH AND EARLY EXPERIENCES OP CHRISTO- 
PHER Columbus— The Great Discovert— Subsequent Career of the Great Discoverer- 
T-'-ian- and African Slavery— Last Days of Ferdinand and Isabella. 




^—J^Efcf)— H 



HE marriage of Ferdinand 
and Isabella (1469) was 
the union of two loving 
and ever faithful hearts. 
For thir- 
ty years 
they liv- 
together in 
lony, and in 
marital re- 
ations were mod- 
domestic 
and grace, 
was there a 
illustration 
adage, " In 
union is strength." 
The fall of Granada was the first 
great result of their cooperative 
energy. Castile and Aragon were 
then and throughout in practical unity, and out of 
that unity grew modern Spain. Neither kingdom 
lost its individuality at once, but the conquest of a 
splendid country like Granada by their united 
effort rendered any separation of interest imprac- 
ticable. A new name was only a question of 
time. Before a common heir to both Castile and 
Aragon came to the throne, other important 



additions of area were made, and it required 
only a matrimonial alliance with Portugal to 
prepare the way for the complete unification of the 
Peninsula under one throne. Ferdinand and Isa- 
bella made the necessary j)ro- 
vision for such a consummation 
by the marriage of their daugh- 
ter with the heir of Portugal, 
and their son with a daughter 
of the King of Portugal. But 
in both cases death prevented 
the success of the plan, and 
instead of uniting all Iberia, 
the country became two king- 
doms as now, Spain and Portu- 
gal. 

In the fall of Granada, Castile 
and Aragon had no assistance 
of moment, but all Europe was 
delighted. Christendom felt 
that the overthrow of the Saracens in Spain was 
an offset for failure in the Crusades, and for 
encroachments upon the Greek Church on the 
Bosphorus and along the Danube. Only one 
thing marred the satisfaction of the pious, and 
that was that the treaty of Granada guaranteed 
to the Moors the free enjoyment of their religion. 
Under that arrangement many thousands of Mos- 




(3°°) 



FERDINAND AND ISABELLA. 



30I 



lems remained in the land, worshiping God accord- 
ing to the Koran. But the perfidy of ecclesiastical 
counselors was equal to the emergency. A synod 
of bishops and other dignitaries of the church de- 
cided to "solicit" the conversion of the Mohamme- 
dans by ordering those who did not embrace the 
Christian religion to leave the country, taking with 
them neither gold nor silver. Confiscation and ban- 
ishment, practically, were the penalty of fidelity to 
Islam. And this policy was rigorously carried out. 
A great many accepted Christianity, receiving bap- 
tism and abstaining from every form of Moslem 
worship. To recant in any way 
was sure death. Those who were 
thus converted became known as 
Moriscoes. The more liberal and 
educated class cared little for 
their religion. Those who clung 
to the old faith of Mecca were 
obliged to cross the Mediter- 
ranean. Some of them settled 
along the northern border of 
Africa, but many pushed boldly 
southward and established their 
seats of learning and other in- 
stitutions in Soudan. The Cres- 
cent owes much of its present 
power among the Africans of the 
interior to the banished Moors of 
Spain. But their civilization 
succumbed to the adverse pressure 
of a tropical climate, and long 
since lost its vitality. It should be added that not 
a few of the more heroic Moors were either burnt at 
the stake or sold into slavery by Ferdinand and 
Isabella in their terrible and relentless policy of ex- 
tirpation. Not content with such perfidy, Ferdi- 
nand, near the close of his reign, sent an army over 
into Africa to plunder the Moors by wasting their 
country and committing every species of outrage. 

Black and infamous as is the record of Spain's 
treatment of the Moors at this time, it is not so ut- 
terly detestable as the record of Jewish persecution. 
The Moors were looked upon as intruders and ene- 
mies of the country ; the Jews were an integral, 
loyal and useful part of the native population. They 
had been in the country many centuries, for the 
most part, and were in all respects homogeneous, ex- 
cept that in the one matter of religion they remain- 




CARDINAL XIMENES. 



ed true to their ancestral faith. The spirit of perse- 
cution was stimulated by the fall of Granada, and 
in the same year an edict was issued requiring those 
Jews who would not recant to leave the country, 
taking neither gold nor silver with them. The de- 
cree was issued in March to go into effect in July. 
Very few of the people recanted, and they were 
hunted down pitilessly. Vast numbers perished, 
aud those who escaped suffered terribly. Some laid 
down to die on the sands of Africa ; others perished 
of disease contracted in overcrowded ships in which 
they took passage for other parts of Europe. At 
that time the new continent had 
not been discovered, and nowhere 
was there a welcome retreat for 
these distressed people. They had 
enjoyed liberty under the Moors, 
and acquired large landed estates. 
Granada was the medieval para- 
dise of the Hebrews. To be up- 
rooted and desolated without 
cause, and contrary to treaty ob- 
ligations, was one of the greatest 
crimes of history. There were 
probably half a million Jews in 
Spain at that time. They were 
hunted down like wild beasts, 
and even the King of Portugal 
was not allowed to harbor them. 
The great instrument of this 
destruction of two peoples, the 
Moors and the Jews, was the In- 
quisition. It had existed for some time in a lanquid 
way, but the austere Ferdinand and his pious wife 
were persuaded that it was their religious duty to 
ply that agency of conversion unsparingly. The 
belief of the time was that submission to the rite of 
baptism was salvation from hell, and that heresy, of 
whatever kind or degree, was the worst form of 
crime. The church had always been exceptionally 
influential in Spain, but now it was absolute, and 
the Inquisition (" bed of justice ") was the supreme 
tribunal, and the lurid fire of the auto-da-fe made 
hideous the whole sky of Spain. France had her 
Massacre of St. Bartholomew, but that was a gentle 
shower as compared with the flood which deluged 
Spain with blood during the joint reign of these two 
conscientious sovereigns. Under their sway the 
country was so completely subjugated to the will of 



■f'er 
t 



FT 



u^ 



302 



FERDINAND AND ISABELLA. 



Romish priests that had it not been for other pos- 
sessions in Holland their persecuting descendants 
would have been denied the grim privilege of per- 
secution. Absolutely no mercy was ever shown to 
any form of heresy in Spain, and never was a work 
of destruction more thorough or cruel. 

In this policy two ecclesiastics, as well as two sov- 
ereigns, were conspicuous, Torquemada the Inquisi- 
tor, and Cardinal Ximenes, the Richelieu of Spain. 
The former had been the confessor of Isabella, and 
hadunlimitedinfluenceoverher. Witb.no thought but 
to extirpate heretics he spent his life in the service of 
the Inquisition. 
Ximenes was a 
statesman of ex- 
traordinary abil- 
ity and thorough 
devotion to the 
church. He 
sought to make 
the church and 
state one, and 
both invincible. 
He was unscru- 
pulous, crafty 
and heartless. 
Many stories 
were told by ec- 
clesiastical writ- 
ers of the per- 
sonal goodness 
of these two 
men, some of 

which have found their way into received history ; 
but the needless outrages which Ximenes encour- 
aged and the wealth which he accumulated stamp 
him as a monster of wickedness, while Torquemada 
was more bigoted if possible than the cardinal, 
but unstained with avarice. Together they crushed 
and destroyed not only free thought but learning 
and progress. Henceforth, notwithstanding the 
glories of the New World, Spain declined in char- 
acter and intelligence. 

The same year that Granada fell and the Jews 
were robbed and banished, America was discovered, 
and all under substantially the same impulse. If 
neither Torquemada nor Ximenes may claim the 
credit of inducing Isabella to enter upon the enter- 
prise of discovery (for to her rather than to her hus- 




COLUMBUS EXPLAINING niS VOYAGE. 



band was Columbus indebted) it was none the less 
due to priestly intervention. It was the great nav- 
igator's good fortune to enlist the support of a 
former confessor of the queen, and the influence of 
that ecclesiastic was decisive. Thus the same un- 
derlying motive explains both the shame and the 
glory of Spain. 

The story of Columbus is peculiarly interesting. 
A recent writer of much erudition has taken pains 
to show from official documents that Christopher 
Columbus was anything but an admirable man in 
character, and that his ill-fortune, late in life, was due 

to his own mis- 
conduct ; but so 
vast is the debt 
of the world to 
him that the 
mantle of obliv- 
ion may well be 
thrown over all 
that. He de- 
serves to be held 
in grateful and 
tender memory. 
His story may 
be briefly told. 

Born in Genoa 
in 1435, the son 
of a wool-comh- 

er, at fourteen 
he became a sail- 
or. His native 
city was then an 
Important but declining mart of maritime trade. 
About the age of 35 
he made Lisbon, Por- 
tugal, his home, and 
map-making his busi- 
ness. That was the 
golden age of Portu- 
gal. King John was 
the most enterprising 
monarch in Europe, 
and he encouraged 
navigation on a liber- 
al scale. The ships courMBrB. 
of Lisbon skirted the African coast along the At- 
lantic and penetrated as far as the Azores islands 
continually adding to geographical and maritime 







FERDINAND AND ISABELLA. 



3°3 



knowledge. Map making was thus a progressive 
science, no less than a trade. The roundness of the 
world had been philosophically established, the mar- 
iner's compass discovered, and the way prepared for 
the circumnavigation of the world ; but no one 
seemed to have conceived the idea of trying to reach 
the farthest east by sailing directly west, until 
that idea took possession of the mind of Columbus. 
He spent several years in trying to secure the funds 
by royal patronage for his voyage. He was repeat- 
edly refused and rebuffed and almost discouraged. 



This most memorable of all expeditions sailed 
from Palos August 3, 1492. It was with the ut- 
most difficulty, toward the last, that Columbus could 
keep his sailors from turning back, but finally, on 
the 12th of October, land was discovered and 
reached. He had found the island of San Salva- 
dor. The natives received the voyagers with open 
arms of friendship. They cruised about some days, 
discovering several islands, including Hayti, or San 
Domingo, and Cuba. Supposing he had reached 
bhe land for which he had sailed, he called the na- 




The argument which he used was that by a short 
cut to India immense treasures would be secured, 
the gospel of Christ extended, and the revenue de- 
rived be sufficient to equip another crusade against 
the Moslem. That was an age of superstition and 
avarice, and he held out the inducements most 
likely to be influential. A wealthy Spaniard, 
Alonzo Pinzon, offered to defray one-eighth of the 
expense, and the Queen undertook the fitting out 
of three vessels for the expedition, pledging, says 
the narrative, her personal jewels. This, however, 
is quite improbable, for Granada had just fallen, and 
its plunder had enriched the coffers of both Castile 
and Aragon. 



lives Indians, a misnomer which has clung to them 
ever since, and given to the islands discovered the 
name of West Indies. He returned with many 
specimens of the country, including several of the 
Aborigines. Among the products found and intro- 
duced into Europe were potatoes, tobacco and In- 
dian corn. His return was hailed as a great event 
all over Europe. In Spain he was honored by the 
people and the sovereigns as befitted his supreme 
achievement. 

A second expedition soon set sail for the new 
world, indulging the most extravagant anticipa- 
tions. Everybody was wild with golden expectations. 
But very little was found to meet the views of the 



?8 



i<H 



FERDINAND AND ISABELLA. 



^t 



adventurers. After coasting along the east shore 
of South America, finding neither a passage to In- 
dia, nor gold and silver mines, many returned home 
in disgust and others remained sullen with discon- 
tent. A reaction set in, and Columbus was super- 
seded in command of the colony established in 
Cuba by Bobadilla, who ordered the Admiral home 
in chains. That injustice created a feeling in his 
favor, but he was never sent back again as gov- 
ernor of the colony. That was in 1501. In the 
meanwhile the Span- 
iards in the new world 
had enslaved the na- 
tives, and under pre- 
text of converting 
them to Christianity, 
were subjecting them 
to extirpating cruel- 
ties. The natives of 
those once happy 
islands were early 
annihilated by their 
inhuman task-mas- 
ters, and their places 
supplied by importa- 
tions of Negroes. If 
Columbus was not 
responsible for slavery 
he did nothing to 
prevent or ameliorate 

it. In conception of justice he was not in advance 
of his age. Not only was the enslavement of two 
races introduced in America in his time, but the use 
of bloodhounds in chasing the fugitive slaves. 
Half a century saw the native population swept 
from those islands by the atrocity of the Spaniards. 
Disappointed in his search for gold, and saddened 
by the results of his genius, Columbus returned to 




Spain, and in the year 1506 he died, poor, heart- 
broken and neglected. After his death he was re- 
stored to popular favor, and his remains removed 
to Hayti for interment. In 1796 the bones of the 
great discoverer were removed to their present in- 
terment, the Cathedral of Havana, Cuba. It was 
not until about the time of his death that the Span- 
ish dream of gold and silver was realized. 

The principal events of the eventful joint rule of 
Ferdinand and Isabella have now been narrated. 

The Queen died in the 
odor of sanctity Nov- 
ember 26, 1504, in the 
forty-fourth year of 
her age and the thirti- 
eth of her reign. Of 
her children there re- 
mained only one 
daughter, Joanna, and 
she was insane. Jo- 
anna's son Charles, 
afterwards illustrious 
as Charles V., was the 
heir of Castile and 
Aragon, on his moth- 
er's side ; and on the 
side of his father, 
Philip, son of Maxi- 
milian of Germany, 
also heir of the Neth- 
erlands, and he was, as it proved, destined to 
the German Entire. Ferdinand survived Isa- 
bella a few years, marrying the niece of the 
King of France. His last years were unevent- 
ful, and may well be passed over. His life-work was 
completed when the woman who was really his 
"better-half" passed away. He lagged superfluous 
until January 22, 1516, when he too passed away. 




'wK©^. 





Isabella's Character and Death— Spanish Union— Philip and Juana— Character op 
Ferdinand— Charles V.— Philip the Catholic— Marriage with "'Bloody Mart"— The 
"Invincible Armada "—The Escfrial— Portuguese and Spanish Crowns — Philip the 
Imbecile — The Moriscoes and Spain— Philip IV. and Spain— The Last of theHapsburgs 
— First of the Bourbons— Continued Decline— Loss of Territory— Napoleon and Spain 
— Joseph Bonatarte— The Bourbons Restored — Louis Philippe's Trick and What Came 
op it— "The Apostolic Junta and Carlism"— Charles, Karl and Carlos— Ferdinand 
VII. and Queen Regent Maria Christina— Isabella II.— Provisional Government— The 
Republican Experiment and Castelar— Amadeus I. and Marshal Prim— Another Inter- 
regnum—Bourbons Again Restored— Alfonso and the Present Government — Spanish 
Art and Literature, Murillo, the Cid, Calderon, Cervantes, Don Quixote and 
the National Ballads. 




K— §4xfc§— * 



HE personal virtues of Isa- 
bella, and the service she 
rendered the world as the 
patron of Christopher Co- 
lumbus will evermore en- 
shrine her name in the af- 
fections of mankind. Pure 
in heart and free from 
guile, she no doubt maintained "a 
conscience void of offense." She 
was, however, very far from being 
a model ruler. The policy of the 
government toward Moors, Jews 
and heretics was cruel and unjust. 
She herself was the victim of 
superstition, and so far miscon- 
ceived the sphere of civil authority 
as to devote herself largely to the 
regulation of the religious affairs 
of her subjects by means of persecution. But all 
which she did or sanctioned in that line seems triv- 
ial in comparison with what followed. She was 
justly styled the Catholic Queen, but it was not 



until after her death that Catholic Spain, in the 
most pronounced sense of the term, came into view 
and held its ground as the supreme political expres- 
sion of the Roman Catholic church. 

We have used the name Spain from the first and 
treated the country as if it were one; but in point 
of fact, as the reader has observed, there were sev- 
eral states, each independent of the other, Castile 
being the most powerful and Aragon second. Fer- 
dinand and Isabella never merged their kingdoms, 
but their personal union proved in effect the mar- 
riage of States. It may be said that when Ferdi- 
nand followed his consort to the grave their two 
kingdoms, with their accessories, were merged into 
one nation. 

Ferdinand and Isabella had been unfortunate in 
their children. Several died young, and when the 
illustrious queen died her only heir was Juana, wife 
of Philip, Archduke of Austria, son and heir of 
Maximilian I., Emperor of Germany. By her will, 
executed October 12, 1504, Isabella bestowed the 
crown of Castile upon Juana as " Queen Proprie- 
tor " and her husband. By the Concord of Sala- 



(305) 



3° 6 



CATHOLIC SPAIN. 



manca, a year later, it was arranged that Castile 
should be governed jointly by Ferdinand, Philip 
and Juana. Philip and his wife were in the Neth- 
erlands at the time. The year following they re- 
turned to Spain, and it was very soon evident that 
this tripartite agreement would lead to very serious 
trouble. But before the year closed Philip died 
suddenly. His poor wife was crazed by her be- 
reavement, never recovering her reason. She lin- 
gered many years, a melancholy lunatic. There was 
no room for dissension. All conceded to Ferdinand 
the sovereignty of the whole country. He held it 
until 1516, when death claimed him. By his will 
he left the kingdom to the young son of poor Ju- 
ana, known in history as Charles V., with Cardinal 
Ximenes as ruler of Castile until Charles should 
come into his kingdom, and Ferdinand's natural 
son, the Archbishop of Saragossa, in charge of Ara- 
gon during the same period. Ximenes was a great 
statesman, a brave soldier and a learned divine, a 
man of great power. He founded the university of 
Alcala and translated the Bible. Of Ferdinand and 
his rule Harrison gives this testimony : 

" Ferdinand was a bigot ; he was not free from 
the taint of perfidy tossed to and fro so freely in 
that age ; he was parsimonious, subtle and insin- 
cere ; he utterly lacked geniality, and never threw 
off the gravity which he thought becoming the 
Spanish grandee ; he indulged in vicious gallantries 
in egotistic designs, in an ill-assorted second mar- 
riage ; he was suspicious, vulgar and uneducated : 
all this one is willing to grant, and yet concede that 
there were elements of true grandeur in his charac- 
ter. In the judgment of many of his contempora- 
ries, he was the most renowned and glorious monarch 
in Christendom. Impartial, economical, indefati- 
gable in his application to business, he was neither 
an epicure nor ostentatious ; he loved history, horse- 
manship, the rites and ritual of a splendid church 
ceremonial, knightly virtues and chivalrous un- 
dertakings ; and with unusual control over his 
temper, undaunted personal courage, and a far-see- 
ing political sagacity, he made few bad mistakes, 
and, by wonderful good fortune, raised Sjiain, joint- 
ly with his magnanimous queen, from a conglom- 
eration of reciprocally hostile states into a spacious 
and concentrated European empire." 

Charles V. was sixteen years of age when his 
grandfather died. Little more than a year later he 



assumed the reins of government, and the year next 
following he was elected Emperor of Germany. No 
monarch had -.--. ^; 



ever swayed so 
vast an em 
pire. Beside 
the splendid 
kingdom 




CUARLES V. 



of 
Spain, inclu- 
ding quite a 
large part of 
Italy, and the 
august em- 
pire of Ger- 
many, were 
his vast Am- 
erican posses- 
sions, already 
growing into 
enormous im- 
portance. 

His reign extended from 1516 in Spain and 1519 in 
Germany until 1556, when he voluntarily abdicated 
in favor of his son Philip II., known fitly as Philip 
the Catholic, retiring himself to a monastery to 
prepare for death. 

Subsequent chapters will narrate the founding of 
American colonies, some of them imperial. In a 
general way it may be said that his reign witnessed 
nearly all the settlements which grew into that 
chain of republics extending from the United States 
to Patagonia. In 1526 he was married to Isabella 
of Portugal, a union which ultimately brought the 
entire Spanish peninsula under one scepter for a 
time. The death of Charles V. occurred September 
21, 1558, in the fifty-ninth year of his age. His 
last act was the execution of a codicil to his will in 
which he solemnly and quite superfluously enjoined 
it upon Philip to " exterminate every heretic in his 
dominions and cherish the Inquisition." 

Fortunately for Germany, Philip II. never wore 
the elective imperial crown ; but his hereditary and 
inalienable sovereignties raised him to the suj)reme 
rank among the kings of Europe. 

Queen Catherine, the divorced wife of Henry VIII. 
of England, was the aunt of Charles, and Philip 
married for his first wife the daughter of Henry 
and Catherine, Mary, known in English annals as 
Bloody Mary. On her part it was a love match, 



*7F 



CATHOLIC SPAIN. 



3°7 



but not so on his side. She was several years the 
senior of her profligate and bigoted husband. From 
the first he hated Protestantism with more in- 
tensity than he loved pleasure, and herein there was 
a bond of sympathy between them ; but to reside on 
English soil and be enveloped in the fog of an un- 
congenial court was intolerable to him. He re- 
mained briefly with his unloved royal wife, only that 
he might undo what her father and her brother, 
Edward VI., had sought to do. The papacy was 



his tactics 'and tried to gain England by conquest. 
A vast navy, or Armada, was fitted out for the pur- 
pose. An auspicious storm, supplemented by British 
bravery, destroyed the Armada and saved En- 
gland. That was agreat crisis in the affairs of En- 
gland. The "Invincible Armada" consisted of 140 
ships. It set sail in May, 1588. Eighty-one of the 
vessels were sunk. The fate of the Armada was, 
in some important respects, to the modern world 
what the battle of Salamiswasto the ancient world, 




restored, temporarily. When the retrogressive work 
seemed to be accomplished, Philip left his wife in 
her own dominions, crossing the channel, never to 
set foot again on English soil. His unhappy wife 
had no charms for him, and her importunities for 
his return made no impression upon his obdurate 
heart. 

Hardly had the sad queen been borne to her last 
home, before the serpentine Philip began to make 
overtures of marriage to her sister and successor, 
Elizabeth. But she was not to be wooed and won by 
any suitor, least of all by a man she loathed and a 
sovereign she distrusted. She was a staunch Prot- 
estant. Failing to win by courtship, Philip changed 



England, small and despised, was able to hold in 
check the vast and unwieldy forces of Spain, and 
as the success of Xerxes and his Persians over the 
Greeks would have changed the current of ancient 
civilization, so the success of Philip and his Castil- 
iaus would have changed the whole trend and char- 
acter of modern civilization. 

The first four years of Philip's reign, to resume 
the thread of continental history, were employed in 
establishing his authority in Italy. Devout papist 
though he was, he forced the pope himself to 
sue for mercy. But nearly all his energies were ex- 
pended in carrying out his father's codicil, and His 
Holiness freely and fully forgave him all his Italian 



■** 



3 o8 



CATHOLIC SPAIN. 



transgressions. The long reign of Philip II. ex- 
tended into the year 1598. In Spain, the only part 
of his kingdom in which he really felt at home, 
Protestantism had no lodgment, but in the Neth- 
erlands it was very strong. The political privileges 
of his Dutch subjects were at one time confirmed, but 
with unflinching pertinacity he strove to crush her- 
esy. That terrible war belongs, for the most part, 
to a previous chapter. In 1579 a union of the sev- 
en Protestant provinces of the Netherlands against 
Philip was formed, with William of Nassau and 
Orange at its head. It was not until 1648 that 
Spain recognized the independence of the Dutch 
Republic. Philip died with that horrible war still 
in progress. His long and detestable life was unre- 
lieved by a single ray of nobility. As a husband he 
was faithless, as a father a murderer, his son and 
heir, Don Carlos, being the victim of his inhuman- 
ity. The policy he adopted drained the wealth of 
Mexico and Peru to maintain wars instigated by 
superstition, and thus, instead of allowing Spain to 
profit by the influx of precious metals from the 
new world he used the matchless resources of his 
crown to destroy, impoverish and depopulate the 
lands over which he ruled. 

The Escurial, built by this monarch, was at once 
his palace and his tomb. Its somber walls stand as 
a monument of the most calamitous reign in all 
history. A somewhat too gushing, but in this in- 
stance excusably picturesque, historian says of this 
architectural marvel : 

" A mausoleum, a monastery, a palace, a church, 
a museum, a marvelous reliquary, where the bones 
and limbs of hundreds of saints were devoutly ac- 
cumulated ; a city of corridors, doors, windows, and 
apartments ; a great library, a gigantic picture-gal- 
lery, a network of tanks and towers, a confession- 
stool for princely humility, a village of Hieronymite 
monks, a town clinging to the sides of the mountain- 
wilderness of the Guadarramas, a swarming clois- 
ter, an austere hermitage, a fortress, — what was not 
this wonderful edifice, begun by Juan Baptista 
de Toledo in 1563, and occupying 30 years of 
Philip's life before it was finished?" 

It was in the year 1560 that Philip II. made Ma- 
drid the permanent capital of Spain, which it has 
remained ever since. In 1581 Philip received hom- 
age at Lisbon as King of Portugal, intending to 
make Madrid the central city of the entire penin- 



sula. Henry, the cardinal and king of that coun- 
try, had died the year before, and under some color 
of right Philip demanded the crown. His demand 
was not conceded until a Spanish army had deso- 
lated the land. 

The successor of Philip, II. was the imbecile 
Philip III., who had all his father's vices without 
his ability. _t„ 



A weak tool 
of priests, he 
was simply 
clay in the 
hands of the 
ecclesiastical 
potters. The 
chief feature 
of his reign 
was the de- s 
maud of the^N-'^ 



$4 







S'ff 



PHILIP III. 



clergy for the 
slaughter of 
the Moriscoes 
or Moors who 
still remained in the country and professed com- 
pliance with the religious requirements of the laws. 
During the reign of Philip II. they had been cruelly 
persecuted, but it was reserved for the son to finish 
the work. They numbered about one million souls 
and constituted the better portion of the popula- 
tion. They were the intelligent husbandmen, skill- 
ful artisans and learned scholars of Spain. Under 
their influence and fostering care the industries, arts 
and manufactures of the land had maintained some 
thrift, notwithstanding the paralizing policy of 
Philip the Catholic. The priests were for mur- 
dering them all. But the secular influence at the 
court succeeded in somewhat modifying the decree. 
The Moriscoes were ordered to leave the country, 
taking nothing with them. No less than one hundred 
thousand lives were lost in carrying out this decree. 
At one stroke was fatally crippled the skilled indus- 
try of the country, and important productions, such 
as the raising of cotton, rice and sugar, were cut off. 
Large tracts of hitherto fertile lands became utterly 
waste, and ever since have served only as lurking- 
places of robbers and wild beasts. 

It is needless and would be tedious to follow 
the downward course of Catholic Spain in detail. 
There was never any very important departure from 



"71 



•Ms. 



«>v 



CATHOLIC SPAIN. 



309 



the policy of persecution foreshadowed by Isabella's 
bigotry and fully established by Charles V. From 
the accession of that first king of the house of 
Hapsburg, 1516, until the death of the last of the 
Hapsburgs, Charles II., 1700, the population de- 
clined from ten to six millions. There were only 
five kings of this line, beginning and ending with 
a. Charles and having three Philips between. Each 
king in this line was a weaker edition of his prede- 
cessor until the dynasty itself ran out and became 
extinct with the death of Charles II. 

Whe n 
Philip IV. 
came to 
the throne 
there were 
it is esti- 
mated, 9, 
000 mon- 
asteries i 11 
Spain, be- 
sides un- 
numbered 
nunneries, 
and friars, 
priests and 
ecclesiasti- 
cal vam- 
pires innu- 
merable. 
During 
the reign 
of this 
feeble and 




v 1 c 1 o u s 

monarch civil wars were chronic in many parts of 
the kingdom, and in 1640 Portugal resumed its 
national individuality. In his reign the independ- 
ence of the Netherlands was acknowledged and 
several American possessions were lost. 

The last of the Spanish Hapsburgs was Charles 
II. (the Charles who out of regard to his being Em- 
peror of Germany is usually designated Charles V. 
having been in reality Charles I. of Spain.) This 
pitiful wreck of a man was on the throne from 
1665 to 1700. Under him the population of Spain 
decreased 3,000,000, and the population of Madrid 
which had been as high as 400,000 fell to 200,000. 
Speaking of the condition of the country under 



this king, Niemann says, " The army, once so cele- 
brated, was now worth nothing ; it had neither able 
leaders nor reliable soldiers ; the arsenals and maga- 
zines were empty ; the fleets rotted in the docks ; 
the art of building ships was forgotten ; of sea 
charts there were none, and Spanish pilots were no- 
toriously ignorant. The poverty was so great that 
even the royal servants could not be paid, and the 
members of the royal household went hungry." 

Fortunately this Charles was physically impotent. 
Nature lifted from the country the incubus of that 

detestable 
dynasty. 

The last 
of all the 
Hapsburgs 
bequeathed 
his crown 
to the 
grandson 
of " the 
Grand 
Mo narch," 
LouisXIV. 
of France- 
That first 
of all the 
Bourbons 
to sit upon 
the only 
thronenow 
occu pied 
by a Bour- 
bon, was 
Philip V. 

This arrangement did not suit Austria, England 
and Holland, who wanted Charles, Archduke of 
Austria, to succeed as Charles III., apprehensive 
that France and Spain might be consolidated. The 
War of Succession which followed continued thirteen 
years. It was during this war that Marlborough won 
immortal fame as a soldier, and the British navy un- 
der Admiral Booke, of England, took Gibraltar. 
France assisted Philip, but in the end he was 
obliged to part with a large portion of his kingdom. 
England took the pillars of Hercules for her portion, 
and that gateway to the Mediterranean has proved 
the very key to maritime, and, largely, to European 
supremacy. Austria acquired by the treaty of 



3 io 



CATHOLIC SPAIN. 



L"trecht as her share of Spanish plunder. Xaples, 
Sardinia. Milan, and what remained to it in the 
vriauds. Sicily wa- _ S v. The reign 

of Philip was a long one. He held the scepter un- 
til 174'j. The country improved somewhat under 
him. The loss of possessions in Europe beyond 
the national limits of the kingdom was highly bene- 
ficial. 

Philip V. was succeeded by Ft : I. This 



are told, during all that period. He was not popu- 
lar, however. The clerical influence was entirely 
and bitterly hostile. The priests kept the people 
from sympathy with progressive and reformatory 
- 
When Charles IV. came to the throne, 17SS, the 
- - - --umed their former sway over the 
affairs of state. It was this king who in 1795 ceded 
to France. Eastern Hayti. The year following 




weak and inefficient sovereign wore the crown tiiir- 
years. During that period the country de- 
clined once more. At the time he came to the 
throne war was being waged bet- _ I i>ow- 

: Europe, as usual, but two years after lue 

:' Aix -la-Chapel lc wa* negotiated. 
and after that Ferdinand lived in peace. He could 
not be induced by even the ribraltar 

mor-: _ neral war which raged. 

At the death of Ferdinand. Charles III., 
brother, came to the throne. For twenty-nine vears 
he occupied the throne, and tried to improve the 
condition of the country. The Inquisition was held 
in check. Only three victims were burned bv . 



an alliance with France was negotiated which re- 
sulted in enabling Xapoleon to employ the mili- 
tary and naval forces of Spain to further his own 
ambitious designs and, ultimately, to appropriate 
the kingdom itself. In the great naval battle of 
Trafalgar Lord Nelson very nearly annihilated the 
Spanish fleet. About that time Trinidad was lost 

3 ain, and acquired by England. It was during 
tins - gn that Spain ceded Louisiana to 

France. 

In March, 1808, there was a revolution which 
deposed Charles and raised to the throne Ferdi- 
nand VII. Both appealed to Xapoleon, who settled 
the matter by ordering them both to abdicate, 



-f 



CATHOLIC SPAIN. 



3 11 



which they did, "whereupon he appointed his elder 
brother, Joseph Bonaparte, King over Spain. This 
appointment was made June 5th. Joseph entered 
Madrid July 12th. The opposi- 
tion rallied around Ferdinand 
and drove the amiable Joseph 
out of the capital. Thereupon 
Xapoleon himself took the 
matter in hand. He restored 
his brother in December. A 
new element in the conflict of 
Xapoleon with Europe soon de- 
veloped itself. The Duke of 
Wellington came on from In- 
dia, and coming by way of 
Portugal, carried the war 
against Xapoleon into the Span- 
ish peninsula. The disaffection 
of the country rallied around 
Wellington, adding materiallv 
to his strength. Ferdinand was 
restored to the throue in 1813. 
1S09 that the Peninsula War 




FERDINAXD VTt. 



It was in the year 
began. Wellington 
won a victory at Talavera in 1S09, but for the most 
part was obliged during the five 
years to fall back upon his 
Portuguese base, until the Rus- 
sian disaster of Xapoleon. Af- 
ter that. Wellington made rapid 
progress in the expulsion of the 
French from Spain. The rreaty 
of Valencia, by which Xapoleon 
formallv abandoned all claims 



to Spain 



was signed hi Decer 



ber, 1813. The Cortes promptly 
invited Ferdinand to take the 
reins of government, and rule 
in accordance with a constitu- 
tion which had been formed 
nearly two years previously. 

The reign of Ferdinand VII. , 
which really began with the 
year 1814, extended until 1S33. 
He belonged to the Dark Ages, 
and both disregarded the constitution and persecuted 
those who had invited him to the throne. He ruled 
in accordance, however, with the average public 
sentiment of the country. The people were better 
pleased with him than they would have been with 




a better ruler, so complete and demoralizing was 
the clerical domination. The inquisition was re- 
stored with all its attendant abominations. 

It was during this reign that 

the colonies, which had made 
some progress toward inde- 
pendence during the rule of the 
Bonaparte, achieved independ- 
ence. It may be stated here 
that Joseph Bonaparte came to 
the United States, and upon a 
pleasant estate in Xew Jersey 
spent the last years of his life 
quietly and respectably, leaving 
behind him a reputation as a 
worthy gentleman of no special 
force of character. In 181 

.. sold Florida to the United 
States for ?5,000,000 and the 
recognition of certain boundarv 
claims on the Mexican frontier. 
With all his medieval and ecclesiastical tenden- 
cies Ferdinand was not reactionary enough to suit 
the priests. They wanted the ■■ good old times '' of 
the Hapsburgs restored. They 
formed •'•' The Apostolic Junta " 
and incited the Carlist insurrec- 
tion, which, with some interrup- 
tions continued for half a cen- 
tury to be an element of discord 
in Spain. 

We have used, the name 
Charles thus far in this chapter, 
because it is generally employed, 
but the name which is CI, 
in English and Karl in German 
is Carlos, or Don Carlos, in Spain, 
in Spanish and Dom in 
Portuguese mean substantially 
the same as Mr. or Es.j. in 
English. With this much 
explanation, we proceed with 
the Carlist movement. When 
Xapoleon's star set and F 
nand VTI. came to the throne, the latter had a 
younger brother, Don Carlos. The king was a de- 
bauchee of the lowest tvpe. He had several wives 
and no children, and having quarreled with his 
brother, he was sorely distressed by the thought that 



39 



3 I2 



CATHOLIC SPAIN. 



Don Carlos would be his successor upon the throne. 
The counselors of the royal household persuaded the 
king and queen that for the sake of baffling Don 
Carlos it would be right for the queen to be untrue 
to her marriage vow. The fruit of that suggestion 
was a daughter, Isabella. The dilemma was as 
great as ever, however, for by the Salic law, which 
had been introduced by the first Bourbon and was 
binding upon that dynasty, whether in France or 
Spain, only males were heirs to the crown. A sec- 
ond child was also a daughter. The king then, 
1830, proclaimed the repeal of the Salic law, and 
that the elder daughter, Isabella, was the heir ap- 
parent. There was repugnance to the repeal of the 
Salic law throughout Spain, and extensive prep- 
arations for civil war followed. Both sides were 
prepared for the struggle, thought to be inevitable 
upon the death of the king. The clergy and peas- 
antry generally espoused the cause of Don Carlos, 
while the more liberal element was won over to the 
side of Isabella by the promise of respect for the 
constitution. 

In the meanwhile Louis Philippe came to the 
French throne and espoused the cause of Isabella, 
it being agreed that she should marry a husband 
chosen for her, and in case of failure of issue the 
crown was to go to the children of the other 
daughter. The wily French King provided an im- 
potent imbecile as the husband of Isabella, marry- 
ing Isabella's sister to his own son, thus hoping to 
secure the crown for his own family, upon the death 
of Isabella, who, he well knew, could have no legit- 
imate offspring so long as her husband lived. 
Rendered desperate by this trick, the queen con- 
tracted a morganatic marriage by which she had 
several children, the recent King Alfonso being 
the elder. 

A new and more liberal constitution was promul- 
gated in 1834, and the Inquisition was abolished, 
the liberal party rallied to the support of Isabella, 
or rather, of her mother, the queen regent, and what 
was more helpful to her, English, French and Port- 
uguese troops helped her suppress Carlism. By 1840 
the first Carlist war was over. 

Isabella II. was a mere child when Ferdinand 
VII. died. The regency fell to the queen-mother, 
Maria Christina, a woman of great ability. For 
some time the royalists were called Christinos. She 
was not at heart a liberal, and as soon as the Carlists 



were vanquished she made no concealment of her 
true nature. The constitution was ignored. But 
in a few months she was obliged to lay down the 
reins of government. The Cortes made Espartero 
regeut. He devoted himself to the material im- 
provement of the country, building roads, working 
the mines, etc. In 1843 the Cortes declared Isa- 
bella to be of age. Maria Christina, who had been 
living in France, soon came back, but her suprema- 
cy was short lived. Gen. Narvaez was prime minis- 
ter of Spain from 1844 to 1851 with some interrup- 
tions. He was a truly great statesman, almost the 
only one Spain had produced since Ximenes. 
Through the perilous times of that period, especially 
the revolutionary uprising of 1848, he carried the 
kingdom successfully. 

The guileful marriages of the queen and her 
younger sister, already mentioned, occurred in 1846. 
Don Francisco d'Assissi was the withered trunk 
to which the queen was tied. The sister Louisa 
was married to the young Duke Montpensier, who 
was destined to be an important factor in Spanish 
politics. The queen was justly indignant at the 
trick played upon her by the Citizen King of 
France, and her career was deeply disgraceful. In 
public and private life she was a reproach to her 
sex and her nation. Many of the best men were 
banished. The greatest leader of the liberals, how- 
ever, O'Donuell, was for some time a tremendous 
power. From 1S.~>8 to 1803 he was at the head of 
the government, distasteful as he was to the queen. 
For several years thereafter Spain was in a state 
bordering on chaos, and resulting in the expulsion 
of the royal family. "The act," says a recent his- 
torian, •• which led to the immediate exile of Isa- 
bella, then enjoying the sea-baths of San Sebastian, 
was the prmunciamenio of Cadiz, of September 19, 
1868." That declaration of 
reform was signed by Duke 
Torre. Marshal Prim, Admiral 
Topete, and other leading 
men of the kingdom. So 
strong was this movement 
I that the queen had to accept 
the situation without a blow. 
A provisional government 
sebrano. was formed with Serrano at 

the head as regent or president of the ministry, and 
Prim as war minister, Lorenzana as foreign secre- 







CATHOLIC SPAIN. 



3*3 



tary, Ortiz minister of justice, Topete minister of 
the marine, Figuerola finance minister, Sagasta 
minister of the interior, Zorilla minister of com- 
merce, Lopez de Ayala for the colonies. After some 
hesitation the Cortes finally decided upon a mon- 
archy as the form of government to be adopted. 
The Duke of Montpensier, Don Fernando, King of 
Portugal, and Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern, 
were put forward as candidates for the vacant 
throne. The latter was Prim's candidate. His 
candidacy occasioned the Franco-Prussian war. 
His name was withdrawn by his father in July, 
1870. In November following, Amadeus, son 
of Victor Emanuel, and Duke of Aosta, was 
elected king under the title of Amadeus I. Just 
before his arrival Marshal Prim was assassin- 
ated. That was a death-blow from which the prin- 
ciple of constitutional monarchy in Spain never re- 
covered. Amadeus was an amiable young man, and 
that was about all there was to him. He wore the 
crown from January, 1871, to February, 1873, when 
" the republic succeeded the monarchy as quietly as 
one sentinel succeeds another." 

The first " president of the executive power " was 
Senor Pi y Marzall, a scholarly gentleman of the 
press, also a jurist and reformer on general princi- 
ples. After five weeks he resigned, and Nicholas 
Salmeron took the reins of government for a few 
weeks, to be succeeded by the really great and 
splendid Emilio Castelar. He held sway for some 
months Hopes wore entertained of a permanent 

republic ; but 




the nation was 
unprepared for 
it. In 1874 
Serrano came 
into power 
again as re- 
gent, and in 
January, 1875, 
the house of 
Bourbon was 
maegall castelar. restored in the 

person of Isabella's oldest son, the worthy Alfonso 
XII. He died in 188."). Of the government under 
his rule, Harrison says: 

"Under him Spain enjoys an hereditary, consti- 
tutional monarchy. The king is inviolable; the 
executive rests in him, the legislative power in king 



and cortes. Senate and congress compose the 
cortes, and their meetings are annual. Deputies 
from Cuba were admitted in 1878. The king con- 
vokes, suspends or dissolves cortes, appoints the 
president and vice-president of the senate from the 
senate alone, and has responsible ministers. Local 
self-government is allowed to the various provinces, 
districts, and communes, with which neither execu- 
tive nor cortes can interfere except in cases of arbi- 
trary or unconstitutional assumption. The estab- 
lished religion is Catholic, which is maintained by 
the state, and a limited freedom of worship is al- 
lowed to Protestants, though it must be private." 
Ever since 1835 local self-government has been on- 
joyed in Spain. But notwithstanding all the lati- 
tude allowed under the present regime, there seems 
to be very little disposition on Hie part of the Span- 
ish people to share in the improvements of the age. 
The term "Catholic Spain" is hardly less applica- 
ble now than when first applied to the countrv. 

Spain has some art of which it may justly boast, 
and a very little literature of high merit. Murillo, 
one of the great masters in painting, was a Spaniard. 
The Cid is an epic of the very highest rank. It is 
based on a historical character. The Cid Cam pea- 
dor was the ideal of a hero cherished by the Chris- 
tians of Spain, as against the Moors. The latter 
represent him as a highwayman, the scourge of 
honest people. He flourished in the last of the 11th 
and first of the 12th centuries. The Song of the 
Cid was composed a century or so later. From it 
dates Castiliau poetry, a distinct product, not bor- 
rowed from the Moors or any other people, but a 
truly national body of literature. A convent of 
Benedictine monks at Cardegna was devoted to the 
memory of the Cid, for there is his tomb, as the 
Benedictines claim, and there are his banner, buck- 
ler, cup and cross. Philip II. had the Cid canonized 
by the pope, but his true apotheosis was the work of 
an unknown poet. Cid is the Spanish corruption 
of the Arabic word for chief — seid. He was also 
called Carnpeador, or Champion. 

He was the beau ideal of devotion to the Crown 
and Cross. Macaulay says of this epic : " It glows 
with an uncommon portion of the fire of the Iliad," 
and Southey says, " It is decidedly and above all 
question the finest poem in the Spanish language." 
On the same subject Harrison remarks : " The 
death of the Cid seems to have been the birth of 



" 



3H 



CATHOLIC SPAIN. 



Castilian poesy — a poesy different as possible from 
that of the polished, ingenious, and impressionable 
Moors who haunted palace, delighted in commen- 
taries, and sent messages of battle or reconciliation 
in verse characterized by an incomparable poetic 
technique. The Castilian popular verse clung faith- 
fully to reality ; it was full of dreams of national 
grandeur obscurely foreshadowed ; it deified, with an 
intuitive political sense, the great champion of the 
people and opponent of an unjust ruler ; it trans- 
formed an historic king, half a century after his 
death, into an idealized and half-fabulous hero. 

" There were three Cids : the cavalier, who could 
fight better than all others, who protected and gov- 
erned his king when he was not fighting him, bru- 
tally vigorous and frank, inaccessible to tender feel- 
ing, a vioiater of holy places ; then a nobler, loy- 
aller, chivalric, Christian Cid, who grew out of the 
impassioned reveries and reminiscences of the author 
of the Song of the Old in 1200 — a champion fer- 
vently adoring the Eternal, blessed with visions of 
archangels, absolutely devoted to the king and fa- 
therland, full of fatherly tenderness for his daugh- 
ters, Dona Elvira and Dona Sol, full of dignity and 
glory arising from a consciousness of just deeds and 
chivalrous enterprises, the noblest type of honor, re- 
ligion, patriotism, and kuightliness ; and lastly, the 
Cid of the romanceros of the sixteenth century, who 
is a sort of Cid galant, overflowing with fine talk 
and sentimental rhodomontade/' 

In 1681 Spain lost by death a trulv trreat drama- 
tist, Calderon. His 
works have never 
been translated. 
His bicentennial 
was celebrated with 
great pomp in 
Spain, and was 
received with ex- 
pressions of warm 
admiration from 
the literati of other 
nations. 

The supreme 
name in Spanish 
literature is Cervantes, a brave soldier who lost the 




CERVANTES. 



use of his left arm fighting in the ranks in that bril- 
liant and important sea-fight with the Ottoman fleet, 
the battle of Lepanto, fought late in the sixteenth 
century. His Don Quixote is widely read in many 
languages. It is a prose satire upon the mock hero- 
ism of chivalric romances, the novels of his day. It 
has been said that Cervantes laughed chivalry out of 
Europe. It would be more accurate to say that lie 
rent and exposed to just ridicule the tinseled robe 
of romance which it wore as regal purple, for chiv- 
alry itself died when fire-arms came into use. 

Quite a large body of national ballads of un- 
known authorship exists in the Spanish language 
which are eminently creditable. Through Lock- 
hart's admirable translations they have been added 
to the treasures of English literature. 

The colonial possessions of Spain at the present 
time consist of the islands of Cuba, Porto Rico, the 
Philippine Islands, Caroline Islands, and Palos, the 
Marian Islands, and a small area (483 square miles) 
in Northern Africa, Fernando Po and Annabon. 
total area 113,678 square miles ; total population, 
6,399,347. The first, second and third alone have 
any importance, and they are dwelt upon more es- 
pecially under the head of " Central America and 
the Isles of the Sea." 

The length of railroads in Spain on the first day 
of 1880, was 4,067 miles, with 1,242 miles more in 
the course of construction. The government has 
liberally subsidized the lines, but they are owned 
and operated by private enterprise. Not much more 
than half the soil of the kingdom is under any 
sort of cultivation, and the average productiveness 
of the land under tillage is much less than formerly. 

The supreme characteristic of Spain is that 
peculiarly brutal and demoralizing amusement, 
the bull fight, the favorite Sunday entertain- 
ment of the people of all classes. It consists 
simply of an encounter between an infuriate beast 
and a trained athlete and swordsman, with 
every advantage on the side of the man. Occa- 
sionally he is gored by the horns of the maddened 
brute. This sort of barbarity is a relic of the 
gladiatorial arena of Rome, and is at once cause 
and effect of the demoralized national character 
of the Spanish people.* 



* Maria Christina took the oath as Queen Kegent, December, 1883. The length of railroad in 1885, was 5,430 miles. 



7'! 







'V 




j^L 



.•45). 



PORTUGAL AND THE PORTUGUESE. 




%* 





CHAPTER LII. 



Portugal, Old and New— Lisbon, its Capture, Earthquake and Population — Last Days of 
Alfonso — Maritime Supremacy — Zarga and Madeira — Vasco da Gama, the Azore: 
Cape op Good Hope — Da Gama and India — Portugal and Brazil— Dom Sebastia 
Sebastianism— Subsequent Portuguese Events— Port Wine — Camoens 1 Lusiad. 






ays of i.;Tjn: Iff^j 




!>*-HN a *€f*^ 




: LIE distinctive history of 
Portugal dates from 1095, 
with a subsequent period of 
mergence in Spain. Prior 
to that time it was an 
indistinguishable part of 
Spain (using the modern 
term for the Iberian Pen- 
Before that time it had 
been subject, in turn, to the lto- 
mans, Visigoths, and Moors. At 
the close of the eleventh century 
Alfonso VI., King of Leon and 
Castile, wrested from the Moors 
|^3^; that part of their European posses- 
sions lying between the Minho and 
the Douro, and gave it to his son- 
in-law, Henry, who called himself 
Count of Portugal. The name was suggested by 
the capital, Porto Cale. Henry's son Alfonso had 
the title of king conferred upon him by the pope, in 
reward for his gaining a victory over the Moors at the 
battle of Ourique, 1139, in consequence of which vic- 
tory his possessions were extended to the Tagus. 
By the middle of the following century the king- 
dom comprised substantially the same territory as it 
does to-day. 

The area of Portugal is 36,510 square miles, and 



the pojmlation a trifle over four millions. The 
period of mergence in Spain was from 1580 to 
1G40, during which time three sovereigns of that 
country, Philip II., III., and IV., ruled over the en- 
tire peninsula. There have been thirty-five sover- 
eigns of Portugal, not counting the Spanish usurp- 
ers, the present king, Louis I., coming to the 
throne in 1861. The Portuguese call the period of 
the three Philips, "the Captivity." When once the 
scepter of the Spaniard was broken the country be- 
came singularlv free from both foreign intervention 
and domestic revolution. But those years of tran- 
quillity have been years of utter insignificance. 
The just pride and real importance of Portugal goes 
back of "the Captivity." Eor the most part Portu- 
guese history is a dreary wilderness, but a few epi- 
sodes of interest are found here and there in its 
record, like oases in a desert. 

The first Portuguese king was a very remarkable 
man, the inconsequential nature of his realm, 
rather than his personal character, being the expla- 
nation of his comparative obscurity. His conquests 
over the Moors were the first important steps to- 
ward their final subjugation. In order to extend 
his dominion to the mouth of the Tagus lie was 
obliged to take Lisbon, then a Moorisli city, and the 
richest, most populous and best fortified town on 
the peninsula. It is supposed to have had at that 



(315) 



Mf 



316 



PORTUGAL AND THE PORTUGUESE. 



time a population of at least four hundred thou- 
sand. It was the chief center of trade between 
Europe and Africa. In laying siege to it the great 
king had the genius and good fortune to secure the 
effective alliance of the English, German and 
Flemish crusaders, just starting out for the Second 
Crusade. It was a co-operation which enabled Al- 
fonso to attack by land and Avater, albeit he himself 
had no ships. In recognition of the service rendered 
by English allies an Englishman by the name of 



Not only did Alfonso I. maintain and enlarge 
the borders of Portugal, but he also laid the foun- 
dations of that maritime greatness which raised 
the Portuguese kingdom to its highest summit, and 
may be said to constitute the one claim of the ra- 
tion to pre-eminence. He encouraged marine expe- 
ditions, conferring knighthood upon those who dis- 
tinguished themselves in that line. In this policy 
he was impartial as between natives and foreigners. 
He sowed the seed of a bountiful harvest. Indeed, 




Gilbert was appointed first bishop of Lisbon. It 
may be added that Lisbon now has a population of 
about 250,000. In 1755 it suffered a most desolating 
earthquake followed at once by a terrible conflagra- 
tion. Not less than 30,000 lives were lost. A por- 
tion of the present city antedates that calamity, but 
the greater part of Lisbon was completely destroyed. 
The long reign of this first king of Portugal was 
almost constantly occupied with war. Sometimes 
he was fighting neighboring Christians, sometimes 
adjacent Saracens, and sometimes Moors from 
across the Mediterranean. His final exploit was a 
bold and successful sortie upon an army from 
Morocco which had laid siege to Lisbon. 



it U hardly less to Portugal than to Spain that the 
world owes the discovery of America, albeit the 
Portuguese court declined to render Columbus the 
succor he finally secured from the Queen of Castile. 
Had it not been for what Columbus did, saw and 
learned at Lisbon the fire of discovery would never 
have been kindled in his brain. 

It was in 1184 that Alfonso died. It was not 
until the year 1419, that Portuguese seamanship 
demonstrated its superiority and Portugal gained its 
first foothold abroad. In that year an enterprising 
tar, Zarga, made a voyage of discovery in a south- 
western direction. His boldness was rewarded with 
the discovery of the beautiful island of Madeira, 



-oh 



■^ «_ 



PORTUGAL AND THE PORTUGUESE. 



3*7 



nearly a thousand miles away. The Azores islands 
and Cape Verde were later discoveries. Madeira be- 
came famous for its wine, also for its rich yield of 
sugar before Cuba eclipsed it. The island is small 
and has been 
mainly useful to 
Europe of late as 
a retreat for in- 
valids, especially 
sufferers from 
lung difficulties. 
Tbe climate is ab- 
solutely delicious. 
There were no in- 
habitants upon it 
when discovered, 
and the present 
people are a mix- 
ed race, the Por- 
tuguese and Ne- 
gro blood being 
intermingled. 

Slavery existed 
there once, but 
was long since 
abolished. The 
last vestige of 
slavery in the 
Portuguese col- 
onies was wiped 
out in 1878. The 
total colonial pos- 
sessions of Portu- 
gal embrace 709,- 
469 square miles 
and a population 
of over three mil- 
lions, mostly in 
Africa and the 
islands adjacent 
to the dark con- 
tinent. But these possessions are trivial as compared 
with what originally seemed likely to be Portugal's 
share in the Orient and the New World. 

The Azores islands were discovered twenty years 
later than Madeira. The great achievement of 
Portuguese enterprise, however, was the discovery 
of the passage to the East Indies by the Cape of 
Good Hope. "What Columbus vainly sought by 




sailing westward, missing it only to find something 
incomparably better, was found by skirting along 
the western coast of Africa. Ships from Lisbon had 
long been doing a thrifty trade with the Africans, 

finding a region 
previously sup- 
posed to be unin- 
habited, peopled 
by a race of sav- 
ages who were 
only too eager to 
exchange for the 
baubles of civili- 
zation ivory and 
other precious 
things. It had 
been the theory 
of Ptolemy that 
Africa extended 
westward as it ex- 
tended south- 
ward. The Por- 
tuguese found 
that just the op- 
posite was the 
case, and that en- 
couraged them to 
push their way 
farther and far- 
ther in the hope 
of finding a point 
at which land 
ceased. Their 
hope was realiz- 
ed. Repeated ex- 
peditions were 
made without 
success, beyond 
the farther exten- 
sion of com- 
merce, until Vas- 
co da Gama doubled the Cape of Good Hope and sail- 
ed along the eastern coast of Africa. The people he 
found to be less barbarous than the negroes of the 
west ; at least he came upon some evidences of semi- 
civilization, and traces of intercourse with Asia. 
Feeling his way along the coast cautiously, he 
crossed the Indian Ocean and landed on the coast of 
Malabar, May 22, 1498. He was absent from Lisbon 



4> 



3-8 



PORTUGAL AND THE PORTUGUESE. 



two years, returning with a rich cargo of Indian 
goods. 

A revolution in oriental traffic was now inevitable. 

The Isthmus of Suez had long been closed, ex- 
cept for caravans, and intercourse between the 
far East and Western Europe was partly by land 
and partly by the Mediterranean. But henceforth 
an easier and less expensive route, thanks to Vasco 
da Gama, was practicable. 

Portugal was in a position to make good use of 
the discovery made, for it had a large merchant ma- 
rine and for a long time was ruled by a public-spirited 
monarch. The Portuguese carried on trade in In- 
dia without rivalry or check during a period of 
many years. But in 1525 King John III. became 
more interested in crushing out Islam heresy and 
Judaism by the Inquisition than in developing the 
Indian trade. The general character of the country 
was seriously impaired by this policy, and the way 
thus prepared for the displacement of the Portu- 
guese in the East by a more intelligent and secular 
people. The rise of the British Empire in Hindoo- 
stan, and of the supremacy of the British flag upon 
every sea was made possible by the baneful influ- 
ence of the church in Portugal. As that empire 
rose, Portuguese commerce dwindled until now it is 
hardly the shadow of its former greatness. 

This same King John established a kingdom in 
America, Brazil, which is now a very considerable 
power. It had been discovered in 1500 by Pinzon, 
also by Cabral, who soon entered with zeal into the 
project of Christianizing that portion of the new 
world. The Brazil of to-day is the proudest living 
monument of the golden age of Portugal. 

King John was succeeded in 1557 by his infant 
son, Dom Sebastian. When this sovereign came to 
years of independence (he never reached years of 
discretion) he was absolutely eager to subjugate the 
Moors across the Mediterranean. He gathered a 
magnificent army, and in 1577 set sail from Lisbon, 
resolved to carry the war into Africa and accom- 
plish a great deliverance for Christendom. He had 
powerful auxiliaries from other nations of Eurojje. 
A great battle was fought August 3, at Atcacer 
Quibir. The Europeans were utterly defeated, and 
Dom Sebastian himself, who led his forces in per- 
son, was lost. He is supposed to have been killed, 
stripped and mutilated beyond recognition. But 
his fate proved to be one of the most remarkable 



mysteries of all history. All sorts of stories were 
told by those who pretended to have seen him alive 
after the battle, and his subjects were disposed to 
believe that he had escaped and would return. So 
strong was this belief that it developed highly inter- 
esting results. A body supposed to be his was bur- 
ied with all possible honors in the monastery of Be- 
lem at Lisbon, but the hope of his survival was still 
cherished. 

One especial cause of Sebastianism (as this curi- 
ous hope came to be called) was the danger of na- 
tional annihilation, which his death involved. He 
had no direct heir, and Philip of Spain claimed the 
throne. His claim could not be disputed, and " the 
Captivity " followed, during all which time the 
credulous Portuguese persisted in expecting Sebas- 
tian's return. The church fostered the delusion that 
he was on a distant island, and would some fine day 
sail up the Tagus with a splendid and irresistible 
fleet. This hope has not entirely died out even yet, 
and all through " the Captivity " served to keep alive 
the national sentiment. It contributed largely to 
the preservation of a patriotism which made Portu- 
gal improve the opportunity afforded by the utter 
imbecility of the court at Madrid to regain its indi- 
viduality as a nation. 

The revolution by which Portugal escaped ab- 
sorption into Spain occurred in 1640, and was 
effected with very little bloodshed. The kingdom 
held on the tenor of its way, suffering little from 
war and much from superstition, until the Napole- 
onic wars. Obliged to take sides, the government 
formed an alliance with England and the other 
Allies. Napoleon sent a small army into the coun- 
try, declared the throne vacant and the country a 
part of France. That was in 1807. The nominal 
head of the government was Queen Maria, but she 
being insane, the regency had been conferred upon 
John Maria Joseph, Prince of Brazil. That was in 
1792. When the French soldiery came, he set sail 
from Lisbon, for Kio Janeiro. When the empire of 
Napoleon fell, Prince John returned to Spain, 
leaving his son, Dom Pedro, Regent of Brazil. 
It was in 1S22 that the latter became Emperor 
of Brazil, and complete separation occurred, 
and that without any bloodshed. In a few years 
Dom Pedro came into possession of the crown of 
Portugal also, but he soon surrendered it to his 
daughter Donna Maria, preferring to remain at Eio 



■?]<=- 



J- 



PORTUGAL AND THE PORTUGUESE. 



3 J 9 



Janeiro. Before, that, however, lie had granted 
the people a constitution. Not long, after civil war 
arose in Portugal, furnishing an excuse for British 
interference, which reduced the country to a condi- 
tion of semi-subjugation to England. Its foreign 
policy has ever since been what the British desired it 
to be, except as there were occasional " perfidies, " as 
the English writers brand even' attempt at self-as- 
sertion on the part of Portugal. 



The Portuguese can boast only one really great 
name in literature, Camoens, author of that grand 
and truly classic epic, the Lusiad. The old Roman 
name for Portugal was Lusitania, and the poem 
which bears a name derived from the same root re- 
counts the proudest achievements in the history of 
the nation, for the epic is founded on the maritime 
exploits of Da Gama, who is its hero. Camoens' 
own life was one of adventure by land and sea, es- 




VIEW OF OPORTO. 



Portugal is famous for its wine. Its vintage and 
the' country itself both derive their name from the 
seaport town of Oporto. This wine was brought in- 
to prominence by the British policy of encouraging 
its importation into England, while discouraging by 
heavy duties the importation of French wines, a 
policy which grew out of the fact that in the earlv 
years of the present century France and England 
were at war, while Portugal was the passive ally of 
the British. Besides, the English preferred port to 
claret and other light wines. 



pecially in the far East. He was fully imbued with 
the spirit of enterprise, and his elaborate verse is 
the noblest literary monument ever raised in honor 
of the dominant spirit of that age. The great man 
drained to the dregs the cup of ingratitude. He 
died a pauper in the city of Lisbon. After his death 
the Portuguese became aware of his genius and 
have ever cherished his memory. He is the one lit- 
erary man of that country deserving of even men- 
tion. His Lusiad belongs in the best of the world's 
classics. 




40 






5pr 





Iceland, Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the Countries Emhraced — Iceland and its Liter- 
& fji ature— Denmark— The Danes in History— Hamlet— Norway and the Norwegians— Area, 

Population and Emigration— Climate, Soil and Productions— The Birth of a Literature 
—Sweden and Protestantism— Gustayus Adolphus— The Swedes in America— Decline 
of Sweden— Present Government and Condition of Sweden — Natural Resources of the 
Country— Scandinavian Mythology— Greenland, and the Norsemen in America. 



^*|^<E^i»^H 




HE term Scandinavia is 
no longer in use, except 
historically, but the in- 
habitants of Sweden, Nor- 
way, Denmark and Ice- 
land are still called Scan- 
dinavians. Although not 
living under one govern- 
ment, they form, substantially, 
one people. Distinct yet insepar- 
able, they are several nations, but 
one people. 

In immemorial times and until 
about the eleventh century the 
Scandinavians sjx>ke one tongue. 
The language now has two branch- 
es besides the original, the Dan- 
"£>"' ish and the Swedish. The original 
speech is preserved in truly pristine purity in Ice- 
land, and that frigid land must have peculiar inter- 
est for every student of Norse history. It was in 
the ninth century that the country was settled by 
Scandinavian colonists. That bleak island now has 
a population of less than one hundred thousand 
persons, but during all these ages it has preserved 
the songs and stories of their ancestors in the primi- 
tive language of Scandinavia, enriching the litera- 



ture with much which commands the admiration 
of scholars. 

For something more than three hundred years 
(928 to 1262) Iceland was a happy republic. The 
people are still remarkable for their intelligence. 
They are brave, pure and amiable. " The old 
tongue," says Peterson, "which is the foundation of 
the three Scandinavian languages, they have kept 
during 3000 years in its original purity, and the 
humblest workman can read and write, and is 
thoroughly conversant with the Sagas, the history 
and the laws of his country and the Bible." Ice- 
laud is 600 miles from Norway, 250 miles from 
Greenland and 500 from Scotland. The long 
winters give ample leisure for study. Once a depen- 
dency of Denmark, the country is now entirely inde- 
pendent, only the King of Denmark is the heredi- 
tary head of the Icelandic government. To all 
intents and purposes the country is a republic in 
which all citizens are equal before the law. The 
climate admits of very little agriculture. The pur- 
suits of the people are pastoral and piscatorial. 
The country is of a volcanic formation. The 
Hecla is the chief volcano of the island, and in its 
neighborhood is the great Geyser or Hot Sulphur 
Spring. The houses of the people are built of lava 
blocks and moss. In everything but climate and 



VTs- 



(3 2 °) 



^L^ 



THE SCANDINAVIANS. 



3 2I 



soil, which could hardly be worse, Iceland is an 
earthly paradise. 

The once proud, but now insignificant, kingdom 
of Denmark consists of the peninsula of Jutland 
and several adjacent islands of the Baltic Sea. 
Copenhagen is the capital. The government is a 
limited monarchy. The present king, Christian 
IX., is best known as the father of Alexandra, Prin. 
cess of Wales, Maria Dagmar, Empress of Russia, 
and Georgios I., King of Greece. The executive 
power is vested in the king and his ministry, the 



the ninth century. In the eleventh century they 
very nearly completed the conquest of Britain, their 
king at that time being Canute, the greatest sover- 
eign of his age. It was under him that Denmark 
was Christianized. Near the close of the fourteenth 
century Queen Margaret the Dane effected the con- 
quest of all Scandinavia, uniting Sweden and Nor- 
way to Denmark. That consolidation was called 
" The Union of Calmar." Margaret died in 1411, 
and her nephew Eric was appointed her heir, but 
each nation chose its own ruler. Thirty-seven years 




VIEW OF COPEXIIAGEN. 



law-making power being vested in the Rigsdag, with 
its senate, called Landsthing and its lower house, 
called Tolkething. These brandies of the legisla- 
ture represent, as their names would indicate, respect- 
ively the landed aristocracy and the people at 
large. The state religion is the Lutheran. Absolute 
freedom of worship is enjoyed, but there are very few 
dissenters from the established church. Protestant- 
ism in Denmark dates from 1527. Elementary educa- 
tion is universal and obligatory. There is a pros- 
perous university at Copenhagen and thirteen col- 
leges located in the different large towns of the country. 
The Danes appeared first upon the surface of his- 
tory as piratical invaders of England. That was in 



later Denmark chose Christian I., Count of Olden- 
burg, its king, and the house of Oldenburg wore the 
Danish crown from 1448 to 1863. There were six- 
teen kings of that dynasty, with an average reign of 
twenty-six years. The present sovereign belongs to 
the Multiplex house of Schleswig-ITolstein-Sonder- 
burg-Glucksburg, to which name might properly be 
added, Ilesse-Cassel. 

For many generations Denmark avoided complic- 
ity with general European affairs, but it became 
somewhat involved in the Napoleonic Wars as an 
ally of Erance. That alliance resulted hi the loss of 
Norway. The great uprising hi Europe against des- 
potism in 1848 extended to that kingdom and re- 



3 22 



THE SCANDINAVIANS. 



suited in securing for the people a truly liberal con- 
stitution, one under which the real authority of the 
crown is reduced to the minimum. The latest ap- 
pearance of Denmark upon the international stage 
of action was hi the Schleswig-Holstein War set 
forth hi German history. 

The highest distinction of Denmark is not histor- 
ical, but histrionic. The genius of Shakspeare made 
use of a semi-historical, semi-mythical episode in the 
annals of the Danish court as the canvas on which 
to paint his masterpiece, Hamlet. The Danes have 
a vivid tradition of the melancholy prince, and point 
with pride to his supposed grave at Elsinore. There 
was an old play of Hamlet which Shakspeare re- 
wrote and into which he infused the life and light of 
genius. The historical 
basis, so far as there is 
any, belongs to the six- 
teenth century. 

When the allies, after 
their victory over Napo- 
leon at Waterloo, de- 
prived Denmark of Nor- 
way, in punishment for 
French alliance, they pro- 
posed to cede the latter 
to Sweden ; but the Nor- 
wegians made such an 
earnest and manly pro- 
test against it that Nor- 
way was recognized as an independent kingdom, 
although under the same dynastic head as Sweden. 
The union with Denmark covered the long period 
from 1387 to 1814. In the early days of Scandina- 
via the Norwegians were the leading element and the 
land conquered by the Scandinavians in France 
(912), was called Normandy. 

With an area of 122,869 square miles, Norway has 
a population of about 2,000,000. It is an agricul- 
tural and pastoral country, especially the latter. It 
has two large towns, Christiana, with a population in 
1880 of 116,801, and Bergen about one-third the size 
of the metropolis. Great numbers of the people 
emigrate to this country. In 1873 the emigration 
reached 13,865. It has fallen off somewhat since, 
but is still great and constant. The State of Minne- 
sota has a very large percentage of Scandinavian 
population. 

Norway can boast the largest merchant marine, in 



proportion to population, in the world, At the end 
of 1879 the shipping of that country numbered 
8,125 vessels, of a total burthen of 1,509,477 tons, 
manned by 58,609 sailors. There, as hi Denmark, 
the Lutheran church is everywhere predominant, 
and education is compulsory. The legislative author- 
ity is vested hi the Storthing, divided into two 
branches, the Lagthing and the Oldenthing. The 
executive authority is exercised by the king nomin- 
ally, but really by a council of state composed of two 
ministers and nine counselors. 

Norway extends 1,080 miles from north to south, 
with a breadth varying from 270 to 20 miles. The 
coast line is fringed with islands and indented with 
fjords. The chief river is Glommen, or Stor-Elven, 

as one part of it is called. 




VIEW OF BERGEN 



Owing to the gulf -stream 
the country is not as cold 
as the latitude would in- 
dicate. But for that 
ocean river, Norway 
would be uninhabitable. 
The chief source of 
revenue is timber. The 
pines, firs and birch of 
that land are of great 
value. The fisheries and 
mines are also very con- 
siderable sources of reve- 
nue, especially the for- 
mer. The iron, copper and silver mines yield less 
than a million dollars a year, all told, while 
the annual catch of fish exported, including 
oysters, cannot be worth less than $5,000,000. The 
rivers fairly swarm with salmon and salmon trout. 
Since its separation from Denmark Norway has 
developed a distinctively national literature, and 
can boast one name of world-wide fame, Bjornst jern 
Bjornson. Hans Christian Andersen is the best 
known Scandinavian author. The Synnove Solbak- 
ken, published in 1856, is regarded as the beginning 
of Norwegian literature. 

Sweden is really the major part of Scandinavia, 
of which Gustavus Wasa was the first great sove- 
reign. That monarch did much to strengthen the 
nation and weaken the clergy. His reign began hi 
1523. The country was at that time torn and tor- 
mented with ecclesiastical strife, and so it continued 
to be until early in the seventeenth century, when 



Jbs 



THE SCANDINAVIANS. 



3 2 3 



Lutheran Protestantism completely triumphed there, 
as in Denmark and Norway. The Scandinavians 
never had any real affiliation with Rome on the part 
of the people. The popular heart was not enlisted 
by popish devices. The last Catholic king of Swe- 
den was Sigismund. He was succeeded in 1604 by 
Charles IX., a zealous Protestant. Seven years later 
his great son, Gustavus Adolphus, known as the 
" Swede of Victory," ascended the throne and reigned 
twenty-one years. That reign was a splendid period 
in Swedish history, a memorable one in the history 
of the world. In the terrible war between Protest- 
antism and Catholicism, hi 
which nearly all Christendom 
was enlisted, he took a conspic- 
uous part. The history of the 
Thirty-Years War has for an in- 
tegral part of its record the ex- 
ploits of that great soldier and 
majestic man. He gave his life 
to the cause of Protestantism. 

Gustavus Adolphus was re- 
markable for the breadth of his 
sympathies and the vastness of 
his plans. Not content with 
conserving the interests of Swe- 
den, and helping in the religious 
disenthrall ment of Europe, his 
thoughts went out to America. 
It was in his day that the most 
beneficent settlements on this 
continent were made, and that 
the seeds of the United States were sown. Acting hi 
a wholly independent way, he projected a settlement 
hi the new world, which he hoped would be the 
nucleus of an ideal nation. The first Swedish colony 
in America dates from 1637, five years subsequent 
to the death of Gustavus, but none the less the idea 
was his. That colony established itself on the land 
between Cape Henlopen and Trenton Falls. Dela- 
ware is a part of what was then New Sweden. The 
Swedes had very little to do, as it proved, in the civil- 
ization of this continent, but the dream of their 
great king has been more than realized. 

Although Gustavus Adolphus had the honor of 
raising Sweden to rank among the great powers of 
Europe, the kingdom attained its highest glory un- 
der Charles XL (1660 to 1697). The peace of West- 
phalia (1648) had added largely to the territory of 




the kingdom. When Charles XII. came upon the 
throne he had beneath his sway a magnificent em- 
pire. He left it almost in rums. Many victories 
were won over his enemies, but the country was im- 
poverished. His reign extended from 1697 to 1719. 
His successor was his sister, Ulrica Eleonora. Un- 
der her a constitutional government was formed. 
Gradually the area of Sweden was narrowed until 
very little remained except Sweden proper. In 1814 
Norway came, as we have seen, to form a dynastic 
union with Sweden, but that was not an important 
union. The union is declared to be perpetual, "with- 
out prejudice, however, to the 
separate government, constitu- 
tion and code of laws of either 
Sweden or Norway." The law 
of royal succession is the same 
in both. In the event of an 
absolute vacancy of the throne 
the two Parliaments assemble 
for the election of a common 
king. 

The present organic law of 
Sweden dates from 1809, al- 
though liberal changes were 
made later, the latest being in 
1866. The government is sub- 
stantially the same as that of 
Norway, including religion and 
education. There are two Swe- 
dish universities, the one at Up- 
sala being the chief. It numbers 
among its alumni Emanuel Swedenborg, the great 
scholar and author who founded what is known as 
the Church of the New Jerusalem, and was, besides, 
a great scientist. 

The area of Sweden is 170,979 square miles; the 
population in 1884 was 4,643,128. The emigration 
from there to this country, which may be said to 
have begun in 1860, reached its maximum in 1869, 
during which year it reached 39,064. The Swedes 
are numerous in the Northwest. Stockholm and 
Goteborg are the two largest cities of Sweden. It is 
estimated that 49 per cent, of the country is produc- 
tive soil, including pasturage. Wheat is raised hi the 
southern part of the kingdom, rye, oats and potatoes 
being, however, the chief products of the arable land. 
The iron mines are of great value and importance. 
The Scandinavians of to-day can certainly boast 



"a V 



4 






THE SCANDINAVIA - 



■: 



: iigkm. Even their modernized 

forcr. "as borrowed from Germany. 

the Lutheran church bem/ .^re prevalent. 

--rD be proud of the fullness, 

Iefiiteneaa and originality of their old myth 

stained in two collections, called the 
Eddas. The Elder Edda is in verse and dates back 

■ ' >rk and dates from 
In those books preserved the religions 



dinavian divinities, their wars, lores, drinking bouts 
and various exploits. Poets find in these stories rich 
i:.sj:-.±. t : I r erse . 

aon has been made of the part taken by 

Sweden in the early settlement of this country. It 

a Scandinavians, and with good rea- 

*eir ancestors were really the first dis- 

: this continent. In the ninth centnr 

Icelander, Gunbjom, discovered Greenland. He was 

the Bed. E the 




atmythol - <ugly 

marked individual." i /in quite inde- 

/ . The universe, accord- 
• 

and there 
stands Valhalla, the great hall of Odin. Thor, the 
Thunder':: Jotunl 

sunshine 
and rain, seedtime and harvest 
_■ ■ 

- 

re pei 

memorials of Scandinavian is the 

fl. Many are the 



country he the name of Qreedhnd, his ac- 

count ' greemg with the name he g 

it Two settl' - re made upon the m 

I illy supposed, until recently, 

that Gh red; but it is now 

le that t. ntnrotu keel of the 

plowed along the Amei ist as far 

• r, but in 
the fourl -ntury came that 

gue, which destroyed tin 
plus p n, killed t of colonial enter- 

prise and utterly uprooted whatever may have been 
anted on the- 



. * ,-:;■:;■.,; .-j c i ? - v r ... s i ■ 



m 



m 





1* 



SWITZERLAND AND LESSER EUROPE. 



^ 



B?5»-ft *±^ 



*fc 



"3^ = 




>H-_ 





CHAPTER LIV 



THE H :5R — The Wmt.w win — Mwwwu Svmnu ~7'iET OF W rt :nw 

Tell — The Alps — Glacubs x ~>" i\: Sisnos-S 

He?. - narni — The Fkde . _>: esdgs- 

tbt in S ■ -Tsi Republic ■ l— Sis HAKiaa, tbm ?i-j.r.?r 

Holders — V SobmasUl— Ssbtu— Konmiax 



±^£ri* 






-:- ^ 







HE name Switzerland is de- 
rived from Scbwj - 

- - nitons 
'. // "^:C^.--"i-|-'i ufederatiou. 

■^ »* - ~- ?"-<T Ij* the very pinnacle of Eu- 
rope, uesf ._ :".. Al- 
pine _ - . iroui 
France. Germany, Austria ai 
air by mountain barriers. With au 
area of . - - square miles ami a 
population of two millions and a 
half, only 69 per cent of the land 
can be called prod.. , and not 
much of that is really good soil 
The stupendous mountain ranges 
are peeuiiiarly valuable mail 
theyattra t visitors -raising 
and cattle breeding furnish em- 
ployment and support for the bulk of the peop". . 
the chief source of Swiss i - the enter 
uient of strangers. The Alps are visited even." s - 
by tourists from all over the meu 
seeking pleasure ins dingl ie lofty peaks •which may 
be said to be the natural home < : 
In the days of Roman - 

- ' _ .1 were known as 1! 
the wars between tee Gauls and the Romans, and 



I - 



-sen the Romans and the Germans. 
bore some part, occ . - rising ; 

prominence. - - 

gained supremacy - warriors of Rome, bat 

triumph was of short 
fruit. The H. i - 

their sterile mountain : - - - for homes in the 
tempting vali. - - res tern, but 

were eon:: 

In time their laud became a Roman province, and 
served as a bar: r : r t ... 

the T - 'leru horde had overrun 

Empire ^: 
• And Burguudi;. - - 

the besom of des 
In 413 the first kiugdom of Burgui: 3 organ- 

_ S id, bat -ong 

a 
dynasi - The people wer 

■ t 
emperor were vej 

Zah- 
a .1. who held sway daring 
One s of Zahringen ins 

of Hapsburg, 
duch; . . 

tapsburgs 



(j»s) 



v* 



hSS 



326 



SWITZERLAND AND LESSER EUROPE. 



As long ago as the clays of the Helveti we hear of 
"Confederates," but the present Confederation is of 
much later origin. Its first organization dates back 
to 1307 when the three forest cantons of Schwytz, 
Uri, and Unterwalden formed a league. Out of that 
association grew the Confederation, much as the 
American Union grew out of the confederation of the 
original thirteen states. Napoleon was right when 
he said to a Swiss deputation, " Nature made you to 
be a federative state," at least such seems fated to }»• 

the case. 

With oc- I 
casional 
interrup- 
tions the 
cantons 
have al- 
ways been 
free and 
united. 

T h e 
national 
hero was 
William 
Tell. His 
very ex- 
iste nee 
has been 
question- 
ed, and 
certain it 
is that all 
known of 
of him is 
more le- 
gendary than historical. The story is this : Tell was 
a hunter living in the canton of Uri in the early part 
of the fourteenth century. At that time the Haps- 
burg dynasty claimed sovereignty over Switzerland. 
An Austrian bailiff named Gessler raised a cap on a 
pole in the market-place of Altorf to which every- 
body was ordered to bow in token of submission to 
the government. Tell belonged to an organization 
formed for the purpose of throwing off the yoke of 
oppression, and he refused obedience. Greasier con- 
demned him to death, but reprieved him on condition 
that he would shoot an apple from the head of his 
own son. Being a remarkable bowman, he ventured 
the shot, and hit the apple without harming the boy. 




The tyrannical bailiff noticed that Tell had two ar- 
rows, and asked him why he had more than one, to 
which the intrepid archer replied, " If I had hit my 
son I should have shot you." The critics pronounce 
this story a legend common to all Aryan nations, 
found, with slight variations, in Persia, Denmark, 
Ioeland and elsewhere. 

But the chief interest of Switzerland is that 
vast system of mountains which culminates in 
Mont Blanc. The Alps extend from the Mediterra- 
nean Sea, 
between 
Marseil- 
les and 
Nice, ir- 
regularly 
eastw ard 
to about 
18° east 
longitude 
and 45° 
30 'north 
latitude. 
The 
Rhine, 
Rhone 
and the 
Danube 
are the 
great riv- 
ers which 



VIEW OF BASLE. 



rise in 

those 

m o u 11 - 

" tains. 

The Alps cover an area of nearly 100,000 scpiare 
miles, extending some 700 miles fEom east to west, 
varying hi breadth from 50 to 200 miles, with an 
average elevation of 7,700 feet. There are no less 
than seven hundred peaks which tower into the re- 
gion of perpetual snow. Among these are Mont 
Blanc, 15,784 feet high : ( i rand Ceroin, 14,815 ; Fin- 
steraarhorn, 14,025 ; Schreckhorn, 14,815 ; Mont 
Cenis, 11,785, and Jungfrau, 9,071. There are six- 
teen passes, the most notable being the great St. Ber- 
nard, between the valley of the Rhone and Piedmont. 
Napoleon crossed it in 1800. More than two thou- 
sand years before, Hannibal the Great had crossed 
what is now known as the Little St. Bernard pass, 



n&IY 



*; 



SWITZERLAND AND LESSER EUROPE. 



3 2 7 



which comiects Geneva, Savoy and Piedmont. In 
Switzerland the Alps are not enriched with minerals, 
coal only being found there ; but in some outlying 
portions of the great chain iron, lead and quicksil- 
ver abound. The distinctive Alpine animals are the 
chamois, the itex, the goat, and the famous dogs of 
St. Bernard. 

The vast accumulations of ice and snow in the 
Alpine peaks, called glaciers, have been carefully 



rough and undulating, not unfrequently scarred by 
deep clefts. Toward the lower end these ice masses 
are usually strewn with sand and coarse gravel, and 
trains of large blocks that disguise the natural color. 
In former conditions of the earth's surface they at- 
tained enormous dimensions, but, if we except those 
of Greenland, not yet explored, none are kuown that 
exceed about 30 miles in length and two or 
three miles in breadth." These stupendous ac- 



AU 




studied by geologists. It is scientifically certain 
that glaciers once extended over countries where they 
are no longer found, and that the traces of them 
throw light upon our knowledge of the earth. The 
Alps are the chief arena for the present disr)lay of 
this kind of phenomenon. They are described by 
Ball as " continuous masses of ice that originate in 
the region of perpetual snow, but extend far below 
the snow-line, often reaching the zone of forests, and 
sometimes descending into inhabited districts in the 
midst of corn-fields and fruit trees. The ice is very 
different in appearance from what is commonly seen 
in winter on streams and lakes. The surface is 



cumulations of ice and snow are a perpetual men- 
ace. They occasionally slip from their moorings and 
rush downward, carrying death and desolation as 
they go. Sometimes the slightest cause, as the vi- 
bration of air, will precipitate a glacier. A glacier 
in motion is called an avalanche. The mere sound 
of a bell has been kuown to turn a glacier into an 
avalanche. Some parts of the Alpine valleys are 
uninhabited on account of the frequent occurrence 
of these avalanches. 

The first real triumph over the Alps was achieved 
when the Mont Ceuis tunnel was completed. That 
grand work of encmieerins; is one of the wonders of 



4 1 



Sv* 



328 



SWITZERLAND AND LESSER EUROPE. 



the modern world. It was begun in August, 1857, 
and completed as a tunnel in December, 1S70. It 
was thrown open to traffic in the following Septem- 
ber. It lacks only thirty yards of being eigbt miles 
long. It cost $15,000,000. Trains run through it 
in about twenty minutes. It connects Italy and 
France. 

We may now return to a consideration of the peo- 
ple, their ways, history, condition and industries. 
The Swiss are a very simple-minded people. Their 
one prominent native name, aside from the mythical 



residence there dates from 1541 to 1564, tl» latter 
date being the time of his death. During that 
time his influence was almost autocratic. His 
austere theology and cruel bigotry found their 
most extreme ex})ression in the burning at the 
stake of Servetus for the crime of being a Unitarian 
hi theology. Many ineffectual attempts have been 
made to cleanse the skirts of Calvin from the blood 
of Servetus. The former was indeed opposed to burn- 
ing the poor heretic, preferring to kill him in a less 
horrible way, but his execution was approved by Calvin. 




MOUNT CENTS TUNNEL. 



Tell, is Zwingle, one of the illustrious names of the 
religious Reformation. He was a contemporary of 
Martin Luther and contributed much to Protestant- 
ism hi its infancy. About one million and a half 
of the population belong to the Protestant church, 
leaving a million for the Catholic faith. But Zwin- 
gle did less, however, for the Protestant cause than 
John Calvin. The latter was a Frenchman, but he 
resided for a long time in Geneva, and may fairly be 
claimed as a part of Switzerland. Born in 1509, he 
fled to Geneva from the papal persecutions in France 
in the year 1536. His first residence was short. He 
pushed on to Strasburg, but in 1540 he was invited 
by the senate of Geneva to return. His permanent 



The Swiss have always been good soldiers. One 
of the most brilliant victories of history was their 
triumph over the Austrians at the battle of Morgar- 
ten, in 1315. It has well been called the Ther- 
mopylae of Switzerland. Their bravery, reinforced by 
the admirable natural facilities for defense, has pro- 
tected them from conquest. For a long time now 
the great powers of Europe have abandoned all idea 
of interference with Switzerland. The French 
Revolutionists attempted to regulate the affairs of 
those cantons, but the Congress of Vienna (1815) 
acknowledged and guaranteed the independence of 
the Swiss. Each canton has its own constitution 
and local self-government, and three of the cantons 



\- 



A° — - 



SWITZERLAND AND LESSER EUROPE. 



3 2 9 



are divided each into two states. " Their eonstitu- 
t ic ins," says Niemann, "' range from purely democratic 
to perfectly representative systems, but each constitu- 
tion must be sanctioned by the federal assembly 
before it can come into force. The ecclesiastical 
authorities in the Reformed church are the synods, 
assemblies of the whole clergy ; and at their side 
stands in each canton, as the highest administrative 
authority, an ecclesiastical council — in Geneva a 
consistory." The Roman Catholic church has five 
bishoprics. 



Any person eligible to the assembly is also eligible 
to the council and the presidency. There is also a 
federal court, having jurisdiction over all cases aris- 
ing between the confederation and the canton, 
between canton and canton, also between the govern- 
ment, federal or local, on the one side and an indi- 
vidual or a corporation on the other. 

The country has three universities, Bern, Zurich, 
and Basle ; and three professional schools of emi- 
nence, Geneva and Lausanne theological seminaries 
and law schools, and the law school at Freibur°\ 




The central government lias a constitution which 
has undergone many changes. The present organic 
law of the confederation dates from 1874. The con- 
gress of Switzerland, the federal assembly, consists of 
a national council with one member for every 20,000 
inhabitants, and the council of states, corresponding 
to our national senate. There is a federal council 
exercising executive functions, composed of seven 
members, elected by the federal assembly. The pres- 
ident of that council, chosen annually by the 
council itself, is president of the Confederation. 
The president is not eligible to re-election until after 
the lapse of a year from the expiration of his term. 



Watch-making is the chief industry in Switzerland. 

It remains to speak of the Republics of Andorra 
and San Marino, also the Principalities of Monaco, 
Pomerania, Servia and Montenegro. 

Andorra is the name of a valley and a republic 
which nestles like an eagle's eyre far up among the 
mountains. It is situated among the Eastern Pyre- 
nees, between the French department of Ariege and 
the Spanish province of Lerida. Ever since the days 
of Charlemagne it has been independent, forming a 
line of demarcation between Spain and France. 
There were not more than 12,000 inhabitants by the 
latest census. They are very primitive, kindly and 



A° 



33° 



SWITZERLAND AND LESSER EUROPE. 



hospitable mountaineers. The area of the republic 

is 149 square miles. The government is entrusted 
to twenty-four consuls. There is nothing worthy of 
note in the history of Andorra. 

San Marino is at once the oldest and smallest re- 
public in the world. The area is 22 square miles, 
the population a little less than 10,000. There are 
five villages within its narrow limits. The largest 
has the same name as the republic, and is the capi- 
tal. San Marino is situated in eastern central Italy. 
It dates back to the fourth century when St. Mari- 



it is not the least among the nations. That distinc- 
tion belongs to Monaco, which is as independent as 
if it were the first power on the globe. Monaco is a 
village of less than two thousand inhabitants. With 
its surrounding territory it has an area of six square 
miles, the total population being 3,127. It is situ- 
ated on a high promontory in the Gulf of Genoa. It 
has two claims to distinction. As a watering-place 
its mild climate makes it a resort for consumptives 
and other invalids. But its chief notoriety is due to 
the fact that it is a legalized gambling-place, famous 




BERNE 



nus, a pious stone-mason, fled thither with a few fol- 
lowers to escape the Diocletian persecution. The 
country has some good pasturage, and produces 
fruit, silk-worms and wine. San Marino is the par- 
adise of officeholders. Its little army of 819 men 
has 131 officers, and the political affairs of the re- 
public are intrusted to a senate consisting of sixty 
life members, an executive counsel of twelve, elect- 
ed annually, and two presidents, elected for six 
months. This has been the form of government 
since 1847. 

Although San Marino is the smallest of republics, 



the world over for the extent, variety, and openness 
of its games. Professional gamesters and respecta- 
ble tourists are there found upon a common level, 
the former habitues, the latter constantly coming 
and going, the players of to-day being for the most 
part different persons from those of yesterday. 
What is done with more or less secrecy in the rest 
of the world may be called the sole employment and 
industry at Monaco. Speaking on this subject, a 
recent writer says that the Prince receives about 
$350,000 per annum for allowing the gambling to 
be conducted within his principality, and that the 



-?i 



x? 



SWITZERLAND AND LESSER EUROPE. 



33 l 



present prince is entirely under the influence of the 
Jesuits. This least country of Europe is great only 
as an evil. The Prince resides in Paris. 

Iloumania was formed as a province of Turkey in 
1861, out of the union of two minor principalities, 
AVallachia and Moldavia. The representatives of 
the people met at the capital, Bucharest, May 21, 
1877, and proclaimed absolute independence of Tur- 
key. The Berlin Congress, in the following year, 
confirmed the proclamation. Its area is 48,307 
square miles ; population something over 5,000,000. 
Bucharest is a city of over 220,000 inhabitants. 
The people are, for the most part, Greek Christians. 
The government is an elective and strictly limited 
constitutional principality. The present prince is 
Karl I. 

Servia gained independence of Turkey at the same 
time and in the same way as Roumania. It was vir- 
tually free, however, as early as 1829. The present 
prince, Milan II., is the fourth of his dynasty, the 
house having been founded by Milos, leader in the 
•Servian war against Turkey, which lasted from 1815 
to 1829. The Servians are Slavs, of the Greek- 
church, except in a small district mainly peopled by 
Mohammedans. The area of Servia is 20,850 
square miles; population nearly 2,000,000. The 
country and the people are wild and rude. The 

*See last clause on page 20!' for latest revision on the 



government is similar in form to that of Roumania. 
Belgrade is the capital, with a population of less 
than 30,000. 

Montenegro is a small and barbaric principality 
near the Adriatic sea, serving as a wall between 
Turkey and Austria, the Moslem and the Christian. 
The Turk was never able to subdue the Montene- 
grins, who are a tribe of Servians intensely devoted 
to the Greek church. The population is not over 
250,000, but the Prince, or Hospodar, can raise an 
army of 20,000 at any time, especially if the object 
is to war upon the Turks. Russia has often found 
great advantage in Montenegrin sympathy. The 
reigning prince is Nicholas I. The country has a 
constitution of the modern sort. By the treaty of 
Berlin, Montenegro gained from Turkey the town 
and district of Dulcigno, on the Adriatic, which sur- 
render was not actually made until 1880, and then 
only under the pressure of the great powers. The 
area of this principality is 3,550 square miles. The 
country has neither roads nor villages. Forests 
abound, and acorn-fed swine are the chief source of 
revenue. The agriculture is carried on, the little 
there is of it, in a very primitive way, and that 
almost wholly by women. It may be added that the 
same is true as regards women and agriculture, only 
in a less degree, of the entire continent of Europe.* 

States now or recently forming Turkey in Europe. 




"= 



ML 






OLD ENGLAND. 



sfe-w. \p^ : ^~%\^~Vd ^-- K x J ^: J ^'^ r '~ 





CHAPTER LV 



English Greatness— National Terms— Early Britons — Julius Cesar in Britain— The Druids 
— Roman Conquest of the Island — Independence — Advent of the Anglo-Saxon — Chris- 
tian Evangelization— Irish and Roman Church Influences— Synod of Whitby— Danish 
Incursion — Alfred the Great — Canute and the Anglicization of the Danes — Dunstan — 
Edward the Confessor— The Norman Invasion— Harold and William— Battle of Hast- 
ings — The Conquest of England — Domesday Book and Realty— Henry I. 



N^§#3D£§~^ 



TH this chapter begins the 
history of the most re- 
markable people in the 
world, historical or actual. 




Besides 

mother coun- 
try, great 
itself, is tnat 
Greater Brit- 
ain, which in- 
cludes the 
United States. 
This republic 
is indeed peopled by the 
representatives of many 
lands, still it forms one 
mighty nation, speaking 
the English language, in- 
heriting its traditions, 
and governed in great 
part by its common law. Restricted and insular as is 
the term England, it is certain that the word English 
is the most comprehensive term in any speech, besides 




Caesar Landing in Britain. 



having hi it the promise of a still more vast future. 
England, Scotland and Wales constitute one island. 
Great Britain ; and by "the British Isles" is meant 
not only that island, but Ireland and the minor 

specks of land in the 
adjacent waters, subject 
to the British crown. 
The proper designation 
i if all those islands, hi 
a political point of view 
is the United Kingdom. 
The term British Em- 
pire is much broader, 
including as it does all 
the outlying possessions ■ 
under the rule of the 
English crown and the 
British constitution, 
and upon which, liter- 
ally speaking, the sun 
never sets. As the Ro- 
man Empire was the 
growth and outgrowth 
of the city of Rome, so the British Empire is the 
growth and outgrowth of England, a country of 
hardly more than fifty thousand square miles. In 



f\<r 



(332) 



OLD ENGLAND. 



333 



a semi-historical, half-poetical way the country is 
sometimes designated Albion, sometimes Britannia, 
or Britain. 

The original inhabitants of the country were Brit- 
ons, from whom the present Welsh claim descent. 
Celts and Picts, hardly distinguishable from the 
the Britons, may fairly be classed among the first 
settlers of Great Britain, as well as England proper. 
In the ancient world that part of the globe bore no 
important part. The Phoenicians are supposed to 

have been , 

the first to 
pass the 
pillars of 
Hercules, 
and dis- 
cover the 
great isl- 
and of the 
North At- 
1 a n t i c . 
Learning 
of the ex- 
istence of 
the rich 
tin mines 
of Corn- 
wall, they 
carried on 
quite an 
extensive 
trade with 
the Corn- 
ish miners. 
But it was 
not until 

the eagle eye of Julius Caesar looked across the chan- 
nel and conceived the purpose of annexing Britain to 
the Roman Empire that it really became a part of the 
historical world. He crossed the straits of Dover in 
B.C. 55. His commentaries give a somewhat glowing 
account of the people and of their progress towards 
civilization. Of their religion, Druidism, he wrote, 
"They teach that the soul is imperishable, passing at 
death into another body. They consider this belief 
a potent incentive to bravery in battle, removing as 
it does the fear of death." The priests were called 
Druids, and they were not only ministers of religion, 
but also ministers of justice, and in general the in- 




SAXON DIVINITIES FORMERLY WORSHIPED IN BRITAIN. 

Sunday. 2. Monday. 3. Tuesday. 4. Wednesday. 



6. Friday. 



tellectual aristocracy of the country. The religious 
rites observed were horrible, for they practiced hu- 
man sacrifice, sometimes immolating many victims 
at one time. 

Julius Caesar crossed to England twice during his 
Gallic and Germanic Wars, but he did little more 
than to gain and disseminate information about the 
country. It was in A. D. 43, that England was 
really annexed to the empire. The attacking army 
was first led by Plautius, but soon the Emperor 

Claudius 
himself 
appeared 
upon the 
s c e n e . 
When he 
returned 
to the con- 
tineutVes- 
pasian (af- 
terwards 
emperor) 
was left in 
command. 
The isl- 
anders de- 
fended 
themselves 
with brav- 
ery, but 
of course 
they were 
impotent 
as against 
such an 
enemy as 
About twenty 
out. The 



7. Saturday. 



Rome at the zenith of its power 
yeais elapsed when a rebellion broke 
leader of the Britons was Boadicea, queen of one of 
the tribes or counties of Britain. This brave woman 
rallied the natives to her standard of revolt, regard- 
less of tribal fealty, and she gained some very con- 
siderable successes. She took London, then as ever 
the chief city of the island, and laid it in ashes- 
But the Romans rallied their forces, and in a deci- 
sive battle slew no less than eighty thousand Britons. 
Seeing that all was lost, the gallant Boadicea com- 
mitted suicide by taking poison. 

In A. D. 78, Agricola was sent to Britain, com- 



lu 



Ml- 



334 



OLD ENGLAND. 



missioned to complete the conquest of the island 
and then to undertake in a thorough and humane 
way to civilize the people. They were not far be- 
hind their conquerors in civilization even then. He 
was so far successful that a very considerable part 
of England was made thoroughly loyal to the Ro- 
man Emperors. The intractable and irreconcila- 
ble took refuge in Wales, Scotland or the north 
countries. It was a difficult task to hold the rude 
outside barbarians in check and protect Romish 
England from predatory incursions. Large forts 
were built and great walls along the friths of Forth 
and Solway. Towns sprang up in which Latin was 
spoken, and the literature of that language was 
read. Classic mythology largely supplanted Dru- 
idical barbarity. Gradually the island grew in favor 
and importance. Helena, the mother of Constan- 
tine the Great, was a Briton. She was also a Chris- 
tian. The introduction of Christianity occurred 
early in the present era, but just when and by whom 
the first seeds were sown is uncertain. It was 
upon English soil and by British soldiers that the 
first Christian emperor, Constantine, was proclaimed 
emperor. The Emperor Honorius released the Brit- 
ons from imperial allegiance. That was in 410. A 
few months later Alaric entered Rome in triumph, 
and the Empire of the West fell. The most west- 
ern portion of it, however, may be said to have 
escaped the humiliation of Gothic conquest by hav- 
ing first been set free from the yoke of Rome. 

Independence of the empire was a dubious bless- 
ing. The Scots and Picts of Scotland and Wales 
made themselves very troublesome. London, York 
and Lincoln, more Roman than British, could not 
defend themselves from the rude barbarians. The 
townsfolk were wealthy and cultivated, but their 
wealth seemed to draw upon them despoiling ene- 
mies, and culture was no match for . brute force. 
Their condition soon became unendurable. Before 
the fifth century was half gone, they felt compelled 
to seek protection from without. In their distress 
they applied to the sea-rovers of Scandinavia, and 
the cry for help was heard, the prayer for succor 
answered, but not in the spirit of kindness. It was 
the wolf and the lamb. 

In 449 Britain became England, or, rather, the 
transformation began then. It occurred in this 
wise : In response to the call for help the Angles of 
Schleswig, and the Saxons of Holstein, with some 



Jutes from Jutland, crossed the angry waters be- 
tween their land and the fair island of distress 
south of them. The event seemed trivial in im- 
portance, but it proved of the most far-reaching 
consequence. Much of the blood of the Britons 
courses in British veins to-day ; but the language 
and national characteristics of the people are almost 
wholly Anglo-Saxon. 

The religious and other institutions of the Britons 
were obliterated from the eountry. There were 
several petty kingdoms and much dissension among 
the new comers ; but they were so far harmonious 
that they succeeded in destroying the cities, churches, 
schools and agricultural improvements of the 
Romanized Britons and holding in awe the savages 
beyond the border. Essex and Wessex, Bercia and 
Deira, were the names of those kingdoms, with a 
fifth, Mercia, more powerful than any of the rest. 
The people were divided into two classes, earls and 
churls. The former held land and were the aristoc- 
racy ; the latter were the peasant class. A promi- 
nent feature of those times was local self-govern- 
ment. The villages and towns, for the most part, 
governed themselves. The town rulers were called 
ealdermen or aldermen. The Britons, properly so 
called, never again exercised any very considerable 
influence over the affairs of that island. The name 
of England soon became and remained entirely ap- 
propriate. The chief wars which followed were 
waged by different branches of the Anglican family, 
or its near kinsfolk. 

Late in the sixth century some of these Anglo- 
Saxons appeared in the slave market at Rome, and 
attracted the attention of that eminent pope, Greg- 
ory the Great. Finding whence they came, and 
that the gods of Scandinavia were worshiped there, 
albeit the Cross had once flourished in Briton, he re- 
solved to evangelize the English. St. Augustine of 
Rome (not the supremely eminent saint of that 
name) was delegated to the important task. That 
was in 597. The first convert was the King, or Earl 
of Kent, Ethelbert. His wife was a Christian 
Frank. The first English bishopric was established 
at Canterbury. Thirty years later, Edwin of North- 
uniliria accepted the new faith. He was the founder 
of Edwinsburg or Edinburgh. In 633 the kingdom 
of Mercia undertook the championship of the old 
faith. Many a bloody war was waged in the cause of 
these rival religions. In 680 all England became 



a - 
"vis" 



" 



OLD ENGLAND. 



335 



Christian. This complete triumph of Jesus over Thor 
was largely due to the intelligence and zeal of mis- 
sionaries from Ireland. The latter island was far 
more civilized than England a thousand years ago. 
Schools and churches nourished, and the Irish 
church of that day had no connection with Rome. 
It was somewhat in rivalry with it, especially as re- 
gards spiritual authority in England. It became 
necessary to convoke a synod to determine which 
the English church should ally itself with, the Irish 



and adventurous Xorsemeu were tempted to invade 
England by the thrift of the island under its An- 
glican masters. A very considerable civilization had 
grown up, and where Roman towns had been razed 
to the ground in whole or part, new cities had come 
to attest a renewed prosperity. In scholarship and 
letters the Venerable Bede won a high place by his 
learning and genius as early as the eighth century. 
The England of the original English had gradually 
attained to a fair degree of national unity and en- 




or the Roman church. That council, the Synod of 
Whitby, met in 6G4, and its decision was in favor 
of Rome. The great rcyal champion of Rome, Eg- 
bert, King of Wessex, succeeded in conquering all 
England. He belonged to the first years of the 
ninth century, and was a cotemporary of Charle- 
magne. Egbert may be said to have founded the 
English crown, and was thirty-six degrees removed 
from Queen Victoria by lineal descent, or rather 
ascent. 

We must now turn back to a great crisis which 
arose in English affairs in the eighth century. This 
was the incursion of the Danes. Those powerful 



lightenment when the disturbing element from Den- 
mark was introduced into the country. That por- 
tion of the island which was English without being 
directly and originally subject to Wessex, did not 
seriously object to a change of sovereignty. After 
a contest of nearly a century the Danes succeeded 
in establishing themselves in the eastern part of the 
island, but they made no marked impression upon 
the future of the country. 

In the year 871 Alfred the Great succeeded to 
the throne. His reign extended to the second year 
of the tenth century. Those thirty years were es- 
pecially memorable, for small as was his kingdom, 



42 



^H 



33 6 



OLD ENGLAND. 



Alfred better deserved the title of Great than did 
any other medieval sovereign unless it be Charle- 
magne. During the first of his 
reign he was in constant warfare 
with the Danes, succeeding in 
narrowing their area and sub- 
jecting them to a degree of vas- 
salage. One battle, however, 
proved a brilliant Danish victory, 
and the king was obliged to take 
refuge in disguise. It was dur- 
ing that period of eclipse that he 
served as house-servant, and was 
whipped for letting the bread 
burn. But he soon rallied his 
forces and regained his losses. 
Alfred was a skillful, brave and 
powerful warrior. His real claim 
to greatness rests, however, on his 
statesmanship and his zeal for 
learning. He was the most civilized ruler of the 
age. The laws were reformed, more especially in 
their administration, and schools established. Al- 
fred was the founder of the 
British navy, and the especial 
patron of strictly English liter- 
ature, to which he made valu- 
able personal contributions. He 
was especially eager to advance 
popular education. He trans- 
lated several works from the 
Latin into English. These were 
mainly historical. His palace- 
schools for the instruction of 
the sons of the nobility, may be 
said to have laid the corner- 
stone of university education in 
England. 

The next British sovereign 
of note was Canute the Dane. 
His reign was from 1016 to 
1035. From vassalage to the 
Saxon crown he rose to su- 
premacy over both the English 
and the Danes of the island. His policy was to 
harmonize the people, and he treated the English 
with justice. On his mother's side Canute could 
boast descent from Alfred. With him the dis- 
tinctive mark of Denmark was obliterated forever 





from Britain, for albeit a Dane, he was in spirit a 
thorough Englishman. Alfred's son, Edward the 
Elder, was the first to take the 
title of King of England, but the 
England of Canute was a step in 
advance, for it merged into one 
(with the English as the one) the 
two Scandinavian elements of the 
people. He was the only great 
sovereign the land enjoyed from 
Alfred to William of Normandy, 
but not the only great ruler, for 
Dunstan, although a subject, 
ruled the destinies of England 
under several kings, and was a 
man worthy of the highest honor 
and deathless gratitude. The 
kings under whom Dunstan flour- 
ished were Edmund I., Edred, 
Edwy, and Edgar, the period 
covered being from 940 to 975. A devout monk 
with a passionate fondness for music, poetry and 
literature, lie was none the less a man of affairs. 
His aim was to make England 
united and great. The kings 
with whom he had to do could 
not appreciate him, and his la- 
bors were made doubly arduous 
by their imbecility. It must be 
conceded that Dunstan was 
somewhat hampered as a re- 
former by superstition, and he 
weakened his influence for good 
by zeal for ecclesiastical regula- 
tions, especially clerical celiba- 
cy. He did much, however, to 
improve the laws and encour- 
age education, herein nobly sup- 
plementing the work of Alfred. 
From Canute to William was 
a swift descent. A few troublous 
years succeeded the death of the 
great Dane, when Edward the 
Confessor came to the throne. 
His early life had been spent at the court of Nor- 
mandy, and he was more Norman than English in 
his lastes and ideas. During the twenty -four years 
of his reign (1042 to 1066) the higher offices 
of the government were largely filled with foreign- 



L 



OLD ENGLAND. 



337 



ers. Weak in mind, he was swayed by others. For- 
tunately there was one patriotic Englishman who 
exerted a powerful influence over him, Godwin, earl 
of Wessex, and after him his son Harold. It was 
during this reign that Scotland was the scene of 
those bloody deeds made immortal in the drama of 
Macbeth, and England's part in the overthrow of 

that foul traitor is 

fairly set forth by 
Shakspeare. And it 
may well be remarked 
here that the histori- 
cal plays of that su- 
preme genius areof in- 
calculable value from 
the standpoint of Brit- 
ish history, affording 
as they do wonderful 
insight into the spirit 
of the times. But 
Edward's most mem- 
orable act was not 
succoring Malcolm of 
Scotland. It was be- 
stowing his kingdom 
upon his cousin Will- 
iam of Normandy. 
Such was his partial- 
ity for the Normans 
that he wished to be 
succeeded by one of 
their number. At 
least William himself 
set up this claim, and 
not without some show 
of truth. However, 
in his last hours Ed- 
ward bestowed the 
crown upon Earl 
Harold, son of Godwin, but, unfortunately , the 
latter had once been shipwrecked upon the Nor- 
man coast, and while held a prisoner he signed 
a complete renunciation of all claim to the En- 
glish crown in favor of Duke William. When, 
therefore, Harold came to the throne William de- 
manded compliance with the promise made. The 
Saxon persisted that the pledge was exacted of him 
under duress and was not binding. William there- 
upon gathered his forces and invaded England. The 




battle of Hastings was the result. That battle oc- 
curred in 106(5. In it Harold was slain and his army 
put to utter rout. The Saxon cause was lost, irrev- 
ocably. What the folly of Edward the Confessor 
had begun the sword of William the Conqueror 
finished. 

We have now seen the Briton give place to the 

Anglo-Saxon, and the 
latter assimilate the 
Dane, and now still 
another element was 
introduced into the 
English race, the last 
of all, for the Nor- 
man was the final 
really foreign ingredi- 
ent in the strictly En- 
glish blood. In the 
task of making one 
people out of many 
England has shown 
a wonderful power, 
and the work of as- 
similation is still going 
on in other parts of 
the British islands, es- 
pecially in Scotland ; 
but the Saxons who 
were so ingloriously 
conquered at Hastings 
have proved the real 
masters of the situa- 
tion. Notwithstand- 
ing the political 
change made, England 
remained English, and 
the Norman, like the 
Dane, gradually lost 
his identity, merged in 
that of the descendants of the Angles, the Jutes and 
the Saxons. It is necessary to bear these general 
facts in mind, as a safeguard against being deceived 
as to the actual importance of the Norman conquest. 
It was not the battle of Hastings and what im- 
mediately followed which constitutes the Conquest. So 
complete was that initial victory that William's right 
to the crown of England was at once conceded. On 
Christmas-day of that same year (1066) occurred his 
coronation at Westminster Abbey, the Archbishop of 



33§ 



OLD ENGLAND. 



Frightful 

and large tracts of cnlti- 



York officiating. The new king professed great respect 
for the laws of England, and was ratlier lenient in his 
tieatment of the vanquished. After a few months, 
during which all went smoothly, William returned 
to his Duchy of Normandy, to look after his affairs 
there. Hardly had he sailed away when the spirit 
of insubordination manifested itself, and it became 
evident that the battle of Hastings had not really 
subdued the nation. The duke returned with all 
the force he could command, and then began a long, 
bitter and desolating war. Inch by inch William 
conquered England, and terrible was his revenge 
upon those whom he branded as rebels, 
tales of horror are told, 
vated fields were utterly devastated, the slaughter 
of the people being ruthless. These waste places 
he maintained as hunting grounds. Game laws were 
introduced for the preservation of wild beasts 
at the expense of the conquered Saxons, that the 
conquerors might have the pleasure of killing. 
The people, to a large extent, were reduced to a 
state of serfage little better than downright slavery. 

To render the conquest more secure, William 
caused his English kingdom to be surveyed, and a 
record to be made of the survey. That record is 
called Domes-day Book, and detestable as was its ori- 
gin and object, it may be called the beginning of an 
incalculably important system of land records. 
The present practice of keeping public records of 
all real estate titles is of quite recent introduction, 
still, the fundamental idea of the system is found 
in that vestige of the Norman conquest. The lands 
taken from the vanquished Saxons were either re- 
tained or parceled out among the barons from Nor- 
mandy. To a very la-rge extent the present English 
titles to lands are traced back to the Conquest. The 
king did not bestow those estates absolutely, or in 
fee simple, but conditionally, on the feudal plan. If 
the landholder or his heirs, failed to render satis- 
factory service to the crown, the land itself could be 
reclaimed by a decree of forfeiture, or escheat. It fol- 
lows that the landed property of England could 
now be largely redistributed by law without the vio- 
lation of any " vested right" or infringement upon 
the British constitution. Possibly the land tenure 
system introduced by William may eventually prove 
the lever of a most radical reform in English realty. 

William was a man of war apart from his cam- 
paigns in England, but his continental struggles 



were not important, and he was not a really potent 
factor in the affairs of France, to which his duchy 
belonged. While engaged in devastating the town 
of Nantes, belonging to his liege lord, Philip of 
France, he was thrown from his horse and killed. 
His death made glad the hearts of his subjects. 
He had even quarreled with his own sons, and the 
elder, Kobert, had raised the standard of revolt. 
In the struggle that followed William came very 
near being slain by the sword of his own son. He 
was overthrown, but filial regard saved his life. 

When tlve career of William came to an end, Rob- 
ert inherited Normandy and his brother William 
Rufus, England. To a third brother, Henry, was 
bequeathed the maternal fortune, which was very con- 
siderable, but no part of either the kingdom or the 
duchy. About this time the Crusades began, aud 
Robert mortgaged his duchy to Rufus to raise 
money to join the expedition for the rescue of the 
Holy Sepulcher. While the Knight of the Cross was 
in " Paynim land "his royal brother was accidentally 
killed in the chase, and Henry at once claimed both 
England and Normandy. There was none to dis- 
pute his claim, until Robert's return, and then it 
was too late. Henry I. held fast to both possessions, 
being a skillful politician, a brave soldier and an un- 
natural brother. Robert died in prison. This first 
of the Henrys reigned thirty-six years. He was call- 
ed Beauclerc, or "the good scholar." Under him the 
country made some progress, but not much, and 
almost none at all under his successor, Stephen, a 
grandson of William the Conqueror, his mother be- 
ing Adele, Countess of Blois. For twenty years 
Stephen kept the land in a state of anarchy and 
misery. The crown really belonged to Henry's 
daughter, Maude, who had been the wife of the Ger- 
man Emperor, Henry V., and later of Geoffrey, 
Count of Anjou, but the English of that day did 
not take kindly to the idea of a queen, and Maude 
was singularly destitute of tact. After several in- 
effectual attempts to gain the crown., she retired to 
a convent and ended her days as a pious nun. The 
basis of the compromise was the agreement that 
Stephen should wear the crown until death when 
Henry, the son of Maude and Geoffrey, should suc- 
ceed him, an arrangement which was carried out in 
good faith. The death of Stephen occurred in 
1154, and the accession of Henry II. proved the 
beginning of a new series of events. 



*P 




zMMt£>£j$iLM 



JQLD ENGLAND | s 




PLANTAGENETS. 





AND THE 



ISJ^ 



■ . . j - .■ ■ i - n : . _ 





CHAPTER LVI. 



The Spray of Broom-Blossom— Thomas a Becket— Strongbow and Irish Subjugation— The 
One English Pope op Rome— The Sorrows op Henry II.— Richard Cceur de Leon— King 
John and Magna Charta — Henry III. and Parliament — Prince Edward and the Barons 
—Roger Bacon the Medieval Scientist — The Two Bacons Compared— Westminster 
Abbey— Architecture and Freemasonry— Retrospect of Old England. 



•*; 



— * A i.*— 



> 



?H the coronation of Hen- 
ry II. begins the rule 
of the Plantagenets, 
sometimes called the An- 
gevine dynasty of En- 
glish kings. The Planta- 
genefcs held the scepter 
from 1154 to 14S5, or until the battle of 
Bosworth gave the ascendancy to the Tu- 
dors. The Dukes of Buckingham and 
Chandos continue to call themselves 
Plantagenets. The term originated in 
the fact that Henry's father, Geoffrey of 
Anjou, was accustomed to wear a spray of 
broom-blossom in his hat. the French 
name for which is genet. It is not projDos- 
ed in this chapter to follow the course of history to 
the Tudors, but only to the accession of the first 
Edward, whose broad statesmanship raised the na- 
tion into so much more prominence than the dynas- 
ty, that he constitutes a great landmark in English 
history. 

Henry had extensive continental possessions. Be- 
sides the dukedoms of Anjou and Normandy, he 
was, through his queen, Eleanor, Lord of Aquitaine. 
The three possessions constituted about one-half of 
the present France. The first notable reform which 



he introduced was a well-directed blow at the 
clergy. Hitherto a priest was amenable only to an 
ecclesiastical tribunal, however heinous his crime, 
but he abolished this un- 
just "benefit of clergy." 
Thomas a Becket, Arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, the 
first Englishman since the 
Conquest to hold that high 
office, refused to obey the 
law. He appealed to the 
pope and took refuge at 
the French court. The 
pope espoused the cause 
of the clergy and threat- 
ened the king with excom- 
munication, but he stood 
firm. A partial reconcili- 
ation was finally effected, 
aud Becket returned to 
the see of Canterbury. 
That was in 11 TO. The 
archbishop showed no 
disposition to obey the law. The result was that 
four barons, at the instigation of the king, assassin- 
ated him. Three years later he was canonized, and 
his shrine at Canterbury has ever since been a 




STRONOBOW. 



(.339) 



>-£. 



34° 



OLD ENGLAND AND THE PLANTAGENETS. 



sacred spot to those who sympathize with his views 
of clerical independence of secular law and justice. 
To allay the tempest raised hy the ecclesiastics, 
Henry consented to do penance at the shrine of 
the " martyr " after he was sainted. 

It wasduring the reign of Henry II. that England 
gained her first foot- 
hold in Ireland. The 
Earl of Pembroke, 
called " Strongbow," 
led an army of his 
own immediate follow- 
ing across St. George's 
Channel and carved 
out for himself a pet- 
ty kingdom which he 
claimed to hold in the 
name of the British 
sovereign. The foot- 
hold thus gained was 
the Province of Lein- 
ster. From that time 
to date England has 
asserted a fictitious 
claim to rule a people 
persistently unrecon- 
ciled to any interfer- 
ence with home rule. 
That usurpation dates 
from 1172. The reign 
of Henry the Second 
continued forty years, 
during which time 
much was done, be- 
sides the abridgment 
of clerical authority, 
to correct abuses. The 
rights of the barons 
were respected, while their arrogance was re- 
stricted. It is safe to say that the principles of jus- 
tice found more recognition in him than in any 
ruler of that century. He was also a patron of 
learning. It may lie remarked that it was about 
this time that Nicholas Breakspear, an English 
prelate, was made pope, being the only Englishman 
to hold the keys of St. Peter. He took the name 
of Adrian IV. Henry had enough Saxon blood in 
his veins to be satisfactory to that element of the 
people. With the Norman barons he was less popu- 




lar. His reign was largely a struggle for the cur- 
tailment of baronial power. It was under him that 
the august judicial system, or, as Green calls it, " the 
fabric of English judicial legislation," commenced, 
and a glimpse is afforded of the great charter granted 
by his son John. His reign was an education, pre- 
paratory to the su- 
preme event at Run- 
nymede, of which we 
are presently to hear. 
This great king died 
with the clouds of ad- 
versity thick and 
thickening about his 
head. His two elder 
sons were dead, and 
the remaining two, 
Richard and John, en- 
gaged in a plot against 
their royal father, 
whose last days were 
tilled with sadness. 

The older of the 
two sons of Henry 
II. is known in his- 
tory as Richard Coeur 
de Leon (Richard of 
the Lion Heart). He 
was a brave Crusader. 
Many a romantic story 
is told of his personal 
prowess. With a touch 
of poetry in his nature, 
he was a great patron 
of minstrels and trou- 
badours. But apart 
from the glamour of 
romance,Richard lives 
; night-errant, and that is 



as a royal 



in history 
about all. 

The younger brother, John, who succeeded to the 
crown in 1199 and wore it until 1216, was treacher- 
ous and despicable, yet sagacious and brave. He 
was a great general, a powerful king, but he is best 
known for something which he was forced to do in 
spite of himself, and to which he never intended to 
be faithful. We refer to the Great Charter, or 
Magna Charta, wrung from him by the barons of 
the realm at Runnvmede. John is sometimes called 



■f 6- 






OLD ENGLAND AND THE PLANTAGENETS. 



341 



Lackland. His reign extended from 119'J to 1216. 
The charter was signed June 19, 1215. It was in 
effect a royal pledge to respect the rights of the bar- 
ons, the clergy and the ]>eople. That truly august 
document constitutes the fundamental part of the 
British constitution. A council of the clergy and 
the nobility was held two years before the charter 
was signed, for the purpose of devising ways and 
means to secure that safeguard against royal usur- 
pation. Cardinal Langton fairly earned the honor 
of organizing this important victory over absolut- 
ism. For once the church was on the side of prog- 
ress and liberty. The king 
had the support of the 
pope, Innocent III., but 
Langton persisted in his 
patriotic purpose. The 
charter as originally sighed 
by King John contained 
sixty-one articles. It was 
frecjuently renewed with ad- 
ditions by subsecpient sov- 
ereigns. The right of trial 
by a jury of one's equals, or 
peers, is. perhaps, the most 
important guaranty of the 
entire charter. No taxa- 
tion without the consent of 
the taxed was another great 
principle, and one which 
developed into the right of 
the House of Commons in 
England and the House of Representatives in the 
United States to originate all revenue bills. 

Notwithstanding the fact that King John was a 
very brave and able man, he not only failed utterly 
to hold in check his English subjects, but he lost 
the dukedom of Normandy, which was seized by the 
French king, and henceforth the title became ex- 
tinct. His reign was singularly inglorious, and his 
name is exceptionally infamous in royal annals. 
But had the one notable act of his life been vol- 
untary, it would have made him to the English peo- 
ple much what Abraham Lincoln is to the colored 
people of America. As it was, he neither re- 
ceived nor deserved the slightest credit for affixing 
the royal sign manual to the charter. 

The death of this baffled despot left the crown to 
his son, Henry, then only eight years of age. For 




RICHARD CCEUR DB LEON 



three years the kingdom was ruled by a regent 
of patriotism and statesmanship, Earl Pembroke. 
The king was declared of age when sixteen years 
old (1223), taking the title of Henry III. It 
was during his reign that the great council of the 
nation became known as the parliament, and began 
to assume its proper function as the really supreme 
authority in the land. Henry was a weak king, and 
that fact was fortunate for the nation. It was 
farther fortunate that he was a spendthrift. He 
needed money, and had to apply to parliament for 
appropriations. Every application, whether granted 
or denied, sened to em- 
phasize I he parliamentary 
jurisdiction. But the church 
of Rome was quite as eager 
to take advantage of Hen- 
ry's imbecility as the people 
were, and during this reign 
ecclesiastical usurpation 
made considerable headway. 
Parliament showed a piti- 
ful incapacity for govern- 
ment. For many years the 
country was in a state bor- 
dering on anarchy. The 
reign of this king extend- 
ed from 12 1G to 1272. 
The nobility seemed infatu- 
ated with a sense of their 
own importance, and finally, 
in 1264, they deprived the 
king of all authority, holding him and his fam- 
ily, with one exception, prisoners. That excep- 
tion was Edward. This priuce was a brave and 
able man, and a good son. After a long strug- 
gle he succeeded in breaking the power of the 
barons and restoring his father to the throne. The 
leader of the barons was Earl Leicester. In itself 
considered, the Barons' War could not be commend- 
ed, but out of it grew the House of Commons, or 
borough representation, and when the smoke of the 
conflict had rolled away it was found that immense 
progress had been made. 

The chief interest of that long reign was not the 
clash of arms, but the increase of intelligence. It 
was during that period that Roger Bacon flourished, 
a friar with an appreciation of science worthy the 
nineteenth century. He was so very far ahead of 



M^S 



34 2 



OLD ENGLAND AND THE PLANTAGENETS. 



his times that he was almost forgotten centuries 
before he was understood. He was a voire crying 
in the wilderness of ignorance, pleading for knowl- 
edge, awakening, however, hardly an echo of sym- 
pathy. Oxford was the seat of learning where he la- 
bored with the greatest assiduity to serve the cause of 
learning. It was during the reign of Henry III. 
that the English universities began to be recognized 
centers of influence. The Crusades had stimulated 
zeal for knowledge, the barbaric West having come 
in contact with the more civilized Saracens. From 
the schools of Cordova and Bagdad came incen- 
tives to a higher education than the Christians of 
the Dark Ages had 
known. In all this 
England had its full 
share, and Roger 
Bacon deserves the 
honor therefor. His 
just rank is quite as 
high as was that of 
his more illustrious 
namesake, Francis 
Bacon, only the lat- 
ter lived at a time 
when the seed sown 
fell upon fallow 
ground, and bore 
much fruit. Of Opus 
Magiis of the elder 
Bacon and the No- 
rum Orgamim of the 
younger Bacon it 
might well be said, "unlike, but not unequal." Both 
were written in Latin, the English being considered 
as an utterly unfit vehicle of literature. It was not 
until the next century that anything of intrinsic merit 
was contributed to literature in the English language. 
Roger Bacon was more concerned with the essence 
of things than with their form, with science than 
with literature. To learning he added invention. 
The telescope, microscope, spectacles, and many 
astronomical and mathematical instruments, have 
been claimed to be his invention ; so also is gun- 
powder. Whether he actually invented or only 
introduced these appliances of civilization, be cer- 
tainly deserves great credit for trying to inaugurate 
a better state of affairs. He tried to substitute as- 
tronomy for astrology, chemistry for alchemy. 




OLD WESTMINSTER HALL. 



Westminster Abbey dates from this reign. A 
church was built upon that site by Edward the 
Confessor, but the present edifice belongs to the 
reign of the third Henry. It is there that the sover- 
eigns of England receive coronation, and beneath 
its pavements many of them have found sepulcher. 
Very many of the more eminent men of England 
were either buried there or have had monuments 
erected or tablets ascribed to their honor in that 
august abbey. Kings, statesmen, soldiers, poets and 
explorers there find a common place of association. 
Some progress was made during this reign in art. 
Many manuscript books, elaborately illuminated or 

painted, are still ex- 
tant, showing very 
considerable skill 
with the brush. Ar- 
chitecture received 
much attention, es- 
j>ecially the Gothic 
style of structure. 
Masonry acquired a 
marked prominence 
during that period. 
These masons were 
free men. The great- 
er part of the labor 
of that day was per- 
formed by slaves or 
serfs, who were 
bought and sold like 
cattle. British com- 
merce can hardly be 
said to have existed, the foreign traffic of the 
island being in the hands of the Hanscatic League, 
or Free Cities of Germany. 

During the period now traversed England can- 
not be said to have contributed much to the 
improvement of mankind, beyond giving proof 
of an advanced idea of civil liberty. Night 
has rested upon the nation, but the star of 
Runnymede is the harbinger of dawn. A turn- 
ing-point has been reached, a fork in the road 
of history. 

The Plantagenets continue to sit upon the 
throne, but the betterment of the kingdom, as 
a whole, has gone on until at this stage of na- 
tional development Old England may be said to 
disappear. 



■J IK IS IK IB -IK IK IB IK' lit" II! IK" II! Ill II! IK Hi IK IK ,iK IK IK Hi "lit IK IK "lit IK IK IK IK IK IK lii IK II 




•&-" > ■A' 



MODERN ENGLAND 



iffl S 




PLANtAGENEfS. ft 



H3 




LU1 






CHAPTER LVII 




Modern England — Tue Ambition of Edward I.— Conquest of Wales— Llewellen, and the 
Welsh Polict of Edward — Prince of Wales— Arthubian Legends— Temporary Subjec- 
tion of Scotland — William Wallace— Robert Bruce — The Death of Edward I. and 
Scotch Independence— The Chief Glort of the Ftrst Edward — Treatment of the 
j e w-8 — Edward II. — Edward III. — The French War and the Black Prince — General 
Character of the Edwardian Age— Geoffret Chaucer— John Wtcliffe— The Black 
Plague— Richard II. and Wat Ttler— The Last of the Plantagenets. 




>^--#3®es§*-TH 



TH the reign of Edward," 
says Green. " begins Mod- 
ern England." Tuis ep- 
och is unmarked by any 
revolutionary cataclysm. 
"'From that time." he ex- 
plains, "kings, lords, com- 
mons, the courts of justice, the forms of 
public administration, local division and 
provincial jurisdictions, the relations of 
church and state, in great measure the 
framework of society itself, have all tak- 
en the shape which they still essentially 
retain.'" For more than half a century 
all connection with Normandy had ceased, 
and long before that, fear of any further 
incursions of barbaric hordes from the North had 
disappeared. French was the language of govern- 
ment and Latin of literature, but the people clung 
tenaciously to English, a tenacity which was des- 
tined to triumph completely. The age of the three 
Edwards was a grand epoch in England's greatness. 
When the troublous and long reign of Henry III. 
closed, Edward I. was fighting the Moslem. Fpon 
learning his father's death he returned home. His 
first thought was to have a reckoning with the land- 



ed aristocracy, many of whom were enjoying posses- 
sions not vested in them by provable title. But he 
soon abandoned that idea. Any such " new ver- 
sion " of Domesday Book would arouse a tempest, 
and he did not care to inaugurate another "Barons' 
War." Wiselv reconsidering his initial purpose, he 
changed his plan, and selected as his line of policy 
the subjugation of the original Britons who had 
taken refuge in the mountains of the west and 
north. No thought of recovering lost territory on 
the continent was entertained. He aspired to rule 
the entire island. He succeeded in the west and 
failed in the north, but he uone the less foreshad- 
owed English destiny, as regards Great Britain. 

The Welsh were not an easy people to conquer. 
Brave of heart, they had the advantage of almost 
impregnable natural fortifications. The mountains 
of Wales are admirably adapted to a defensive war. 
The Welsh were often at war among themselves, be- 
ing divided into numerous clans, but they were 
none the less cpiick to unite for the repulsion of a 
common danger. They were troublesome neighbors. 
Descended as they were from the original proprie- 
tors of English soil, they thought it no crime to 
make reprisals. Often they would descend in pred- 
atory bands and pillage the adjacent country. The 



43 



(343") 



;e* 



<£* 



344 



MODERN ENGLAND AND THE PLANTAGENETS. 



.subjugation of Wales came to be regarded as a na- 
tional necessity. The nursery rhyme "Taffy was a 
Welshman, Taffy was a thief," which is familiar to 
English-speaking children to this day, may be set 
down as a waif from Old England, a vestige of a 
prejudice which once rested on a solid foundation. 
Edward I. set about the annexation of those moun- 
taineers in right good earnest. 

The leader of the Welsh forces was the bold and 
chivalric Llewellyn ap Griffith. Edward marched 



to hold fast to their original language and main- 
tain their distinctive characteristics, which they do 
to this day. Their language is totally distinct from 
the English, and their literature is said to be rich, 
especially in poetry. 

Llewellyn was a prince, and Edward told the 
Welsh chiefs that if they would meet him at the 
great castle of Wales, Caernarvon, he would give 
them a prince who had never spoken a word of En- 
glish and was a native of Wales. They accepted, 




CASTLE C'AEHNAKVON. 



into the retreat of the Cyniry and Hie "fabric of 
Welsh greatness fell at a single blow," — fell, however, 
to rise again, and for four years the British lion was 
held at bay by the last real Prince of Wales. The 
king was obliged to surround Llewellyn and gradu- 
ally close in upon him. The bold prince fell in bat- 
tle, and Wales was annexed to England in 1282. 
substantially as now. The king adopted a liberal 
policy, treating the people with just liberality. By 
the " Statute of Wales." the more barbarous customs 
of the country were abolished, the English jurispru- 
dence adopted, trade guilds in the towns established, 
and local rights protected. The people were allowed 



and were presented to the infant son of the king, 
who had been born on Welsh soil. This first En- 
glish Prince of Wales was the second son of the 
king, and the chiefs supposed that he would rule 
their country alone, or at least that the title would 
be distinctive and permanent ; but before the child 
reached maturity his elder brother died, and thus 
the Prince of Wales became the heir apparent to 
the English throne, and ever since then the title has 
simply served as the designation of the oldest son 
of the ruling monarch, a title with no real jurisdic- 
tion or special connection with the affairs of Wales. 
In this connection may be introduced the Arthu- 



s v 



MODERN ENGLAND AND THE PLANTAGENETS. 



345 



rian legends, or myths concerning King Arthur and 
the Knights of the Round Table. Those legends 
figure prominently in English tradition and verse. 
No such persons ever existed ; at least they have no 
place in authentic history. Robin Hood was a ver- 
itable highwayman, probably, a Saxon who turned 
freebooter to make reprisals upon the Norman bar- 
ons who were titled robbers. The common people 
loved him for his lawless espousal of justice, and his 
memory has ever been held in esteem by the yeo- 
manry of '• Merrie England." The mythical Arthur 
goes back of the Saxons. He belongs to the tradi- 
tions of the primitive Britons. The network of 
romance which has been woven about that name 
and its associates may be designated as the dream of 
the refugees who fled to the mountains of Wales. 
The enchanter Merlin, who formed one of good 
King Arthur's company, was the " Mother Shipton " 
of the Welsh, and it was a prophecy of Merlin which 
inspired the forlorn hope led by Llewellyn. 

The ambition of Edward was more easily but less 
permanently gratified in Scotland. That part of 
the island had formerly acknowleged some allegiance 
to the English crown, but Richard of the lion heart 
had released the Scotch king from all allegiance on 
the payment of a sum of money, used by him in the 
Crusades. Not long after Edward came to the 
throne a dispute arose across the border as to who 
should inherit the Scotch kingdom. Edward was 
asked to settle the matter, which he finally did upon 
conditions of a renewal of the acknowledgment of 
Scotland as a fief, or dependency, of the English 
crown, and its king as his vassal. That made a par- 
tial union of the countries. 

The Scotch king, Baliol, soon rebelled, and the 
famous William Wallace came to the front as the 
hero of Scotland. Wonderful exploits are attributed 
to him, and the English army was nearly destroyed 
when the martial genius of Edward saved it, and 
made him master of the situation. He showed len- 
iency to all except Wallace, whom he beheaded in 
the Tower of London. The Scotch have never failed 
to cherish his memory gratefully. 

All this was early in the long reign of Edward. A 
. generation passed, and Scotland seemed to be securely 
English. But a greater than William Wallace was 
raised up — Robert Bruce. This nobleman spent his 
earlier days at the English court, a semi-prisoner. 
Coming to manhood, patriotism fired his heart and 



he returned to his native land to head a revolt in 
favor of absolute national independence. His most 
staunch supporter was James Douglas, and together 
they fired the heart of Scotland. Edward himself 
was absent upon the continent at the time the war 
began, and his armies were bo badly beaten that he 
made haste to patch up a peace with the king of 
France, returned and took the field in person, inspir- 
ing his army with new hope. But he was too old to 
bear the burdens of the campaign, and sank beneath 
them, his death resulting in the entire success of the 
Scotch cause. Scotland remained independent until 
James, the first of the Stuarts upon the throne of 
England, came by natural inheritance to wear both 
crowns, and the Welsh policy of Edward was extend- 
ed to Scotland, thus rendering the entire island in- 
deed one nation. 

The glory of Edward was not military, but civil, 
for he was a broad-minded, far-seeing and eminently 
practical statesman. First of all, parliament as- 
sumed during his reign its modern shape, and ceased 
to be an irregular, inchoate and experimental body. 
Under his reign it became a well-defined legislature, 
and to this day a statute of Edward I. is as much 
the law of England, if unrepealed, as a statute of 
Victoria. Judicial reforms were effected of the high- 
est importance. Instead of appeals to force and 
chance, relics of crude barbarism, reliance was 
placed upon the administration of justice in accord- 
ance with the principles of order and fairness laid 
down in Magna Charta. The relations of church 
and state were regulated in a way to curb the arro- 
gance of ecclesiastical authority. The establish- 
ment of judicial districts was a great step in ad- 
vance. That splendid fabric known as the British 
Constitution is indeed a system of law gradual in 
its growth, antedating English history and still in 
process of completion ; and its corner-stone, the 
Great Charter, was laid by the unwilling hands of 
John Lackland ; but the framework of the mag- 
nificent superstructure belongs to the reign of Ed- 
ward I., and that not hi rudiments alone, often in 
exact detail as well. Borough representation, which 
he introduced, had in it the very essence of civil 
liberty. Some of the Boroughs failed to be repre- 
sented, attendance upon the sessions of parliament 
being looked upon in that day as a burden, much 
as service upon the jury now is. There was never 
any pecuniary compensation ior the service, but 



9 



34 6 



MODERN ENGLAND AND THE PLANTAGENETS. 






gradually an irksome duty came to be recognized 
as a high privilege. 

During the reign of the first Edward the Jews 
were subjected to bitter persecution, and finally to 
expulsion. The number banished was about six- 
teen thousand, most of whom were robbed and 
slaughtered before they could make good their es- 
cape. From that time until the Protectorate of 

Cromwell there were hard- 

h any Jews in England. 
No part of Europe has es- 
caped the infamy (if Jew- 
ish persecution. 

The reign of Edward I., 
sometimes called Long- 
shanks, extended from 
1272 to 1307, and then 
the Prince of Wales took 
the throne as Edward II. 
His reign extended over a 
period of twenty years. 
They were melancholy 
years. The king had no 
fitness for government and 
was singularly unfortu- 
nate. To no purpose, ex- 
cept personal and nation- 
al humiliation, did he 
prosecute the Scotch war 
in which his father lost 
his life. The worthless 
foreigner who was his first 
favorite, Piers Gaveston 
i if Gascony, was so very 
obnoxious to the people 
that he had to be banished. 

The queen, Isabel of France, cared far more to ad- 
vance the interest of her brother, Charles IV., than 
of her husband. When the two sovereigns quarreled 
she raised an army to oppose Edward, and defeated 
him, took him prisoner, and hanged his prime minis- 
ter,Hugh Despenser. A parliament soon after con- 
vened, declared the king deposed and his sou Edward 
III. the sovereign of England. A few months 
later the unhappy ex-king was ruthlessly murdered 
in the castle of Kenilworth. the victim of the cru- 
elty of Isabel and her vile associate in crime and 
power, Roger Mortimer. Thus ended one of the 
most inglorious and unhappy reigns in English annals. 




EDWARD II 



Edward III. wielded the scepter fifty years, in- 
cluding the first three years of his reign, during 
which his mother and Mortimer held practical sway. 
In 1330 he sent his mother, a prisoner, to a castle 
in Norfolk, executed her accomplice, and inaugu- 
rated a career of his own. His first thought was 
to regain Scotland, but he soon abandoned that 
scheme to devote his attention to a higher ambition, 
which was to be the king 
of France, claiming the 
crown by right of inher- 
itance. The Salic law 
which bars royal females 
from succession prevailed 
in France, and so his title 
was fatally defective, for 
he based his right alone 
upon his mother's title. 
He none the less stoutly 
made the claim, and for a 
century the two countries 
were at war. For a much 
longer time the British 
sovereigns insisted upon 
appending to their legiti- 
mate title the words " and 
king of France." Edward 
III. began the war in 1338. 
It was not until 1346 that 
any important movement 
occurred, when the fa- 
mous battle of Cressy 
was fought. The English 
force was small, but the 
day was won. The glory 
of that victory belongs 
only fifteen years old, 
" The Black Prince," as he was called, on account 
of the color of his armor. Prodigies of valor are 
related of the boy, and his after life gives some 
plausibility to them. The glories of Cressy were 
soon followed by the siege and fall of Calais. A 
brief truce was negotiated which continued ten 
years when it was broken by another battle in 
which the English won a brilliant victory. The 
actual advantage to the English was slight, however, 
for only a few cities on the coast were ceded to En- 
gland by the peace which was finally agreed upon 
in 1374. Edward lived to bury his chivalric son, 



HIS JAILORS. 



to Edward's son, then 



— &[*! 



MODERN ENGLAND AND THE PLANTAGENETS. 



347 



the Black Prince, two years after the peace, him- 
self following the next year, leaving the crown to 
the son of the illustrious prince whose death had 
been mourned as a national 
calamity. 

The century covered by this 
chapter is peculiarly rich in 
developments of an encour- 
aging nature. The mere po- 
litical history of the period is 
a small part of it. It is in 
the progress of the untitled 
many and the aristocracy of 
the brain that the real glory 
of the Edwardian age appears. 
It was not the heroes of war, 
from Llewellyn to the Black 
Prince, nor yet the statesmen 
of parliament and the judges 
of the assizes, who deserve es- 
pecial praise. There had been 
brave warriors ami noble pa- 
triots before. The grand fact 

of the period is that England ceased to be divided 
into enslaved Saxons and despotic Normans, the 
entire people becoming truly English in character. 
Instead of Robin Hood 




EDWARD, THE 



BLACK PRINCE. 



with his merry robbers, 
despoiling the nobles and 
sharing his booty with 
the peasants, the most 
popular personage in 
English traditions, we 
have people respecting 
the rights of others and 
tasting the sweets of 
manly privileges. 

The supreme name of 
this period was that of 
Geoffrey Chaucer, the 
father of English litera- 
ture. He was a truly 
great poet and thorough- 
bred Englishman. The 
literature of Old En- _ 

gland, so far as it had intrinsic merit, was in Latin. 
The poetry of Beowulf and Csedinon, like the prose 
of King Alfred, the Venerable Bede and Asser, can 
lay claim to no intrinsic merit. Besides, their En- 




glish was a language quite different from modern 
English. But Chaucer belongs to the vital present. 
1 1 is Canterbury Tales have indeed some indelicacies, 
many variations in orthog- 
raphy, and a few words now 
obsolete. It is none the less 
true that he is a perpetual 
wellspring of good English 
and delightful verse. Born 
in 1328, his last breath was 
drawn as the fifteenth century 
came upon fhe stage. A 
member of the nobility, a court 
favorite, happy in all the cir- 
cumstances of his life, he was 
still the poet of the people. 
A voluminous writer, he com- 
posed more prose than poetry, 
but his elaborate poem, the 
Canterbury Tales, is the one 
immortal production of his 
genius. 

Side by side with Chaucer 
stands John Wycliffe, the first to give a complete 
copy of the Bible to the English people in their 
own tongue. Wycliffe was born in 1324, and lived 

until 1384. Much of his 

time was spent at Oxford 
where he was a teacher of 
note. His translation was 
the work of his ripe age. 
In translating it he used 
the Latin Vulgate, and so 
many of the terms em- 
ployed are the original 
Latin slightly Anglicizi d. 
It was a blow at the 
Romish church which 
none of his contempo- 
raries seemed to appreci- 
ate. Chaucer and Wyc- 
liffe, working singly, yet 
together, did much the 
same work for the litera- 
ture and religion of their 
country that Martin Luther did for the literature and 
religion of Germany, for they laid the foundations of 
whatever developed on British soil in letters and wor- 
ship. Chaucer is called a skeptic by Green, but 



DEATH OF EDWARD III. 



34« 



MODERN ENGLAND AND THE PLANTAGENETS. 



Wycliffe was in spirit a veritable Puritan, and the 
mighty streams of influence which flowed from them 




JOHN WYCLIFFE 

soon commingled and proved of incalculable bless- 
ing, secular and religious. Chaucer was the avant 
courier of the Renaissance, as that term may be under- 
stood in the light of French history, while Wycliffe 
was a radical religious reformer. Besides his trans- 
lation of the Bible, he wrote and otherwise grandly 
wrought against the papacy, producing a profound 
impression, and winning to his cause a no less eminent 
man than John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster and 
father of the royal house of Lam-aster. The Pope 
himself was alarmed, as well he might be, although 
the troublous times immediately following postponed 
the inauguration of the distinctive church of En- 
gland, and all the reforms connected therewith. 

There was one gloomy feature of this period, for 
it was in 1340 that the Black Death made its first 
appearance, that most fatal epidemic of all history. 
It swept over the Continent and the British isles 
with unexampled furor. No authentic record of 
mortality was kept, and we only know that it was a 
horror unimaginable. Large towns had grown up 
without sanitary provisions, such as water, sewerage 
and the like, and the filth was unendurable. The 
laws of health were disregarded and the superstitious 
people attributed their calamities to Providence. The 
futility of priestcraft and penance to stay the rav- 



ages of the pestilence did much for the catise of re- 
form, awakening in the public mind thoughts akin 
to scientific reflections. 

In the eleventh year of his age Richard II., the 
son of that popular favorite, The Black Prince, 
came to the throne. That was in the year 1377. 
That boy-king never reached years of real discretion. 
His uncle, John of Gaunt, was the first sovereign 
power behind the throne, an able, ambitious and un- 
scrupulous man. Early in this reign occurred the 
rebellion of the peasants againtt the Poll-tax, led in 
Essex by a thresher called Jack Straw, and in Kent 
by a ditcher known as Wat Tyler, or Walter the 
Tyler. The former never came to anything serious, 
but Wat Tyler rallied a vast mob, marched upon 
London, sacked and destroyed the Palace of the 
Duke of Lancaster, committed other depredations, 
and succeeded in wringing from the King several 
charters allowing the laboring j)eople a few cardinal 
rights. The peasants only demanded "the abolition 
of slavery for themselves and their children forever ; 
reasonable rent, and the full liberty of buying and 
selling like other men in all fairs and markets, and 
a general pardon of all past offenses." The con- 
cession to these demands was not sincere, and soon 
the charters were revoked, Tyler assassinated and 
the people dispersed, (food, however, was accom- 
plished, for the temper of the populace had been 
shown and a wholesome awe of the peasants in- 
spired. 

Richard was alike unpopular with high and low. 
His nature was exceptionally unlovely. He was con- 
tinually quarreling with his uncles and his cousins. 
Some he killed and some he banished. Among those 
driven into exile was Henry Bolingbroke, Duke of 
Hereford, son of John of Gaunt. Soon after banish- 
ment he became by the death of his father, Duke 
of Lancaster. Having raised a small army across the 
channel, he ventured back in 1309. The unpopu- 
larity of Richard was such that the Duke soon found 
himself master of the situation and he proceeded to 
usurp the throne. The deposed king was sent to 
Ponlefraet castle a prisoner, where he soon ended 
his days, probably assassinated by royal command. 
Thus ended the last of the Plantagenets. 



mm 






HE first of the Plantage- 
nets, Henry II., came to the 
throne in 1154; the last 
of the house, Richard II., 
left it the last year of the 
fourteenth century. Then 
followed three Henrys, the 
Fourth, Fiftli and Sixth, 
forming the House of Lancaster, 
and covering the period from 
1399 to 1461. To the Lancaster 
succeeded three representatives 
of the house of York, Edward 
IV. and V. and Richard III., ex- 
tending from 1461 to 1485. Those 
eighty-six years, the period of the 
roses, will now engage our atten- 
tention. 

Ten years after the coronation of Richard II., 
the youngest and ablest of his uncles, the Duke of 
liloiuvster, took up arms in rebellion. He was so 
far successful that he dictated terms of settlement 
to the king, for a time, but soon the royal power so 
far gained the ascendancy that the duke was im- 
prisoned at Calais, then an English possession in 
France. Gloucester soon thereafter died of apo- 



plexy, according to the governor of the city ; of poi- 
son, according to current and subsequent opinion. 
Among the adherents of Gloucester were two dukes, 
Norfolk and Henry Bolingbroke, Duke of Here- 
ford. The latter was the soil of John of Gaunt. 
In 1398 these ducal dignitaries had a quarrel which 
they proposed to settle by a duel. Hearing of it, 
and glad of an excuse, the king banished them' 
both, the Duke of Norfolk for life and Bolingbroke 
for ten years. At that time the venerable father of 
Henry was alive. He was Duke of Lancaster. He 
did not long survive the banishment of his eldest 
son and heir. At his death the king seized and ap- 
propriated to the crown the dukedom of Lancaster. 
Hereford watched his opportunity, and when Rich- 
ard went to Ireland in the summer of 1399 to con- 
duct in person the Irish war, henry Bolingbroke 
landed on English soil with a small but intrepid 
following. The returned exile had no designs upon 
the throne, but simply, as he protested, came back 
for the purpose of claiming his inheritance of Lan- 
caster. But the king had a great many enemies 
and the times were ripe for dynastic revolution. 

On the north was Scotland and across the English 
channel was France, both eager for revenge,"and 
glad of an opportunity to assist a rebel. The Per- 



(349) 



dK 



3 5° 



LANCASTER AND YORK. 



cies of Northumberland brought their forces to the 
support of Bolingbroke, who soon found himself at 
the head of an army of 60,000 men. Even the re- 
gent who was in charge of the kingdom while the 
king was in Ireland, the Duke of York, went over 
to Henry's side. Richard came back with a very 
considerable army, but his soldiers deserted and he 
was taken prisoner and conducted to London. 
There he .executed a formal abdication. That was 



the people in forgetfulness of the flaw hi his title, 
he plunged into foreign war, managing to retain 
his crown until in 1413 death claimed him. No sover- 
eign ever held fast to his scepter and yet had more 
occasion than Henry of Lancaster to say, " Uneasy 
rests the head that wears a crown." 

During the reign of Richard II. the incipient 
cause of Protestantism had made a great deal of 
headway. It was in 1393 that parliament passed 




HENRY V. REVIEWING HIS TROOPS BEFORE AfiTNCOURT. 



September 29, 1399. The next day parliament de- 
posed him by due process of law on the ground of 
malfeasance, and the banished duke who had re- 
turned to claim a duchy was duly installed as king 
of England under the name of Henry IV. 

A crown rims won was not retained without con- 
stant effort. On the north was Scotland and across 
the channel was France, both ready to assist insur- 
rection, and the spirit of faction ran so high that 
the opposition did not hesitate to seek foreign alli- 
ance. To gain the especial support of the church, 
Henry inaugurated persecution, being the first En- 
glish king to burn heretics. In the hojx? of uniting 



the •' Statute of Premunire," which provided that 
•• whoever should procure from Rome or elsewhere, 
excum mil ideations, bulls, or other things against 
the king and his realm, should be put out of fine 
king's protection, and all his lands and goods for- 
feited." The leader in this anti-papal movement 
was Johu Wvcliffe, a very learned professor in Ox- 
ford University, and translator of the Bible into En- 
glish. During Henry's reign a strenuous effort was 
made to suppress and undo the work of Wvcliffe. 
In 1401 it was enacted that " all persons convicted 
by their bishops of holding heretical opinions, and 
who should refuse to abjure the same, should be 



LANCASTER AND YORK. 



35 1 



burned to death," and this statute was not allowed 
to be a dead letter. Wycliffe himself, " The Morn- 
ing Star of the Reformation," died peacefully in 
the year 1384. In the days of Richard II. and 
Henry IV. the Protestants were called " Lollards." 

Henry V. was just ripening into manhood when 
upon the death of his father, March 20, 1113, he 
was called to the cares of state. The wild pranks 
of his youth and the coarse tastes of the times are 
well set forth by Shakspeare in connection with 
that unique character, Sir John Falstaff. Rising 
superior to the evil omens of his boyhood, the young 
king showed a masterly genius for public affairs. 
In the hope of curing factiousness he entered with 
great zeal upon the prosecution of war with France. 
The brilliant victory of Agincourt, a repetition of 
Cressy, made every loyal English heart true to his 
cause. The British sword seemed invincible, and 
France was at the mercy of Henry V. Step by step 
the French Unicorn receded before the British Lion. 

In 1420 the famous treaty of Troves was made, 
in accordance with which Henry married Catherine, 
daughter- of the King of France, and was pro- 
claimed regent of France, the French king of that 
day, Charles VI., being insane. The force of this 
treaty was not recognized by the Orleanists, how- 
ever, and real peace was not secured. For nearly 
two years the king continued to be engaged in war 
upon the soil of France, when he died, leaving a 
son nine months old. In two months Charles also 
died, and thus the infant heir of two kingdoms. 
Henry VI., became king of England and France. 
Many of those who disputed the regency of the father 
conceded the validity of the claim of the son to the 
throne of France as well as England. But tin re 
was in France a party which supported the claim 
of the son of Charles VI., in preference to the 
grandson, holding the treaty by which the Dauphin, 
the Prince of Orleans, had been deprived of the 
royal inheritance, null and void. 

Before proceeding with the reign of Henry VI. it 
deserves to be noted that Henry V. was the founder 
of the British navy. Prior to his reign the govern- 
ment had no ships of its own, but relied upon tem- 
porary loans of vessels from maritime towns and 
the merchant marine of private subjects. The fifth 
of the Henrys inaugurated a very important change 
when he built the first really formidable man-of- 
war England could ever boast. 



To return now to the course of events under the 
infant heir to two thrones, we find troublous times. 
No doubt but that if Henry VI. had been of ma- 
ture age and a sovereign of moderately good ability 
and character, the dream of Franco-English unity 
might have been realized. But this prospect was 
soon dashed to the ground, the possibility even 
never returning. 

By the terms of the will the Duke of Bedford was 
made regent of France, a man of commanding abil- 
ity. Paris was in his bauds, and the only consider- 
able French town not garrisoned by English troops 
was Orleans. The continuance of the struggle on 
the part of the Orleanists or French patriots seemed 
useless; but just when all was lost, Joan of Arc, 
more specifically mentioned in the history of France, 
came upon the field of action, inspiring patriotism 
by her fanaticism, and reversing completely the for- 
tunes of the war. 

Bedford died and the English were obliged to 
abandon the continent. The Maid of Orleans sought 
to deliver France from foreign rule, but she suc- 
ceeded in doing the still better thing, saving En- 
gland from the danger of having its nationality 
compromised and perhaps lost. The savior of two 
nations, she was, as we have seen, the victim of the 
unutterable meanness of both. Charles VII., un- 
cle of Henry VI., mounted the throne. England 
had lost all continental possessions except Calais. 
The Hundred -Years War between the two nations 
came to an end in the year 1453. 

Returning now to English soil, we find the coun- 
try profoundly disturbed. There was constant fric- 
tion during Henry's minority between the young 
king's uncle, Humphrey of Gloucester, and Cardinal 
Beaufort. Each claimed the regency. Gloucester 
was foully murdered, but the advantage did not ac- 
crue to the cardinal. Two years before that the 
king, always weak and almost imbecile, married 
Margaret of Anjou, and she, together with her spe- 
cial friend. William de la Pole. Duke of Suffolk, 
ruled the realm after Gloucester's taking off. The 
utter failure of the English in France occasioned 
the banishment and subsequent murder of Suffolk, 
and the fall of that royal favorite was soon followed 
by several insurrections. The most formidable of 
these (not counting the War of the Roses) was the 
rising in Kent of twenty thousand men led by John 
Mortimer, better known as Jack Cade. The insur- 



44 



£~ 



35 2 



LANCASTER AND YORK. 



gents marched to London and encamped upon 
Blackheath. They demanded certain much-needed 
reforms in the laws relating to labor and taxes. 
The city council of London recognized the justice 
of the claims made. The king was removed to Ken- 
ihvorth castle, and there was every prospect of a sat- 
isfactory settlement of the demands made. But 
Cade could not curb the plundering disposition of 
his followers, and the Londoners were obliged to 
take up arms against them in self-defense. The re- 
sult was Cade was obliged to flee, many of his fol- 
lowers being slain. In his flight he was himself 
killed, and all the reforms promised were defeated. 

The loss of France embittered the English nation 
and served as a sort of blood poison. The suppura- 
tion from the Lancastrian wound poured its deadly 
pus into the veins of both rival factions, and pro- 
duced that terrible civil war, the War of the Roses, 
so called because the faction of Lancaster wore a 
red rose and the adherents of the house of York a 
white rose as their respective badges. The first out- 
break was at St. Albans in 1455. For forty years 
the conflict raged with occasional truces. 

The year following the expulsion of the English 
from France, Richard, Duke of York, was appointed 
Protector of the kingdom by Parliament. The Duke t 
of Somerset, Edward Beaufort, was the leader of 
the branch of the house of Lancaster which opposed 
this protectorate. In less than a year Henry re- 
sumed the reins of government, a triumph of Som- 
erset. Thereupon York took the field in hos- 
tility to his rival. The battle of St. Alban's (May 
23, 1455) followed, resulting in the defeat of York. 
A partial peace was then effected, but in 1459 the 
hostilities were resumed. This time the white rose 
of York was in the ascendancy, and the king was 
captured, his queen and son finding refuge in Scot- 
land. The Duke boldly claimed the crown, but 
Parliament compromised the matter by providing 
that Henry was to reign until death, when Richard 
of York, instead of Henry's own son Edward, should 
succeed to the throne. This adjustment was not 
at all satisfactory to the Lancasters. " Many of the 
great nobles," says a cotemporary historian, "rallied 
to the support of the young Prince Edward, and 
the Duke of York was defeated at Wakefield a 
little later. The duke was killed in the action, and 
his head, ornamented with a paper crown, was 
placed over the gate of the city of York. His son, 



the Earl of Rutland, was captured and murdered in 
cold blood by Lord Clifford. Edward, the eldest 
son of Richard, was now Duke of York. He at 
once took up the cause of his house, defeated the 
royal forces at Mortimer's Cross, and followed up 
his victory by a renewal of the bloody executions 
begun by the rival party. Queen Margaret won a 
victory over the Yorkist force in the second battle 
of St. Albans, and rescued the king from them. She 
failed to improve her advantage, however, and the 
Duke of York marched boldly into London, where 
he was declared king by the people and a large as- 
semblage of nobles, prelates aud magistrates, March 
3d, 1461." 

Edward IV., first of the three kings of the house 
of York, was born upon French soil, Rouen, in 
1441. Although he was made king in 1401, the War 
of the Roses had not ceased. The Lancastrians 
cherished the hope of dethroning him until the bat- 
tle of Tewkesbury, May 4, 1471, when Edward was 
completely victorious. But before that time his for- 
tunes were various. Three years after his corona- 
tion he married Elizabeth Woodville, which served 
as an excuse for an outbreak, under the lead of the 
Earl of Warwick. This earl is one of the more not- 
able characters in English history. 

Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, known as "the 
king-maker," was first cousin of Edward IV. He 
was the wealthiest Englishman of his day, at least 
he enjoyed the largest revenue of any subject of the 
realm, and rivaled t-he king himself in the magnifi- 
cence of his mode of living. He had done more 
than any other one man to place Edward upon the 
throne of England, and he made no secret of his 
greatness. He assumed to be a power behind the 
throne mightier than the monarch who sat upon it. 
At the time the king married Elizabeth, one of his 
own subjects, the lordly Warwickwas at the French 
capital negotiating for his sovereign the hand of a 
princess of France. He was so much incensed at 
this that he gave his daughter in marriage to the 
king's younger brother Clarence, without royal per- 
mission, and upon an uprising in Yorkshire against 
certain levies in 1409 he and Clarence put them- 
selves at the head of the insurgents. In the battle 
of Edgecot which soon followed, the royal forces 
were defeated, the father and brother of the queen 
beheaded. 

A brief reconciliation followed. In 1470 hostili- 



-i-< 



V 



LANCASTER AND YORK. 



353 



ties broke out again. This time Warwick was 
obliged to seek safety in flight to France. There 
the famous king-maker entered into negotiations 
with Queen Margaret for the restoration of Henry 
VI., to the English throne, the marriage of Prince 
Edward of Lancaster with his own daughter and the 
recognition of Clarence as the heir presumptive to 
the prince. By that arrangement he would make 
it reasonably certain that the crown would be in- 
herited by the Warwick blood. Louis XI. was then 
upon the French throne. He favored Warwick, and 



her of the house of Neville for two generations 
perished by the sword, with the solitary exception of 
George, Archbishop of York. The daughter of 
Warwick, who had married Prince Edward, was 
wedded in 1472 to Richard, Duke of Gloucester, af- 
terward Richard III., but even then none of the 
blood of the '• king-maker" ever flowed in the veius 
of royalty. 

This last enterprise of the great Warwick paved 
the way for a renewal of hostilities between France 
and England. In 1475 the English again invaded 




TOWER OF LONDON. 



the plan worked well. The seemingly invincible earl 
returned to England, marched upon London, took 
it and restored poor Henry the Sixth, Edward flee- 
ing to Holland. 

But Warwick's career was nearly at an end. Some 
six months later Edward returned with a force of 
Hutch and Flemings, and the battle of Barnet was 
fought, April 14, 1471, in which the great earl was 
slain. A few weeks later Queen Margaret and 
Prince Edward were both taken prisoners, and the 
latter slain. In the following June Henry himself, 
the last of the Lancasters, was put to death in the 
Tower of London. That ended the War of the 
Roses. It is said that in that war every male mem- 



the French territory for the purpose of subjugation. 
Nothing came of the expedition, however, except 
that Louis agreed to pay a pension to the English 
crown and betrothed his heir, the Dauphin Charles, 
to the eldest daughter of the king of England, a 
conclusion and result quite unsatisfactory to the 
English people, who still clung to the hope of con- 
tinental possessions. The betrothal just mentioned 
was not carried out. Louis afterwards secured for 
his son and heir the hand of Anne, daughter of the 
German Emperor, Maximilian. Edward resolved 
to avenge this insult, and retrieve his popularity 
with his own people by another and more extensive, 
invasion of France. But in the midst of his pre])- 



^k 



354 



LANCASTER AND YORK. 



>■&- 



orations, April 9, 148:3, he died, leaving his two sons 
Edward, aged thirteen years, and Richard, who was 
only ten years old. 

Edward V. can hardly be said to have reigned at 
all. Upon the death of his father he departed for 
London, but before he 
had reached his destin- 
ation his uncle, Richard 
of Gloucester, whose 
hideousness stands re- 
vealed in the dramati- 
zation of Shakspeare, 
had him seized and 
lodged in' the Tower. 
Soon after, his name- 
sake, the younger 
brother of the young 
king, was placed in the 
same royal prison. 
The poor 1 toys were soon 
murdered and the un- 
natural uncle became 
king of England. 

Richard III. assumed 
the kingly office July 
6, reigning two years. 
During this period he 
may be said to have 
assiduously tried by 
good government to 
purchase pardon for the 
crimes with which his 
coronation robes were 
stained. In this be siff- 
nally failed. The dis- 
affection was too great 
to be resisted. The 
Earl of Richmond, 
Henry Tudor, became the leader of the dis- 
affection. He was the grandson of Owen Tudor 
and Catherine, widow of Henry V. On the ma- 




ternal side of the house he was the heir to the 
Lancastrian claims to the throne. Fortunately 
for Henry, he was an exile in Brittany, and his 
confederates on English soil were discovered, 
arrested and executed before he had crossed the 

channel. But the spirit 
of rebellion could not 
be kept down. Many 
nobles united in invit- 
ing the exiled earl to 
return and claim the 
scepter. He was saga- 
cious enough to pro- 
pose to put an end for- 
ever to the cruel and 
senseless War of the 
Roses by marrying Eliz- 
abeth, daughter of Ed- 
ward IV. Landing on 
English soil at Milford 
Haven early in August, 
1485, Richmond joined 
battle with Richard on 
the 22nd of that month 
on the field of Bos- 
worth. Richard com- 
manded his own army 
in person, was defeated 
and slain. Richmond 
was proclaimed king 
upon the battlefield, 
and the entire nation 
acquiesced, amid uni- 
versal I satisfaction that 
the bloody rivalries of 
the Lancasters and the 
Yorks had at last ter- 
minated happily in the 
union of both houses, and their disappearance 
from the royal annals, equally absorbed iu the 
house of Tudor. 








r 





CHAPTER LIX. 



Henry VII, and his Times — The Times and Character of Henry VIII.— Domestic Life 
of "Bluff Hal' 1 — Reform and its Limitations— Henry's Will — Edward VI. and Lady 
Jane Grey — Bloody Mary — The Accession of Elizabeth— Her First Suitor and 
the Armada— Mary Queen of Scots— Elizabeth and her Friends— The Elizabethan 
Age— England Under the Tudors— Ireland and the Tudors. 




^HN^^fr^ 




HE long reign of Henry 
VII. (1485-1509) was sub- 
stantially free from civil 
strife. By marrying Eliz- 
abeth of York he made 
assurauce of the close of 



the Wars 

of the Ros- 
es doubly 

sure. Some 

pretenders 

there were, 

but no very 

formidable 

claimants- 

This king- 
was exceedingly avaricious, 
although not" without 
breadth of mind. 

If he did not secure for his 
country the honor of pat- 
ronizing Christopher Co- 
lumbus, as he had the opportunity to do, he was 
not slow to take advantage of the great discovery 









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HENRY Vm. 









made by that navigator. No sooner had the ex- 
istence of America become known than English 
maritime enterprise began to give promise of its 
incomparable future. As early as 1490 Henry com- 
missioned the Cabots, of Bristol, father and son, to 
go on a voyage of discovery, and after them came 
Cilbert, Drake, Frobisher 
and Hawkins. It is true 
that the immediate results 
of those expeditious were 
not important, but the 
spirit of adventure was 
stimulated anil the seed 
sown came to a plentiful 
harvest eventually. The 
War of the Roses had de- 
stroyed serfdom, or villan- 
age in England, for sub- 
stantially the same reason 
that the civil war in the 
United States destroyed 
American slavery, and thus 
the way was prepared for 
commercial and industrial 
thrift. The king's greed for 
money had an indirect tendency in the same direc- 
tion. It was during the reign of the first of the 



~n~ 



(355) 



v 



ilU 



35 6 



THE TUDORS. 



Tudors that a French writer declared, " Of all the 
states in the world that I know, England is the 
country where the commonwealth is best governed 
and the people least oppressed." 

By the time Henry the Seventh gave place to his 
son, Henry the Eighth (1509), all questions as to 
the succession were at an end, and the latter entered 
upon his inheritance under the most auspicious cir- 
cumstances. Marrying Catherine of Spain, he may 
be said to have made the most brilliant matrimonial 
alliance possible at that day. The reign of this sov- 
ereign extends over a period of thirty-eight years, 
and occupies a large place in the historic thought of 
the world. His was a 
many-sided career, full 
of varied experiences. 
To appreciate the cir- 
cumstances which con- 
spired to make the 
career of Henry the 
E ; ghth and the En- 
gland of that period 
illustrious, one must 
call to mind the dis- 
coveries of Columbus 
and Da Gama ; the 
invention of Guten- 
burg; the rise of the 
Ottoman empire upon 
the ruins of the Byzan- 
tine empire ; the Re- 
formation in Germany, and the Renaissance in 
France. A new day had dawned upon Europe. 
The wealth of India and the Montezumas was begin- 
ning to pour in upon Western Europe, and new op- 
portunities to arise. England was no longer the 
outer edge of creation, but t^e? center of the world, 
h was a time to expand the thoughts of men, and 
without being a man of the finest parts, Henry 
VIII. was certainly a ruler of far more than ordi- 
nary ability, and his especial vices as an individual 
were the occasion of his chief virtue as a king. 
Licentious and heartless, he put aside Queen Cath- 
erine to marry Anne Boleyn. That was in itself an 
inexcusable crime, but in its consequences the great- 
est of national blessings. His character thus had 
compensations even where most reprehensible. 

This reign was early drawn into war with France 
and Scotland, some French towns being taken on 




MAKKIAOE OF 11ENKY VIII. AND ANNE BOLEYN. 



the continent, and the brilliant victory of Flodden 
Field being won across the Tweed. But war was 
neither the business nor the pastime of this king. 
To get rid of his lawful wives seemed to have been 
his chief occupation for some time. Cardinal Wol- 
sey undertook to bring this about in the case of 
Catherine within the pale of the Catholic church 
and with the connivance of the pope. But that was 
impossible, so strong was the Spanish influence at 
the Vatican. For failure herein the magnificent 
cardinal fell into disgrace and finally died. The 
pretext for the application for divorce was that 
Catherine was the widow of Henry's older brother, 

Arthur, who had died 
two months after mar- 
riage and prior to the 
death of Henry the 
Seventh. With the 
hypocrisy not unusual 
_ in those days he feigned 
conscientious fear that 
he was displeasing God. 
What Wolsey failed to 
do was essayed by an- 
other ecclesiastical tool, 
Thomas Cranmer, af- 
terwards burnt at the 
stake by Bloody Mary 
for the part he took in 
these divorce proceed- 
ings, and for Protes- 
tantism. Oranmer's idea was to get an opinion 
from the universities first, in the hope that the pope 
would be influenced by the judgment of the learned. 
Here was a significant, if tentative, recognition of 
the growing power of 
education. It may 
be remarked that the 
king had shown con- 
siderable sincere sym- 
pathy with the pro- 
gressive tendency of 
the day, the New 
Learning as it was 
called, although in his 

desire to win favor l^f ' w JhSb'F'I 
with the pope he had cranmer. 

written a treatise in denunciation of Luther a id his 
doctrines. Some of the universities gave the desired 




THE TUDORS. 



357 



opinion, but the pontiff of the church remained ob- 
durate. Resolved to be rid of his wife, come what 
would, Henry defied the pope and unconditionally 
cut loose from Homo Catherine was swiftly dis- 
posed of then, and Anne installed in her place. 

The king soon tired of Anne Boleyn also, but in- 
stead of a divorce, had her beheaded, marrying one 
of her maids-of-honor, Jane Seymour, the very next 
day. She died within a year. Three other wives 
followed during the libidinous life of this monster, 
Anne of Cleves, Catherine Howard and Catharine 



ing of the great and upright chancellor, Sir Thomas 
More, his offense being that he remained a devout 
and consistent Romanist. Henry's severance from 
the church of Rome, which occurred in 1533, re- 
sulted in stripping monasteries and churches of 
their vast wealth. He was not, however, in sym- 
pathy with the more radical ideas of the Reforma- 
tion, and the sword of jjersecution fell heavier on 
dissenting Protestants than upon persistent papists. 
He seemed to take Rome as his model, rather 
than Geneva, only he wished to have the head- 




HAMPTON COITRT PALArE, RESIDENCE OP CARDINAL WOLSEY. 



Parr. The three children who came to the throne 
were borne to him by the three earlier wives. Edward 
VI., who was the third Tudor sovereign, was the son 
of Jane Seymour ; Mary, of Catherine ; Elizabeth, 
of Anne Boleyn. Such was the life of him whom 
his subjects were wont to call " Bluff Hal." 

The policy of the crown was to magnify royal 
authority aud curtail the jurisdiction of parliament. 
Wolsey ruled without jjarliament as far as .possible, 
and Thomas Cromwell who succeeded him in politi- 
cal influence, sought rather to use that body as a 
subservient tool, filling it, as far as he could, with 
the mere creatures of the crown. 

One notable disgrace to this reisrn was the behead- 



ship of church and state the same, stncciy national. 
By act of parliament Henry the Eighth had been 
allowed to settle the succession in his will. The 
provision he made was that Edward should be the 
immediate successor, and if he died without heir-, 
his older sister, Mary, should be the first to succeed, 
and if she too died childless, the younger sister, 
Elizabeth, should inherit the kingdom, and if she 
also pjassed away without heirs, the crown should go 
to the heirs of Henry's younger sister, Mary, Duch- 
ess of Suffolk, in preference to the family of his 
elder sister, Margaret, wife of James IV. of Scot- 
land. All these contingencies arose. Edward was 
ten years old when his father died, and in six years 



•ye- 



558 



THE Tl'DORS. 



lie too passed away, leaving no heir. His sisters also 
died childless. The family, too, of the Duchess of 
Suffolk became extinct. The will was carried out, 
and yet its purpose was singularly defeated when 
James VI. of Scotland, son of Mary, Queen of Scots, 
came to be James I. of England, he being a descend- 
ant of Margaret Tudor Stuart. 

Edward VI. was a very pious boy, wholly under 
Protestant influence. During his reign the church 
of England was brought quite near to the Lutheran 
standard. Mass was abolished, the reading of the 
Bible encouraged. The religion favored by the 
state may be said to have become thoroughly mod- 
ernized. So feeble was the poor young king that 
the succession early became a matter of intense so- 
licitude. It was known that Mary was a zealous pa- 
pist. In their solicitude for the church the advisers 
of the king persuaded him to name the grand- 
daughter of the Duchess of Suffolk, Lady Jane 
Grey, his successor. For this he had no lawful 
authority, and much as the ruling class deplored the 
accession of a Komanist, they resolved to uphold the 
law. The result was that the unfortunate and per- 
sonally innocent Lady Jane was beheaded, with the 
instigators of the movement. 

With the death of the last of all the Edwards, 
and the swift punishment of the Grey party, Mary 

can e to 
the throne 
tilled with 
bigotry, 
eager to be 
revenged 
upon the 
faith that- 
had had 
so much 
to do with 
the troub- 
les of hi 'i' 
in o t h er. 
In addi- 
tion to 
this, was 

OJFKN MARY. her „,.„._ 

riage to and eager love for Philip of Spain. 
During the five years of her reign (1553-1558) 
nothing was left undone which could be done 
to restore England to harmony with Rome. 




Many Protestants were brought to the stake. But 
all her efforts were futile. Blood enough she shed 
in reaction, but her success was temporary. The 
really permanent result of her reign was the loss of 
England's one remaining foothold on the continent, 
Calais. The French recovered that town, to the 
almost fatal chagrin of the queen, and the fierce 
indignation of the English people. It was to En- 
gland a blessing in disguise. 

We have reached now the reign of the last and in- 
comparably the greatest of the Tudors, "the Virgin 
Queen," Elizabeth. It began 1558 and closed 1003, 
thus covering the most brilliant and glorious period 
of English history, with reference to which she her- 
self might well say, "All of which I saw and part 
of which I was." Twenty-four years of age at the 
time of her coronation, already disciplined in the 
school of adversity, keenly ah\e to the perils of her 
position, she proved the right woman in the right 
place. Masculine in form, massive in intellect, im- 
petuous in temper, she was a remarkable adept in 
all the arts of government. 

Elizabeth early announced to Parliament her pur- 
pose to live and die a virgin queen. The first suitor 
for her hand was Philipof Spain, actuated no doubt 
by motives of policy. His suit was not so much as 
entertained. From that time on there was implac- 
able enmity between the two sovereigns, culmina- 
ting in the "Invincible Armada." Spain was the 
most powerful kingdom of Europe at that time, es- 
pecially on the high seas. It was on the 19th of July, 
1588, that the one hundred and thirty ships of 
Philip's Armada were ^-rti off the British coast, in- 
tent on repeating the story of William of Normandy. 
The English ships were small and few, but the 
"ruler of the Queen's navee" was the dauntless 
Drake. The invading squadron was compelled by 
him to sail northward, and was struck by a terrible 
storm which shattered it into hopeless wreck. That 
was the culmination of the last attempt to "beard 
the lion in his den." Since then England has been 
secure from invasion, free to regulate her own af- 
fairs. Philip reduced England to an extremity 
which, with Elizabeth at the helm, was her oppor- 
tunity to establish the principle of national security 
upon an impregnable Gibraltar. 

Other suitors, whether foreign kings or lordly 
subjects, were easily disposed of ; but she had a 
world of trouble with her beautiful cousin, Mary 



>±L 



THE TUDORS. 



359 



Queen of Scots. She, like the other Mary, was a 
staunch Catholic. The papal party looked to her 
to restore the mother church. Catholic sovereigns 
espoused her cause. To what extent she was really 
guilty of plotting for the overthrow of Elizabeth, it 
is hard to say. Beautiful in person and captivating 
in manners, she was regarded as a dangerous rival. 
She had a 
checkered ca- 
reer ; married 
first to the 
French Dau- 
phin, after- 
wards Francis 
II., and later, 
upon her re- 
turn to Scot- 
land as a wid- 
ow, she became 
the wife of 
Lord Darnley, 
the grandson 
of Margaret 
Tudor, daugh- 
ter of Henry 
VII. In Mary 
Queen of Scots 
vested the re- 
siduary title to 
the English 
crown, and she 
was the hope 
of the papal 
party. If she 
had no sinister 
designs upon that crown, it was certain that 
a very considerable party in England stood ready 
to employ unlawful means to predicate her com- 
ing into the kingdom. In the meanwhile trouble 
came for Mary at her own court. Her favorite, 
Rizzio, was killed by Darnley, and not long after 
Darnley himself was killed by the Earl of Bothwell, 
to whom she gave her hand in a few weeks. This 
marriage provoked a popular uprising which re- 
sulted in her being forced to sign her abdication in 
favor of her son James, with a regency. Not long 
after she escaped and took refuge in England. 
Elizabeth afforded her asylum and professed sym- 
pathy, but her ministers of state were apprehensive 




of treason, and after long years of waiting brought 
Mary to trial for conspiring against Elizabeth 
and the Crown. He;- complicity in the mur- 
der of Darnley had been proved before. Convicted 
of treason, Elizabeth signed her death-warrant, and 
she was beheaded. Mary Queen of Scots has long 
been a favorite object of romantic interest, but in 

strict justice 
she hardly 
merited special 
commiseration. 
Among her 
subjects Queen 
Elizabeth had 
two favorites 
at different 
times, the Earl 
of Leicester 
and the Earl 
of Essex, nei- 
ther of whom 
deserves es- 
pecially the 
prominence 
generally giv- 
en him. In 
Lord Burleigh 
and Sir Walter 
Raleigh she 
had realstates- 
men and fast 
friends. Sir 
Francis Drake, 
who sailed 
around the 
world, received the order of knighthood from her 
royal hand on board 
his own ship. Her 
mariners showed 
wonderful enterprise 
in the New World 
and India. The 
common people 

might well be classed 
among her friends, 
for during her reign 
the condition of the 
agricultural and in- 
dustrial classes improved immensely. 




SIR WALTER KALEI'HI- 



The Eliza- 



45 



5JT 



¥ 



3 6 ° 



THE TUDORS. 



bethan Age was the golden age of English litera- 
ture. During that period flourished William Shak- 
speare, who scaled all the peaks of thought aud 
flooded the land and age with glory. But we re- 
serve all further discussion of literature for a sub- 
sequent chapter. 

There was much which was barbaric in England 
when the last of the Tudors died. She herself was 
coarse and rude to a shocking degree. In profanity 
she could vie with " our army in Flanders." It is 
none the less true that during the reign of the great 
house of Tudor the nation rose from the mere rudi- 
ments of greatness to rank with the foremost na- 
tions of Europe. Once rid of the idea of becoming 
great by continental conquest and possessions, Brit- 
ain set about in right good earnest becoming indeed 
as in name, Great Britain. 

As early as the reign of Henry the Second, En- 
gland east covetous glance across the channel and 
sent an army into Ireland for its subjugation ; but 
it was the Tudors who really decided the fate of 
that unhappy island. There was no centralization. 
Britain became great because the petty kingdoms 
were consolidated into one nation, while Ireland, 
which in the eighth century was far more advanced 
of the two, dwindled away and lost its splendid op- 
portunity through the calamitous influence of the 
tribe and the clan, in distinction from the country. 
For a long time the " English Pale," or the area of 
actual British rule in Ireland, was very limited. 
Henry VII. determined to extend it, but pursued his 
purpose only feebly. Henry VIII. was more fully 
bent on Irish subjugation. Under his reign nobles 
and people felt the hand of a master. The last of the 
Henrys took the title of King, instead of Lord of 
Ireland, and his successors upon the throne have 
never ceased to hold fast both the shadow and the 
substance of Irish sovereignty. 

To suppress the national sentiment, the language, 
dress, customs and laws of the country were prohib- 
ited. The fact that Henry was at enmity with the 
pope made loyalty to Rome an expression of patriot- 



ism in Ireland. Edward the Sixth was actuated 
more by zeal for Protestantism than by political 
considerations in his endeavors to extend English 
authority in Ireland. When Mary came to the 
throne and Protestantism lacked the support of the 
government, it almost immediately melted away. 
She was not disposed to abandon the island to itself, 
by any means, but her personal sympathies were with 
the Irish in matters of religion. Elizabeth was in 
sympathy, of course, with the Protestantism of her 
brother, rather than the papacy of her sister ; but 
she took a secular view of the Irish question, and 
under her the power of the British crown was felt 
throughout the entire island. " Every vestige," 
says Green, " of the old Celtic constitution of the 
country was rejected as barbarous. The tribal 
authority of the chiefs was taken from them by law. 
They were reduced to the position of great nobles 
ami landowners, while their clansmen rose from 
subjects into tenants, owing only fixed and custom- 
ary dues and services to their lords. The tribal sys- 
tem of property in common was set aside, and the 
commercial holdings of the tribesmen turned into 
the copy-holds of English law. In the same way 
the chieftains were stripped of their hereditary jur- 
isdiction and the English system of judges and trial 
by jury substituted for proceedings under Brehon, 
or customary law. To all this," he blandly adds, 
" the Celts opposed the tenacious obstinacy of their 
race." After giving many details in regard to the 
colonization of Ulster, which was the culmination 
of the Irish policy of the Tudors, Green observes, 
" The evicted natives withdrew sullenly to the lands 
which had been left them by the spoiler ; but all 
faith in English justice had been torn from the 
minds of the Irishrv. and the seed had been sown 
of that fatal harvest of distrust which was to be 
reaped through tyranny and massacre in the age to 
come." The policy of Gladstone's government is 
an improvement on preceding ministries, but at its 
best, English rule, is a continuation of what might 
be called Tudorixm in Ireland. 




-AS 




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STUARTS AND THE COMMONWEALTH. 



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CHAPTER LX. 

James I. and the Gunpowder Plot— Sir Walter Raleigh— Tobacco and Potatoes— King 
James' Version of the Bible— Virginia and New England — Charles I. and the Rotal Pre- 
«; rogative— Eliot, Pym, Hampden and Cromwell— The Long Parliament— Cavaliers and 

Roundheads— Regicide— The Commonwealth— The Protectorate— Charles II.— James II. 
—William and Mart— Anne and Marlborough— The Stuarts, and England at the Close 
of that Dynasty. 




&^§3*£§-^i 







T was ou the 24th of March, 
16'03, that " Good Queen 
Bess," as the English often 
called her, passed from 
earth, and in accordance 
with her wish, J'ames, the 
sixth king of Scotland by 
, succeeded her, his title 
England being James I. 
Then at last was accomplished the 
union of Scotland and England. The 
*$j«?r^ new sovereign had been carefully nur- 
tured in the Presbyterian faith, albeit 
his mother was a staunch papist, but 
his sympathies were with neither of 
those churches. Episcopacy suited his 
taste. Both the Presbyterians (or Puri- 
tans, as they were called in England) 
and the Uatholics had expected his countenance 
and support, and he disappointed them both. 
The disaffected factions were intense in their indig- 
nation, and the king's friends seriously apprehended 
trouble, and not without reason. A little more than 
a year after his coronation the famous Gunpowder 
Plot was discovered, a conspiracy which has never 
ceased to fill the average British heart with a holy 
horror of the papacy. This plot was devised by 




Robert Catesby to blow up the parliament house 
while that body was in session. A cellar beneath it, 
had been hired, and filled with thirty-six barrels of 
gunpowder, concealed beneath a pile of wood. The 
session was delayed, from various causes, until No- 
vember 5, L605, and that day was finally fixed for 
the explosion. It was the most diabolical conspir- 
acy ever hatched. A few days before the session 
began, a Catholic member of the House of Ends 
was warned not to take his seat at the opening of 
the session. This was a suspicious circumstance, 
and served to put the government on its guard. 
Guy Fawkes, who was to light the fatal match, was 
seized in the act of entering the cellar on the morn- 
ing of the session. A search soon disclosed the 
horrid conspiracy. The sensation produced was 
profound, and to this day Guy Fawkes is annually 
burned in effigy on the night of November 5th by 
the populace, and the papal cause in England has 
never recovered from the injury it then received. 

One of the first acts of James was the arrest and 
conviction of Sir Walter Raleigh on the false charge 
of conspiring against the king's life. That brilliant 
ornament of the Elizabethan age may well be called 
the father of English America. To him belongs 
the honor of founding a colony of his countrymen 
in Virginia in 1590. It did not remain permanently, 



(36l) 






-9 U 



362 



THE STUARTS AND THE COMMONWEALTH. 



but, it none the less laid the foundation of the colo- 
nial policy of England, and to have done that was 
glory enough for any man. He introduced the In- 
dian plant, tobacco, in Europe, at least in England, 
where it speedily gained popular favor, notwith- 
standing the king was bitterly opposed to its use. 
James went so far as to write a book called " A 
Counterblast to Tobacco," but to no purpose. The 
weed grew in favor, and the demand for it had 
much to do with the renewed and successful attempt 
to establish a settlement in Virginia. Tobacco 



fact that the so-called authorized English version 
of the Bible, the one used by the Protestants of all 
denominations, hears his name. He had nothing to do 
with making the translation, except to favor and con- 
voke the assembly of learned divines at Westminster 
which made that august translation. Some fifty 
persons were employed four years at the task. 

The death of James I. occurred March 27, 1625, 
when he was fifty-nine years of age, and had been 
upon the throne of England twenty-two years. The 
great events of his reign were the establishment of 















Robert 
Winter 


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Thomas 
Winter 






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TITE GUNPOWDER CONSPIRATORS— From an Old Engraving. 







would not grow to advantage in England, and if se- 
cured at all must be cultivated in its native land. 
But Sir Walter found that another American prod- 
uct, the potato, would thrive On English soil, or 
rather, " on Irish ground.'' for he planted some 
brought from America upon his estate in Ireland, 
and from that experiment came the use in that 
country of this great staple of food. 

King James was a noted pedant. Utterly desti- 
tute of genius, hardly blessed with average talent, 
he had an inordinate opinion of his own ability. He 
conceived himself to be an author of brilliant parts. 
He wrote much, but nothing of any value. In the 
literary world his only claim to distinction is the 



the two leading Anglo-American colonies, Virginia 
in 1607 and New England in 1620, of which we need 
not further speak here, except to add that the for- 
mer was due to the love of tobacco, the latter to the 
love of God. 

The laws, during the reign of James I., against 
all religious dissenters, Puritans and Catholics, were 
.'■iv severe, but his son, Charles I., who came to the 
throne July 16, 1625, was filled with a determina- 
tion to assert still more strongly the royal preroga- 
tive in matters of taxation, faith and worship. 
Louis the Grand of France had no more exalted 
opinion of royalty than did this second of the Stu- 
arts. He conceived it to be the privilege of the king 



•f <S •"■ 



■Ma 



THE STUARTS AND THE COMMONWEALTH. 



3 6 3 



to do about what lie pleased. But the British par- 
liament was uot the French States General. By 
his day the House of Commons had become a tre- 
mendous power. During the tirst half decade of 
his reign he called three 
parliaments, in each one 
of which the Commons 
demanded the redress of 
grievances in accordance 
with the principles of the 
Great Charter, before 
making appropriations 
for the public service and 
the royal household. 
There was a deadlock in 
each case, and the parlia- 
ments were dissolved 
without legislative action. 
The (pieen was a French 
princess, and tlie chief 
counselors of the crown, 
Buckingham, Straff ord, 
and Laud, attempted to play the role of Richelieu. 
Il was in the third parliament of Charles that the 
famous Petition of Rights was offered, and secured 
from the king 
some concessions, 
afterwards viola- 
ted. One of the 
first and most con- 
spicuous leaders 
of the Commons 
was Eliot, ancestor 
of John Eliot, the 
great Indian apos- 
tle. He was be- 
headed before the 
popular cause had 
gained much head- 
way. Associated 
with him were 
Pym, Hampden 
and Cromwell. 
The two latter fill 
the larger place in history. John Hampden stoutly 
refused to pay taxes unjustly and unconstitutionally 
levied by the king in disregard of parliamentary 
authority. His resistance was made a test case and 
proved a wonderful advantage to the popular cause. 



Cromwell's first speech in the Commons was made 
in 1629, and Hampden's 
resistance of illegal taxa- 
tion dated from 1638. All 






OLIVER CROMWELL. 

the wliil ■ ;,he contest 
gained in stubbornness 

on both sides. 

There was trouble in 
Scotland and Ireland 
also, especially the for- 
mer. The king tried to 
force Episcopacy upon 
the Presbyterians across 
the Tweed, and they were fired with indignation. 
The Irish were less rebellious, for once, than the 
Scotch, and were easily pacified by Strafford. That 

statesman was so 
elated with his 
success in Dublin 
that he persuaded 
the king to call 
still another par- 
liament.thefiftliof 
his reign. It met 
on the 3d of No- 
vember, 1640, and 
is known as the 
celebrated Lone; 
Parliament. One 
of the first things 
it did was to im- 
peach Strafford. 
He died upon the 
scaffold the fol- 
lowing year. Laud 
was sent to the Tower ; a bill passed providing 
for triennial meetings of parliament, and the 
abolition of that very odious secret tribunal, the 
Star Chamber. The more the king conceded, the 
louder the demands for redress, and the more reso- 



=S5T 



^2 



3 6 4 



THE STUARTS AND THE COMMONWEALTH. 



lute the Commons, the more arrogant did Charles 
become. 

Open war broke out in 164:2 between the crown 
and Parliament, the Episcopalians adhering to the 
cause of the king, the Puritans quite as warmly es- 
pousing the cause of Parliament. The former were 
called Royalists or Cavaliers, the latter Roundheads. 
The Presbyterians of Scotland allied themselves 



Charles then fled to Scotland. He was given up, 
tried by the Commons for treason, found guilty and 
beheaded January, 1649. The court which tried 
him was extra-constitutional and in the nature of a 
court-martial, although composed of members of 
parliament. Many of the Roundheads disapproved 
the regicide, but the king had forfeited his right to 
the crown, and his execution was another long 




CROMWELL DISSOLVING THE LONG PARLIAMENT. 



with the Roundheads on condition that Presbyteri- 
anism should be established in England. Such was 
the Solemn League and Covenant as it was called. 
Xiiw Cromwell came more prominently to the front 
than ever. In parliament he had been less conspic- 
uous than Pym, but in war he was the mastermind. 
His "Ironsides" were terrible in battle. In 1644 
they won the victory of Marston Moor and the next 
year the decisive field of Naseby was won. 



step toward the rule of the people by the people. 
The Commonwealth was now declared, that is, a 
government by the Commons without king or 
House of Peers. In Ireland Charles II., son of 
Charles I., was declared king, but Cromwell soon 
crushed nut the Irish rebellion, practicing horrible 
cruelty in so doing. The royal cause struggled on 
a little longer, but by 1651 the contest was over, 
and the younger Charles found asylum at the 



-71 



^ 



THE STUARTS AND THE COMMONWEALTH. 



3 6 5 



French court. For two years more the Long Par- 
liament remained in session, performing the func- 
tions of government, Cromwell being merely the 
head of the army. In April of that year the blunt 
soldier marched with troops into the House and 
dispersed that body in an unceremonious mauner, 
and the jsarliament which had begun thirteen years 
before and had previously lost its upper house or 
head, and was well called "The Rump," passed out 
of existence into perpetual history, memorable for 
justice rather than law. 

In 1053 began the Protectorate, and it continued 
until 1060. A parliament summoned by Cromwell 
conferred upon him the office of Lord Protector, af- 
terwards made for life, with power to name his suc- 
cessor. This wonderful man held the reins of gov- 
ernment until 1658, singularly indifferent to the 
forms of law, an autocrat without beinga tyrant. His 
rule was little else than martial law on a grand 
scale, but under his sway the nation jirogressed rap- 
idly and was a tremendous power in the world. 
During that irregular period England wrested the 
mastery of the Channel from the Dutch fleet, and 
thus gained a naval ascendancy of inestimable val- 
ue to the commerce of the country. Cromwell was 
a patriot and a benefactor, if somewhat lawless and 
high-handed. He failed mainly in not adapting his 
government to the constitutional traditions and re- 
specting the established order of things. His son, 
Richard Cromwell, whom he named his successor, 
was neither fitted for the cares of state nor ambi- 
tious of public honor. In 1660 the Protectorate 
ceased to exist without a struggle. 

Charles II. was in Holland when the Cromwellian 
fabric of government fell asunder. He published a 
declaration of amnesty and toleration, returned and 
was received with every demonstration of public sat- 
isfaction. His reign extended to 1685, and was un- 
eventful. The court was noted for its profligacy. 
Charles himself was an easy-going, jjleasure-loving 
time-server, secretly accepting a pension from the 
King of France, caring little for the public or his 
own honor so long as he could "eat, drink and be 
merry." The nation got on very well with such a 
king. He was at heart a Catholic, but no bigot. 
The fate of his father exercised a wholesome re- 
straint upon his inclinations. He longed to help 
the papal cause on the Continent, but was too timid 
to do so. His death occurred in February, 1685. 




When Charles the Voluptuary died he was suc- 
ceeded by his austere brother, James II., whose reign 
of three years was a futile endeavor to restore the 
papacy. This king was conscientious in his devotion 
to the mother church, and felt it to be his sacred 
duty to revive the ancient worship. To this end, in 
the spirit of the Inquisition, he inaugurated the 
" Bloody Assizes," a series of trials held by Chief 
Justice Jeffries, proverbial for his injustice. The 
nation was in no mood to tolerate this policy, and 
an invitation was sent to his daughter Mary and 
her husband, William of Orange, to come over and 
take thescepter. The 
invitation was ac- 
cepted, and a revo- 
lution of the great- 
est importance ef- 
fected without stain- 
ing English soil with 
blood. James was 
so very unpopular 
that lie was glad to 
escape with his fam- 
ily in disguise. btlliam of orange 

Mary was indeed a Stuart, but her husband was 
coequal with her in authority, and he was thorough- 
ly imbued with the spirit of Protestantism as it had 
been developed in the Dutch struggle with Spain. 
The only real strength of James was his continued 
recognition as king of England by Louis XIV. of 
France, and the sympathy of the Catholics in Ire- 
land. To the latter island he made his way with a 
small army supported by French gold. On Irish soil 
was fought the famous Battle of the Boyne, the cel- 
ebration of which has occasioned so many riots be- 
tween Orangemen (so named from William of Or- 
ange) and the Irish Catholics. That battle occurred 
July 1, 1690, and was a signal victory for William 
and the Orangemen over James II. and the Irish, 
his sujiporters. In 1694 Queen Mary died, but Wil- 
liam continued to hold the reins of government 
until his death, 1703. 

During the previous year parliament had passed 
the Act of Settlement (for William and Mary were 
childless) by which the succession was conferred up- 
on Mary's sister Anne, wife of Prince George of 
Denmark, she being a Protestant and the wife of a 
Protestant, while the son of James, who was after- 
wards known as the Pretender, was a papist. After 



- 9 

ah- * 



^x. 



366 



THE STUARTS AND THE COMMONWEALTH. 



Anne and her children the succession should go to 
4 




QUEEN ANNE. 

the dowager, Electress Sophia, a granddaughter of 
James I., " and her heirs being Protestants." The 
reign of Anne, from 1702 to 1714, was memorable 



for the splendid victories of the English army in 
Flanders, under the command of that greatest mili- 
tary genius of his age, the Duke of Marlborough. 
To him England owes Nova Scotia and Minorca. 
It was also memorable as a period during which 
many famous authors lived; the postoffice system 
was adopted, the country prosperous, and the union 
of the " United Kingdom " made stronger and more 
equable. 

For a little more than a century the Stuarts wore 
the English crown, except as it was temporarily ta- 
ken from them. As a dynasty it was inglorious and 
mediocre ; but the nation steadily advanced in all 
that constitutes national greatness, and frombeing an 
insignificant island, a mere appendage to Europe, 
it rose during the era of the Stuarts to the very 
front rank, Marlborough and his troops being hard- 
ly less potent in continental affairs than Wellington 
and his troops were a century later. But it was even 
more to the general prosperity of the country than 
to military genius and valor that the England 
of that period owed its commanding position in the 
family of nations. 




© I 



f 



sL 








The Decay of Royalty— The Georges— William IV.— Victoria— A Short Retrospect- 
Blenheim and Gibraltar— Wesley, Whitefield and the Methodists— Dr. Johnson and 
Lexicography — Blackstone and the Common Law — Wilberforce and African Slavery — 
Colonial and International Intervention— Results of the Revolutionary and Napo- 
leonic Wars — The Corn Laws and Free Trade— Political Parties— Party Leaders- 
Royalty, its Palaces and Revenues— Parliament— The Ministry— The United King- 
dom and British Empire — Colonial Possessions. 



AAAA 







* 



"DERN England may be 
said to date from the 
■loodless revolution 
which cost .lames II. 
his crown. His expul- 
sion from the kingdom 
not only secured Prot- 
estanisni from .ill dan- 
ger of a papal 
reaction, but 
it subordina 
ted the royal 
prerogative to 
the will of the 
people. Hence- 
forth the sov- 
ereignty will 
not merit much attention, be- 
ing a very insignificant part of 
Present England. To clear the 
way for '" weightier matters " 
than crowns and scepters, with- 
out entirely ignoring the royal 
family, it is proposed to narrate 
the notable dynastic facts be- 
fore entering upon the heart of the subject before 



*H 



If 




us in this chapter. Queen Aiiue died August 1, 
1T14. In accordance with the Act of Settlement 
passed by parliament in 1701, George I., Elector of 
Hanover, succeeded her upon the throne. His 
reign continued thhteen years. Sir Horace Wal- 
pole, whose motto was, " Every man has his 
price," was the foremost politician (statesman he 
was not) of that reign. Walpole became premier 
under (ieorge the First, and 
continued to hold that position 
fifteen years under his succes- 
sor, < ieorge II. The most mem- 
orable feature of the reign of 
the first of the Georges was the 
South Sea Bubble. That gi- 
gantic speculation dates back 
to Queen Anne's reign, the 
South Sea Company having 
been chartered in 1711. It was 
a scheme to monopolize British 
trade along the coast of Spanish 
America. In a few years the 
company became a formidable 
rival of the Bank of England in 
financial influence. Its pros- 
perity was purely speculative. It had the effect 



4 6 



(367) 



^pT 



3 68 



PRESENT ENGLAND. 




GEORGE in. 



to stimulate a vast amount of speculation. A 
wild period of financial lunacy set in. The bub- 
ble burst in 1720, and thousands of families were 
ruined by it. It was cotemporary with and similar 
to Law's Mississippi scheme, which crazed and bank- 
rupted France. 

The reign of the second George was along one, ex- 
tern ling to 1760, and the period was one of great im- 
portance, but the king himself had very little to do 
with the actual accomplishment of any of the great 
results to be hereafter set forth. At his death his 

grandson, George III., 
came into the royal in- 
heritance. His reign 
extended from 1760 to 
1820, covering the pe- 
riod of the Revolution- 
ary War which freed 
this country from Brit- 
ish tyranny, also the ca- 
reer of Napoleon. In- 
sane as this king un- 
doubtedly was during a 
part of his reign, his ca- 
pacity for affairs of state mattered little. The pop- 
ularity of parties and party leaders determined the 
policy of the government. During the last ten 
years of this reign the Prince of Wales was regent. 
The regency terminating with the death of the de- 
mented king in 1820, the prince was crowned George 
IV. He occupied the throne ten years. The third 
George was obstinate and finally demented, but mor- 
ally a most worthy sovereign, while his son and suc- 
cessor was a debauchee of the vilest sort. In his 
domestic life the last of the Georges was unhappy 
and disreputable. At his death his brother, the 
Duke of Clarence, succeeded to the crown as William 
IV. For seven years he wielded the feeble scepter of 
the great kingdom. Dying childless, the succession 
fell to the lot of Victoria, daughter of his brother, the 
Duke of Kent. Ascending the throne in 1837, at 
the age of eighteen, she is now in the enjoyment of 
a long and prosperous reign. In 1840 she married 
Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotba, who died in 
1861. Personally she is very popular ; politically 
she is merely what the nation decrees, through par- 
liamentary elections. Her heir, the Prince of Wales, 
does not hesitate to say that the continuance of mon- 
archy in England depends on the will of the people. 




Having traced the sovereigns of England in their 
decline to the present time, we now turn to the prog- 
ress of Present En- 
gland. In order to 
appreciate the civil- 
ization which is the 
crowning honor of 
to-day, it is necessary 
to look back a little 
to the period covered 
by the preceding 
chapter. 

It was during the 
reign of Charles II. 
that the Royal So- ™™ria and prince albert. 
ciety for the Promotion of Science was formed 
in London, and most excellently well did it 
merit the name, for right royally did it foster the 
growth of exact knowledge. In 1619 Harvey dis- 
covered the circulation of .the blood, and thus laid 
the foundation of physiology, and from that time 
on the spirit of Roger Bacon has seemed to animate 
the British mind, producing, later in the ceutury, 
Sir Isaac Newton, whose discovery of the law of 
gravitation was an epoch in science. The first En- 
glish newspaper was printed in 1641, six years after 
the post-office system had been established. The 
first toll-gate was erected in England in 1663, which 
was the beginning of passable roads for wagons. 
The foreign trade which had only just begun in the 
sixteenth century, became very large in the seven- 
teenth, especially with 
India. The use of tea 
began late in the sev- 
enteenth century. 
The Bank of Bnland/ 
was established 
1694, during the reign 
of William and Mary, 
from which reign 
dates the national 
debt of Great Britain. 
If a national debt is 
not a national blessing, it may yet be safely asserted 
that its contraction was necessary in this case to 
the development of the nation, if not to its absolute 
existence. By the aid of the money borrowed on 
the strength of the national credit England was en- 
abled to raise and equip the armies and navies indis- 




VICTOKIA— 1880. 



-7\- 



-J to 

^ ok. 1 



PRESENT ENGLAND. 



3 6 9 



pensable to expansion from a petty kingdom to a 
mighty empire. 

It was in the year 1704 that Marlborough won 
i lie splendid victory of Blenheim and other hard- 
f ought battles, which came near wrecking the pow- 
er of Louis XIV. During the same year Sir George 
Eooke carried by storm the fortress of Gibraltar, 
which made England Mistress of the Mediterranean 



George Whitefield in 1714. The younger Wesley- 
was the author of many very popular hymns, while 
the other two men succeeded by their eloquence and 
zeal as preachers in making a most profound im- 
pression upon the English-speaking people of two 
hemispheres. They founded the Methodist Episco- 
pal Church in England and America. The char- 
acteristic which the denomination has always had, 




THE THROVE ROOM, ENGLAND. 



Sea, with its inexhaustible wealth of commerce, an 
advantage of more substantial value to the people 
than all the mines of Pern and Mexico. In losing 
Gibraltar Spain lost much, but England gained in- 
comparably more; the former being unable to make 
full use of the advantage involved in the possession 
<>f that rock. 

Among the more noteworthy characters of the 
eighteenth century should he mentioned the Wes- 
leys, John and Charles, and their co-worker, White- 
field. They were born early in the century,- John 
Wesley in 1703, his brother Charles in 170«. and 



exceeding enthusiasm in the work of conversion, 
it derived from them. They laid the founda- 
tion of an organization which has been a tremen- 
dous influence in the world. Whitefield was a 
prodigv of eloquence, but John Wesley, by his 
astonishing industry as an organizer, writer and 
preacher, fairly earned the supreme honor of estab- 
lishing a church which now, when only a little more 
than a century old. numbers in communicants be- 
tween four and five millions of souls. 

Dr. Samuel Johnson is fairly entitled to the dis- 
tinction of being the Father of the Dictionary. 



*7fc 



37° 



PRESENT ENGLAND. 



Kuril in 1709, educated at Oxford, lie was an author 
by profession. From 1747 to 1755 his time was 
mainly devoted to his great work, " The Dictionary 
of the English Language," an incomparable service 
to the cause of letters. Attached to him as a sort 
of literary lackey was Boswell, who preserved and 
published the most minute details of the life and 
conversation of the great lexicographer. It may be 
remarked that important as was the service of John- 
son iu defining the 
right sjjelling, pro- 
nunciation and 
meaning of En- 
glish words, the 
reallysupreme hon- 
or in the line of 
lexicography be- 
longs to an Ameri- 
can of that same 
and the succeeding 
century, Dr. Noah 
Webster. 

In the depart- 
ment of legal liter- 
ature no name can 
be compared to 
that of SirWilliam 
Blackstone, whose 
Com mentaries, 
written about the 
middle of the eigh- 
teenth century, 
were the first clear, 
intelligible and sci- 
entific presentation 
of the English common law. His work is still a 
text-book, studied by every law student, and to be 
found in every law office in Great Britain and the 
United States, wherever, in fact, the common law 
prevails or is a subject of study. 

One more Englishman of the eighteenth century 
deserves mention, William Wilberforce, the great 
Emancipator. He was a man of immense wealth, 
and in early manhood an ordinary member of the 
House of Commons ; but in 1787, when about thirty 
years of age, he resolved to devote himself to the 
cause of abolishing the African slave trade. Burke, 
Pitt and Fox, the great political triumvirate of that 
day, nobly seconded his efforts, and after a struggle 




of twenty years his philanthropy was crowned with 
success. In the course of that struggle the British 
public sentiment upon the infamy of slavery was 
raised to a standard so high, and made to rest upon 
a foundation so secure, that British influence, where- 
ever felt, has always from that day been brought to 
bear (with inconsequential exceptions) in opposition 
to the hideous traffic and the horrible institution of 
slavery. And it is very largely due to this British 

sentiment that it 
may now be said 
that slavery has 
been wiped from 
the face of tha 
globe, its few re- 
maining vestiges 
being in process of 
extinction. 

As the wars be- 
tween America and 
England belong to 
the history of the 
United States, so 
the campaigns 
which resulted in 
Waterloo belong to 
French history. It 
may be well to ob- 
serve'here, however, 
that each produced 
a radical influence 
upon the policy of 
England. George 
III., yielding to the 
influence of Lord 
North, sought to compel the colonies to remain de- 
pendencies, quite irrespective of public sentiment 
in the colonies; but for a 
long time now it has been un- 
derstood in England and the 
colonial portion of the British 
Empire that the question of 
national independence really 
rests with the colonists them- 
selves. The New Dominion 
and Australasia remain in the lord north. 

United Kingdom from actual choice, and no 
war for independence would be necessary to sep- 
aration. Thus, it may be said that the Thirteen 




PRESENT ENGLAND. 



37 1 



Colonies secured for the colonies of the present Great 
Britain the right which they secured for themselves, 
its exercise beiug discretionary with those who ought 



triumph of the free trade policy in England, a 
policy which grew out of and proved helpful to the 
manufacturing interest of the country. The regu- 







LONDON FROM GREENWICH PARK. 



in all justice to decide it. The Revolutionary War 
was thus a great lesson of non-intervention in colo- 
nial affairs. The Napoleonic war, on the contrary, 
was a great lesson 
of intervention. 
It made England, 
in a certain high 
sense, master of 
Europe, and more 
disjiosed to dictate 
to other nations 
than to her own 
colonies. 

With the con- 
sideration of one 
more topic the 
reader will be pre- 
pared to take an 
appreciative sur- 
vey of the present 
Great Britain. 

That subject is the corn laws and free trade. Those 
statutes for the regulation of the grain trade date 
back to 1300, and their abolition in 1846 was the 




Lations had been changed from tune to time, but 
their constant object had been to protect the manu- 
facturing interest of the country. In the final strug- 
gle over the re- 
peal, a struggle 
lasting several 
years, and in 
which Richard 
Cobden took the 
leading part for 
reform, the prin- 
ciples of political 
economy, the laws 
of supply and de- 
mand, were dis- 
cussed with great 
fullness and spirit. 
Miss Harriet Mar- 
tineau rendered 
the cause of free 
trade immense 
service by political tracts and novels which brought 
the arguments of the reformers down to the under- 
standing of the people. Sir Robert Peel, originally 



WINDSOR PALACE AND WINDSOR CASTLE 



- ffl l>. 



37- 



PRESENT ENGLAND. 



a protectionist and a leading statesman during the 
second quarter of the present century, came gradu- 
ally to adopt the veiws of Cobden, Bright and Mar- 
tiueau. From that time on, the national sentiment, 
with great unanimity, has been hostile to the doc- 
trine of protection, and at one time the indications 
were that the enlightened sentiment of the civilized 
world was undergoing substantially the same pro- 
cess of change wrought in the mind of Peel ; but 
at the present time France and the United States 



Whiggs, or Whigs. The term Tory is of Irish ori- 
gin, and was first applied to Catholic outlaws in the 
reign of Charles II. About the time that the roy- 
alists dubbed their opponents Whigs, the latter re- 
torted by applying to their adversaries another no 
less opprobrious nickname. Gradually each party 
came to take pride in its name, and all sense of re- 
proach was lost sight of. It was within the present 
generation, and in designation of their respective 
characters, that the two parties came to be known 




% 



s 



mMi 





omSM 




iff 



mSMM&^uu 



«b^C-U£/_^£^^ST 










BUCKINGHAM PALACE. 



are strongly protective, and Germany is becoming 
more and more so. Even in England there are 
some signs of a reaction. 

It is now time to speak of the history of parties 
in England. There are, and long have been, two 
great political organizations in England, each with 
a duly chosen and recognized leader. The original 
names of these organizations were Whig and Tory. 
The present appellations are, Liberal and Conser- 
vative. Whig is a contraction for Whigr/amore, 
southwestern Scotch for drover. The term was in- 
troduced in 1648 to designate certain Covenanters 
from that section of Scotland. In 1679 the oppo- 
nents of the Court party in England were first called 



as Liberals and Conservatives. The British Empire 
of the present time, 
the Great Britain of 
to-day, has been un- 
der the rule, at dif- 
ferent times, of two 
very remarkable po- 
litical leaders, Wil- 
liam E. Gladstone, 
who still lives and is 
the great Statesman 
of Great Britain, and 
Lord Beaconsfield, 
lately deceased. The former is a Liberal, the latter 




GLADSTONE. 



PRESENT ENGLAND. 



373 




DISRAELI. 

(Earl of Beaconslidd.) 



was a Conservative. Mr. Gladstone is also known as 
a learned scholar, especially in all matters relating to 
Homer. Beaconsfield, long plain Benjamin Disraeli, 
achieved some fame as a novelist. Hardly, if any, less 

deserving of mention 
is John Bright, the 
great Commoner, too 
liberal to be a leader, 
even of the Liberals. 
Entering parliament 
in 1843, possessing 
rare eloquence, he 
has always been the 
especial champion 
of free trade, free 
speech, free institu- 
tions and progressive 
ideas generally. During the American Civil War, 
when many English statesmen, including even Mr. 
Gladstone, faltered and wavered, he remained the 
stalwart friend of the Union cause, rendering the 
United States immense service by his eloquence. 

Insignificant as the crown is in England, there is 
one respect in which it is a very important reality. 
The expense of maintaining it is very considerable. 
The annual revenue of the royal family from direct 
appropriation and from estates is about three mil- 
lions of dollars. The royal palaces are Buckingham, 
St. James, Kensington, Windsor Castle, Balmoral 
and Osborne House. 

The parliament consists of two bodies, the House of 
Lords, or Peers, and the House of Commons. The 
former, which is hereditary, so far as concerns the 
lay membership, consists of 512 members, inclusive 
of two archbishops and twenty-four bishops of the 
established, or Episcopal, church. The number is 
subject, however, to change, as the creation of new 
lords is always in order at the pleasure of the sov- 
ereign, that is the ministry. The Lord Chancellor 
is president of the House of Lords. The House of 
Commons consists of 654 members. Of these 48? 
are English, including Welsh ; 62 Scotch, and 105 
Irish. A further classification of the body is this : 
representatives of boroughs, 360 ; of counties, 283 ; 
of universities, 11. In parliamentary elections there 
is a household and property qualification, but the 
right of suffrage has been greatly extended, and 
manhood suffrage seems to be inevitable in the near 
future. 



The ministry or cabinet consists, in its main offi- 
ces of a Lord of the Treasury, who is prime min- 
ister, or real wielder of the scepter ; Lord High 
Chancellor ; Chancellor of the Exchequer ; Secre- 
taries of State for the Home Department, Foreign 
Affairs, the Colonies, War and India; First Lord of 
the Admiralty ; Postmaster General, and Attorney 
General. These and some other high offices are 
strictly political, changing whenever the political 
complexion of the House of Commons changes. 
The subordinate executive officers are exempt from 
this dependence upon the fortunes of politics. The 
Civil Service .of Great Britain is conducted upon 
the plan of retention during good behavior. 

The term United Kingdom applies to England, 
Scotland, Wales and Ireland, with the little islands 
of the British group. The term British Empire 
has a much wider signification. The latter includes 
all lands and peoples subject to the British crown 
and constitution, and is the most stu]>endous empire 
the world ever saw, with an ever-active power of ex- 
pansion and absorption. And it must be admitted 
that as a rule the cause of civilization is advanced 
by the expansion of British jurisdiction. 

In regard to British colonial possessions, Mr. Fred- 
erick Martin asserts that they embrace about one- 
seventh of the land surface of the entire globe, and 
nearly a fourth of its population. He adds that of 
this vast dominion, "three million square miles are 
in America, half a million in Africa, a million in 
Asia and more than two million and a half in Aus- 
tralia. These colonies are grouped into forty ad- 
ministrative divisions." We add Mr. Martin's re- 
sume on this subject : 

" Of these forty colonies, and groups of colonies, 
four are in Europe, eleven in or near America, ten 
in or near Africa, seven in Asia, and eight in Aus- 
tralasia. In Europe the Possessions are, in alpha- 
betical order, first, Cyprus ; second, Gibraltar ; third, 
Heligoland ; and, fourth, Malta. In America, or ad- 
joining the American continent, the possessions are, 
first, the Bahamas, a group of some 800 islands and 
islets, of which twenty are inhabited ; second, the 
Bermudas, a group of about 300 islands, of which 
fifteen are inhabited ; third, the Dominion of Cana- 
da, comprising the Provinces of Ontario, Quebec, 
New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Manitoba, British 
Columbia, and (since June 26, 1873) Prince Ed- 
ward's Island ; fourth, the Falkland Islands, a group 



374 



PRESENT ENGLAND. 



of large area, with very few inhabitants ; fifth, 
Guinea, on the continent of South America ; sixth, 
the Honduras, on the continent of Central America; 
seventh, Jamaica, to which are annexed, by an Act 
of Parliament, passed in 1873, the Turks and Caicos 
Islands ; eighth, the Leeward Islands, comprising the 
formerly separate colonies of Antigua, Montserrat, 
St. Christopher, Nevis, Anguilla, the Virgin Islands, 
and Dominica, the whole united under an Act of 
Parliament passed in lS71 ; ninth, Newfoundland, 
not yet included in the Dominion of Canada ; tenth, 
the Island of Trinidad ; and eleventh, the Windward 
Islands, comprising the formerly separate colonies of 
Barbadoes, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Grenada and To- 
bago. In Africa, and nearest to the African conti- 
nent, the colonial possessions are, first, the Island of 
Ascension, in the South Atlantic Ocean ; second, the 
Cape of Good Hope, including British Kaffraria. and 
other annexations made from lstli; to 1877; third, 
the Gambia settlement, on the west coast; fourth, 
the vaguely limited Gold Coast territory, enlarged in 
1872 by a cession of old Dutch settlements ; fifth, 
the South African settlement of Griqnaland West, 
proclaimed British territory October 27, 1871 ; sixth, 
the Island of Lagos, and territories on the mainland, 
ceded under treaty of August 6, 1801 ; seventh, the 
Island of Mauritius, and its dependencies in the In- 
dian Ocean ; eighth, Natal, separated from the Cape 
of Good Hope in 1856 ; ninth, the Island of St. Hele- 
na, in the South Atlantic ; and tenth, the territory 
of Sierra Leone, on the west coast of Africa. In 



Asia, the colonial possessions are, first, the town and 
port of Aden, in Arabia, at the entrance of the Red 
Sea ; second, the Island of Ceylon ; third, the Island 
of Hong Kong ; fourth, the Empire of India ; fifth, 
the Island of Labium, on the coast of Borneo; sixth, 
the Island of Perim, in the Red Sea ; and seventh, 
the Straits Settlements, comprising the Islands of 
Singapore and Penang, with the territory of Ma- 
lacca, in the Indian Archipelago. Finally, in Aus- 
tralasia, the colonial possessions embrace, besides 
the Fiji Islands east to the mainland of Australia, 
ceded to Great Britain in 1874, the seven, at pres- 
ent separated, but in all probability to be united, 
colonies of New South Wales, New Zealand, Queens- 
land, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria and 
Western Australia." It is with good reason that 
Great Britain boasts that upon it the sun never 
sets. 

We are now about to leave England and soon the 
British Isles, when, for a short time, our course will 
be among the lands more remote from the sun of 
modern civilization. For the most part, for several 
chapters, we shall still be in the British Empire, or 
in lands virtually controlled by British men-of-war. 
On every continent the United Kingdom has its 
possessions. Those in Asia, North America, and 
the continental islands of far Australasia, will be 
separately considered, while those in Africa, South 
America and the West Indies, without as distinctive 
recognition, will yet receive such attention as their 
importance may justify. 





1 1 ■ • ■ ii 1 1 ■ inii ■■ tn i ■ ■ i ill ■ ■ i it 1 1 1 ill »i 1 1 1 nil 1 1 1 1 it ■ ■ ■ 1 1 1 1 1 ■ ■ 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1,1 ii ■ »i ii it i •■ ■ 1 1 in ■ 1 1 in 1 1 1 »■ ■ i »i i in ■ it km i hi 11 




CHAPTER LXII. 



English Literature in General— Dawn op Literature in England— Saxon Alfred— Chau 

CER AND CaNTEEBUBY TALES— SPENSER AND THE FAEBT QtJEEN— PERCY'S EeLICS AND MlNOB 

Old English— Shakspeake— Cotemporaries .op Shakspeare— Bacon— Milton and his 
Cotemporabies — Literature of the Eestoration— Dryden — Locke and Newton — Pope 
and Swift— Defoe, Hume and Gibbon— A Litebaby Group— Htmnologt— Addison and 
"The Spectator"— Steel and Tristram Shandt— Letters of Junius— Goldsmith, Cowper 
and Young— Litebabt Impostobs— Btbon and his Peebs— Hood and Beowning— Lake 
School of Poets— Gallebt of the Six Intellectual Titans of Modebn English Let- 
tbrs— Charlotte Bronte and Jane Eyre— Thackebat and Dickens— Minor Novelists- 
Contemporary English Men of Letters — Latest Type of Literature in England, 





^~§sMsf~^ 



A' one sense the English lit- 
erature is not simply the 
literature of England, but 
it includes all the literature 
of the English language, hi 
whatever land written. But 
the literature of England 
only will be considered, re- 
serving American literature for a subse- 
ts 

quent chapter. Some English writers ac- 
quired such prominence that they have 
appeared in previous chapters in con- 
nection with the events of their times, 
but before taking leave of England it 
will be of interest to take a comprehensive 
view of the grandest galaxy of authors 
the world has ever produced, for classic 
literature, Greek and Latin combined, 
contains less real genius and intellectual grandeur 
than our own vernacular, even apart from this con- 
tinent, can boast. 

The earliest name in the literary record of En- 
gland is Beowulf, a long and utterly stupid epic. It 
is supposed to have been brought to the island by 



the Saxons when in company with the Angles and 
the Jutes, they first established themselves in Britain. 
The old Britons had no literature, at least, if so it 
perished utterly. The first indubitably English poet 
was Caxlmon, who died in 680. He left a metrical 
paraphrase of parts of the Bible. His manuscript 
was lost, and not recovered until 1654. It has no 
intrinsic merit. The same is true of the oldest En- 
glish prose, King Alfred's translation from the Latin 
of the Venerable Bede's ecclesiastical history. Bede 
belonged to the eighth century and Alfred to the 
ninth. One line on the title page is suggestive of 
the relation of old English to modern, also to Latin, 
or " boclaeden." This line reads, "Aelfred Kyning 
waes wealhstod thisse bee and hie of boclaedene on 
Englise wende" — King Alfred was the translator 
of this book, and turned it from book-language into 
English. Bede's history of England was an impor- 
tant work for the information it affords, but it is 
hardly a part of English literature. The same is 
true of the somewhat apocryphal biography of Al- 
fred by Asser, the last of the ante-Norman authors. 
Asser belonged to the first years of the tenth cen- 
tury. Three centuries later Layamon produced a 



~W 



47 



(375) 



sK 1 



37 6 



LITERATURE OF ENGLAND. 




narrative in verse of Celtic traditions, called Brut, 
and Orni, a series of dull homilies in verse, called 
Ormulum. Some idea of this poetry may be gath- 
ered from the complet, — 

•'Thiss boc is uammed Ornnulum 
" Forrtlii that Orrm itt wrohhte." 

The first really meritorious English writer was 

Geoffrey Chaucer, 
born in 1328, died in 
1400. He is called 
•• the Father of En- 
glish Poetry." He 
was more than that, 
for England can 
hardly be said to 
have had any litera- 
ture, prose or poetry, 
before his day, cer- 
chaccer tainly nothing of real 

value. His writings were somewhat voluminous, but 
his Ca?iterbury Tales stands incomparably higher 
than any other of his works. It derives its name 
from several pilgrims on their way to pay homage 
at the shrii)'! of Thomas a Becket, and who, being 
guests at the same inn, beguiled the time by telling 
stories. One verse will serve to illustrate the nature 
of Chaucer's English and the plot of the Tales, 

In South werk at the Tabard as 1 lay, 
Redy to wenden on my pilgrimage 
To Canterbury with ful devout corage, 
At night was come into that hostelrie 
Wei Nyne and twenty in a companye 
Of sondry folk, by aventure yfalle 
In felowsclnpe, and pilgryms were thei alle 
That toward Canterbury wolden ryde. 

It will be observed that the variations from good 
modern English are mainly in the matter of orthog- 
raphy, and it was not until the printing press was 
invented that uniformity herein began to prevail. 

It was not until the middle of the sixteenth cen- 
tury that the second truly great name appeared in 
English literature, Edmund Spenser, the author of 
The Faery Queene. Before his day Bishop Percy had 
collected the ballads of the language, and Percy's 
Reliques of Ancient English Poetry is a delightful vol- 
ume, but the ballads themselves are anonymous. 
Sir Thomas More, a famous jurist in the reign of 
Henry VIII., wrote an ever-notable description of an 
ideal republic upon an imaginary island, Utopia. The 



work was composed in Latin. Cotemporaneous with 
Spenser was Sir Philip Sidney. He was a writer of 
much elegance, but no very marked power. Spen- 
ser's masterpiece was in part an imitation of " Piers 
Ploughman," a cotemporary of Chaucer who was 
very highly esteemed, but whose poetry is more 
homiletical than poetical. But in power of imagi- 
nation and variety of allegorical conception it is a 
remarkable production. It is very long without be- 
ing complete. It cannot be read cursorily with 
profit, but its careful perusal yields an ample reward. 

There are only three English books older than 
Shakspeare which are much read, even by the schol- 
arly few, Canterbury Tales, Percy's Reliques, or Rel- 
ics, and The Faery Queene. All else might be oblit- 
erated with comparatively slight loss, except as they 
may be useful in historical research. 

It was on the 26th day of April, 1564, in the small 
town of Stratford-on-Avon that William Shaks- 
peare was born, and his death occurred on the 23d 
day of the same 
month just fifty-two 
years later. His fam- 
ily was humble and 
his education limit- 
ed. According to all 
accounts he was the 
most contradictory 
character in all his- 
tory, the supreme 
enigma of mankind. 
At the age of eigh- 
teen he was married to Aime Hathaway, seven years 
his senior, an altogether commonplace woman. At 
twenty-two he left his native village for London. He 
had a keen eye for business, and when he had ac- 
quired capital enough to return to Stratford and be 
one of the first men of the town he did so, evincing 
utter indifference to literary fame. At London he 
secured employment at a theater in some humble 
capacity. As an actor he did not excel, but he was 
a, capital manager. Wanting better plays than he 
could procure in any other way, he set about re-writ- 
ing and then writing dramas himself. He wrote as 
the demands of his own theater required, and it is 
said that he never revised his work. If a play served 
the purposes of his stage, that was enough. Besides 
a large number of sonnets, some of them very ex- 
quisite, and several long but minor poems, Shaks- 




SHAKSPEAKE. 



wr- 



^J 5 — - 



LITERATURE OF ENGLAND. 



377 



peare produced thirty^seven dramas. Ten of these 
plays are based on English history and tear the 
names of English kings from King John to Henry 
VIII. In no play, it is said, did the great dramatist 
take the trouble to invent a plot for himself, or 
scruple to use old material if it suited his purpose ; 
but under the touch of his genius the commonplace 
was transformed and transfigured. Hallani wrote of 
him : 

"The name of Shakspeare is the greatest in our 
literature — it is the 
greatest hi all litera- 
ture. No man ever 
came near him in the 
creative powers of the 
mind ; no man ever had 
such strength at once, 
and such variety of im- 
agination. Coleridge 
has most felicitously ap- 
plied to him a Greek 
epithet, given before to 
I know not whom, cer- 
tainly none so deserv- 
ing of it — foiptfvavs, the 

thousandsoukd Shaks- 
peare." 

Harlowe, Green and 
Ben Jonson, Beaumont 
and Fletcher, Ford and 
Shirley, are ranked as 
Shakspearean drama- 
tists, but it was only be- 
cause they were contem- 
poraries. In point of merit they are not at all 

comparable. They 
added somewhat to 
the honors of that 
golden age of En- 
glish literature, but 
not much. The Eliz- 
abethan Age was 
rendered illustrious 
by two nameSjShaks- 
peare and Bacon, 
representatives of 
very different ele- 
origins and of widely dif- 
thought in the development 





BEN JONS 



ments of society in their 
ferent departments of 



of their intellectual resources. The drama was not 
even respectable, and no doubt Shakspeare was 
ashamed of his calling, and when he had accumu- 
lated a competency wished to ignore and keep out of 
sight the means by which lie had acquired it. Bacon, 
on the other hand, belonged to the nobility, and as 
an author was a peer in the aristocracy of letters. 

Francis Bacon was born in 1561, and died in 1620. 
His father, Sir Nicholas Bacon, was Lord Keeper of 
the Groat Seal of England, a high position at court. 

The son chose the pro- 
fession of law, and at an 
early age was appointed 
as the Queen's Counsel 
under Elizabeth. When 
James came to the 
throne he was knight- 
ed, with the title of Bar- 
on Verulani, and later, 
Viscount St. Albans. 
In the line of his pro- 
fession he rose succes- 
sively from Queen's 
Counsel to Solicitor- 
General, Attorney-Gen- 
eral and Lord Chan- 
cellor. In the latter 
position of Chief Jus- 
tice of the realm, he 
was accused of taking 
bribes and the charge 
was sustained. He was 
deprived of his office, 
fined, and rendered in- 
capable of holding any office thereafter. His ambi- 
tion to shine at court 
and in the society 
of those who had 
more money than 
brains, whelmed him 
in ruin and misery. 
His last days were 
sad and desolate. 
But however bitter 
his failure from the 
standpoint of per- 
sonal ambition, his 
life was an epoch in 




FRANCIS EACON. 



thought. His writings are 



luminous, but the chief book from his pen was, or 



37§ 



LITERATURE OF ENGLAND. 



is, Novum Organum, fitly described by himself when 
he says, " This New Instrument is the science of a 
tetter and more perfect use of reason in the investi- 
gation of things, and of the true aims of the under- 
standing." It effected a revolution in philosophy. 
The Baconian method, as compared with philosophy 
prior to his day, is well suggested by Prof. Backus 
in the following observations : " Twenty centuries 
had elapsed after Aristotle had shown his method of 
searching after truth before Bacon undertook to in- 
troduce a new method. Aristotle made thought 
active ; Bacon aimed to make it useful. Aristotle 
made logic the fundamental science, and considered 
metaphysics of greater importance than physics. His 
theory, carried into practice, produced twenty cen- 
turies of fruitlessness ; two centuries and a half of 
Bacon's theory in practice have revolutionized the 
literary, the commercial, the political, the religious, 
the scientific world. The ancients had a philosophy 
of words ; Bacon called for a philosophy of works. 
His glory is founded upon a union of speculative 
power with practical utility, which were never so 
combined before. He neglected nothing as too 
small, despised nothing as too low, by which our hap- 
piness could be augmented ; in him, above all, were 
combined boldness and prudence, the intensest en- 
thusiasm and the plainest common sense." 

To the same age as Bacon, only a little later, be- 
long Francis Quarles and George Herbert, quaint 
writers of deeply pietistic poetry. Sir Thomas 
Browne, who wrote prose, was really more poetic than 
they, for his Religio Medici is one of the most faci- 
nating of essays, often vague but always charming. 
The Civil War and Commonwealth which followed 

so soon after the 
Elizabethan age pro- 
duced a plentiful 
crop of earnest prose 
writers ' who contri- 
buted much to the 
formation of the En- 
glish language as a 
suitable vehicle of 
grand thoughts. Jer- 
emy Taylor and 
Thomas Fuller, the 
royalists, Richard Baxter and John Milton, the non- 
conformists, discussed the politics and theology of 
their day (very nearly the same in many respects) 




JOHN MILTON. 



with great abdity and fullness. Milton's essay on 
liberty is one of the finest pieces of prose composi- 
tion in any language. But the literary glory of that 
period was Milton's Paradise Lost. It was composed 
after the poet had become blind. The two great epic 
poets, Homer and Milton, were both of them sightless. 
The latter sang the war in heaven between the loyal 
forces of heaven and the rebellious Augels, led by 
Satan. That supposed conflict, together with the fall 
of man, furnished the basis of the great structure. 
Wordsworth has happily characterized Milton in 
these lines : 

Thy soul was like a star and dwelt apart; 

Thou hadst a voice whose sound was like the sea — 

Pure as the naked heavens, majestic, free; 

So didst thou travel on life's common way 

In cheerful godliness; and yet thy heart 

The lowliest duties on herself did lay. 

The Restoration under Charles II. brought to the 
fore a different class of writers. Samuel Butler was 
the most notable poet of that period. His Hudibras 
is a brilliant satire upon the Puritans and Puritan- 
ism. The wit is keen and pitiless. To the same 
period, but on the opposite side of the religious and 
political issues of the day, stands John Bunyan, 
whose Pilgrim's Progress is still widely read for its 
wealth of allegory and its depth of piety. He was 
a martyr to his religion, and while languishing in jail 
composed the work which has made him immortal. 
A strolling tinker by trade, some think him a gipsy 
by descent. Another noted writer of this period was 
Izaak Walton. His Convplete Angler is refreshingly 
free from theology, politics and ethics. It is simply 
what it professes to be, a treatise upon fishing, but so 
capitally done that whether one be interested in pis- 
catorial sport or not, one can not fail to be delighted. 

After Milton the next really great name in English 
verse was John Dryden, born in 1631, died in 1700. 
In character he was a time-server, a puritan under 
Cromwell, a papist under James II. He was the 
hitter's poet laureate. His writings were voluminous. 
He was the first real critic in English literature. 
His influence was very great, and upon the whole very 
good. He lives in the literary records of his country 
more for his usefulness in forming the literary 
style of the language than for the intrinsic merits of 
his writings. 

The next great name in English literature was the 
philosopher, John Locke, a cotemporary of Dryden. 



LITERATURE OF ENGLAND. 



379 



ik 



His Essay on the Human Understanding is justly 
ranked as second only to Bacon's Novu/m Organum. 
In the metaphysical world his work is, as Hallam 
expresses it, " the first real chart of the coasts, 
wherein some may he laid down incorrectly, hut the 
general relations of all are perceived." Locke was 
born 1632 and died in lTo-L Sir Isaac Newton was 
born in 1042 and died in 1727. The latter effected 
a revolution in natural science equal to that of Bacon 
in philosophy. His PkUosophhe Naiuralis Principia 
Mathematical, may be set down as the corner-stone of 
modem science. The work of Roger Bacon had been 
forgotten, and had to he done over again, with read- 
justment to the times, and that not by an imitator, 
but by an original genius, and Sir Isaac met the re- 
quirement. 

In poetry the eighteenth century opened with Alex- 
ander Pope. His easy flowing . rhymes and sharp 
wit have been greatly admired. In his day he was 
thought to be a prodigy, but he lacks staying qualities 
as a poet. He is not much read at the present day, 
except by those who do so from a certain sense of 
duty. His translations of Homer have been eclipsed. 
His friend, Jonathan Swift, was something of a poet 
but whether he wrote in verse or prose, he was a ter- 
rible satirist, the fiercest that ever held a pen. His 
Gulliver's Travels is the greatest of his works. He 
produced a great many pamphlets on current topics. 
His style was intensely Saxon ; his life detestable 
ami miserable. 

The first great English novelist was Daniel Defoe, 
born in 1003, died 1731. His Robinson Crusoeis still 
read with undiminished interest by each new genera- 
tion, and seems to bear a charmed life. His imag- 
inary history of the Great Plague in London is a 
strangely realistic and fascinating narrative. Field- 
ing and Smollet who followed him may have sur- 
passed him in genius for invention, but they soiled 
their pages with impurities which put the novel un- 
der the ban until redeemed by the unsullied pen of 
Sir Walter Scott. But prior to Scott came another 
Scotchman, David Hume, of great power. He was 
a master of philosophical reasoning and historical 
narration. His Moral and Philosophical Essays and 
his History of England axe the two pillars of his fame. 
Edward Gibbon, who was born in 1737 and died in 
1794, was the second great historian of English lit- 
erature, as Hume was the first. His Decline and 
Full of the Roman Empire was accepted as a standard 



work almost from the first, and time does not dim 
the luster of his great name. 

In the latter half of the eighteenth ceiltury flour- 
ished a group of ethical, political, theological, crit- 
ical and poetical writers who, without reaching the 
■high plane of really first-class merit, deserve honor- 
able mention. These were Dr. Samuel Johnson, the 
lexicographer ; Edmund Burke, the political orator 
and essayist; Adam Smith, the father of the science 
of Political Economy. Smith's most important work 
was Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth 
of Nations. Bishop Butler and William Paley wrote 
in defense of revealed religion against the attacks 
of the skeptics treatises which are still used as text 
books in our schools, and arsenals from which are 
drawn weapons used in fighting for orthodoxy. 

The eighteenth century was rich in sacred poetry 
and didactic prose. The hymns in use in the church 
were largely composed in that century. Isaac Watts 
belonged to the first part of it. Montgomery says 
of Dr. Watts, " He was almost the inventor of hymns 
in the English language." The intense realization 
of religious truth which marked that period deeply 
colored its literature. It was the fashion to assume 
piety, in verse especially, and cater to the tastes of 
the pious, as in the case of W r atts' contemporary, 
Dr. Young, who though a frivolous man of the 
world was the author of the lugubrious but once 
very popular Night Thoughts. 

Joseph Addison, the accomplished essayist, was 
born in 1072 and died in 1719. He was a very pop- 
ular poet in his day, but his poetry soon dropped out 
of sight. His real claim to honorable mention rests 
upon his contributions to and establishment of the 
Spectator, the Tatter and the Guardian, especially the 
former. Those jiublicatious were forerunners of the 
more modern newspaper. They did not give much 
news, but they discussed questions of current inter- 
est much in the method of the present editorial of 
the better sort. Those essays have been read and 
studied as models of good, unimpassioned and pro- 
saic rjrose ever since their publication. Addison's 
friend, Richard Steele, was a co-laborer with him in 
these enterprises. Many of the papers were contrib- 
uted by others, Swift and Berkley among the num- 
ber, for to this period belonged the famous divine and 
philosopher who called out Byron's brilliant sally: 

" If Bishop Berkley says there is no matter, 
It is no matter what he says." 



?r 



^ 



380 



LITERATURE OF ENGLAND. 



A little later came Laurence Sterne. He was of 
Irish descent, born in 1713, died in 1768. His Tris- 
tram Shandy, published in 1761, was the best novel 
ever written in English until the days of Sir Walter 
Scott. His Sentimental Journey was designed as a 
supplement to the great novel, but it was not by 
any means its equal in merit. 

In 1709, and from that on until 1772, with occa- 
sional interruptions, appeared in the Public Adver- 
tiser, a London journal, a series of letters on politics 
signed " Junius." They produced an immense sen- 
sation. It was never known who wrote them. Vast 
research and elaborate arguments have been ex- 
pended on their probable authorship, but to little 
purpose. Sir Philip Francis is generally thought to 
have the best claim to the honor, but the mystery 
is really insoluble. Those letters were tremen- 
dously influential. To this day they are unrivaled 
for power of invective and incisive criticism. 

Oliver Goldsmith was a very remarkable charac- 
ter. Like Thomas 
Gray, who wrote the 
elegy which has im- 
mortalized his name, 
he wrote a little 
good poetry, " The 
Deserted Village " 
being the best; but 
his best production 
was that charming 
romance, Ihe Vicar 
of Wakefield. It is a 
most delightful picture of a country parson and his 
family in the eighteenth century. The popular 
comedy, She Stoops to Conquer, was also from his 
pen. William Cowper was a profoundly religious 
poet of that period. The intensity of his belief 
nearly unsettled his reason and brought upon him a 
melancholy akin to mania. But his muse was capa- 
ble of sublime nights, and once, in John Gilpin, 
struck a humorous vein. 

The latter part of this century was notable for 
literary imposition. The most successful was that 
of James Macpherson, author of Ossian. That 
elaborate poem has very great merit, and is held in 
high repute, being still much read. It purports to 
have been the work of an Irish bard of the far- 
away days of Celtic tradition. Macpherson strenu- 
ously insisted that he merely translated an epic 




GOLDSMITH. 



which was composed originally in the Gaelic or 
Eise dialect. Thomas Chatterton, the poor boy- 
poet who starved to death in a London garret at the 
age of eighteen, was strangely infatuated with the 
mania for imposture. He wrote some very delight- 
ful verses at the age of eleven, and might have de- 
veloped into something grand had he not fallen a 
victim to the passion for literary deception. 

Robert Burns and Sir Walter Scott were the 
crowning glory of English literature in the eigh- 
teenth century, but they belong to Scotland rather 
than England, as Thomas Moore does to Ireland. 

The most famous name in the early part of 
the nineteenth century was Lord Byron, born 
in 1788. He was only thirty-six years of age at 
the time of his death, but he left behind him 
a large body of poetry, very much of which 
bids fair to be incorporated into the immor- 
tal part of English 
literature. Like his 
friend Shelley, the 
author of Queen Mob 
and other deep- 
ly emotional and 
somewhat fantastic 
;, he was mor- 
bid in the extreme. 
His Childe Harold, 
Mutt/red and, Don 
Juan, and in fact, 
nearly every thing he wrote, fairly teem with emotion. 
John Keats, author of Endymion, who died of a 
broken heart, the victim of cruel criticism, belonged 
to the same class, in both time and type of genius. 
There was a circle of poets of sentiment in which 
Byron, Shelley and Keats were foremost, but which 
was enlarged by the presence of Leigh Hunt and 
Walter Savage Landor. They did much to infuse 
into modern thought Greek ideas of culture. They 
drew attention from religious subjects to the higher 
ranges of mundane thought and activity. 

Thomas Hood, born in 1799, died 1845, belonged 
to no set. His genius was strictly individual. His 
Bridge of Sighs and Song of the Shirt are most ex- 
quisitely pathetic. But he excelled in wit. His 
humor is of the very highest order. Mrs. Browning, 
the most wonderful woman in the whole list of 
poets, was bor>i in 1809 and lived until 1861. Her 
Aurora Leigh is a masterpiece, and many of her 




Jt 



a 



LITERATURE OF ENGLAND. 



38l 



minor poems are marvels 




ALFRED TENNYSC 



of beauty and power. 
Her husband, Robert 
Browning, still lives, 
and is a poet of high 
rank, but curiously 
obscure in his ex- 
pressions. 

During the pres- 
ent century England 
has had three poets 
laureate, or jioets 
of the court, namely, 
Robert Southey, Wil- 
liam Wordsworth and Alfred Tennyson. The lat- 
ter has held the position thirty-two years. Southey 
held it thirty years, namely, from 1813 to 1843. 
He was a prolific writer and his poetry has good 
points, but it is weak and thin. At the present 
Wordsworth and Coleridge 
formed, with Southey, 
what is known as the 
Lake School. They 
were free from indeli- 
cacies, and did much 
jto cultivate a whole- 
j some taste and a kind- 
' ./ l v appreciation of the 
f§^ poetic ill little every- 
day things. Coleridge 
1 iccasionally struck out 
into the marvelous. His 
Christabel are inexplicable. 



time it is seldom read. 




Ancient 



Charlotte Bronte, the invalid daughter of 
try clergyman, produced in 18-17 a story which 
created a profound sensation, Jane Eyre. She was 
then twenty-nine years of age. She lived eight years 

longer and wrote two 
other good novels, 
Shirley and Villettej 
but upon the first 
rests her claim to a 
niche in the temple 
of immortal fame. 
Thackeray, who was 
born in 1811 and 
survived until 1863, 
shares with Charles 
Dickens, who was 
born a year later and survived his great peer seven 





(-IIAIILE* UK'KENS. 



years, the honor of being the greatest of novelists. 
Those two names 
tower above all oth- 
ers. The former set 
forth English big 
life; the latter En- 
glish low life. Such, 
in a general way, is 1 
the difference be- 
tween them. No one 
before or since has 
reached the altitude 
of their creative f ac- qsobob eliot. 

ulties. Not far from them, however, stands 
"George Eliot," a woman of most marvelous powers 
as a novelist and very considerable ability as a poet. 
C harles Reed, W r ilkie 
Collins, Anthony 
Trollope,Bulwer and 
Disraeli are to be 
ranked among the 
better of our second- 
class English novel- 
ists of this century. 

There are many 
writers of note who 
have made valuable 
contributions to En- 
glish literature dur- 
ing the present per- 
iod. Thomas Carlyle, the fierce hater of shams 
and democracy, John Stuart Mill, the great apostle 
of Agnosticism, or positivism, Herbert Spencer, 
the philosopher of 
science, and Tyn- 
dall, Darwin and 
Huxley, the disci- 
ples of pure science, 
are only a few of 
the great contem- 
porary names of 
English men of 
letters. Macau lay 
belonged to the 
middle period of 
this century. The 
literature of En- 
gland, once a mere 
rivulet has 




JOHN STUART MILL. 




-%^ 




CHARLES R. DARWIN. 



now widened out into a vast gulf. 



A,; 





CHAPTER LXIII 



Scotia and Nova Scotia— The Picts— Indirect Connection op the Early Scotch and the 
Anglo-Saxons— Conversion op Scotland— Fergus the Scotch-Irishman— Edwin and Edin- 
burgh—St. COLUMBA AND TnE SCOTCH NAME— SCOTTISH BLOOD— CONSTANTINE II. AND SUB- 
ORDINATION to England— Duncan and Macbeth— James I.— Progress and Feudalism- 
Robert Bruce and Independence— Robert the Steward and the House op Stuart — 
David II. — James I.— James V. — Henry VIII. of England and the Scotch Crown— Mary 
Queen of Scots— James VI. of Scotland, James I. op England — A National Paradox- 
John Knox— Union of the United Kingdom Completed — Some Scotch Characteristics — 
Scotch Literature — Burns, Scott, and Carlyle. 




**—§**#►■-* 



10 the ancients, Great Brit- 
ain, by whatever name 
called, was one country. 
The name Scotland was 
not used to designate the 
northern portion of the isl- 
and until about a thou- 
sand years ago. The Latin 
term Scotia applied originally to 
Ireland, and at one time was not 
distinguishable from Hibernki. 
Indeed, Scotland was known as 
Nova Scotia originally. Caledonia 
was another primitive title for that 
part of the island. Like "Wales, 
Scotland gradually acquired dis- 
tinctiveness as the old Britons 
or Picts retreated from their 
conquerors, Romans, Saxons, Angles, Jutes, Danes 
and Normans. The P.cts preferred independence 
in the back country to dependence in the native 
portion of their island. The Romans never at- 
tempted to push beyond the frith of Fay, and the 
wall they built between the Forth and the Clyde 
finally served as a dividing line between the primi- 



tive Scotch and the English. When the Romans 
withdrew from Britain, the Scotch, or Picts, thougth 
it was no robbery for them to reoccupy their former 
lands, and so strong were they that the Romanized 
Britons felt compelled to seek succor from abroad, 
and called to their aid, as we have seen in the chap- 
ter on "Old England," the Anglo-Saxons. Never 
was an invasion fraught with more importance, and 
the Scotch might justly claim that there would never 
have been any English people, properly speaking, 
had it not been for their predatory ancestor^ in the 
List years of the fifth century and the first of the 
sixth. 

The introduction of Christianity into Scotland is 
placed by some as early as 446. But when the 
more civilized Celts of Ireland, who had previously 
been converted to Christianity, crossed over to Scot- 
land in 503, and under the lead of Fergus estab- 
lished a kingdom on the western coast, the country 
was for the most part given up to rude paganism. 
The records of that period are exceedingly vague 
ami unsatisfactory, but Fergus must have been a 
brave and wise ruler, for his little kingdom was jjer- 
manently established, and finally developed into the 
chief state or tribe of the country. 






(382) 



SCOTLAND AND THE SCOTCH. 



383 



Half a century before Fergus, the Highland chief 
Edwin had founded Edinburgh, and in 836 a de- 
scendant of Fergus, Kenneth, became King of the 
Lowlands, transferring his capital from Celtic Tor- 
tevoil to Stratherne, the ancient capital of the 
Picts. 

Between Edwin and Fergus appears no name of 
note, and between Fergus and Kenneth only one, 



fact that a few emigrants should have thus taken 
from the mother country its very name. It is as if 
the term New England had gradually changed to 
England, and by some inexplicable jugglery old 
England itself had been compelled to adopt a new 
name. It may be set down as a remarkable instance 
of "unconscious robbery." 

The Scotch have other blood in their veins besides 






VIEW OF EDINBURGH -Edinburgh Castle in the Distance. 



St. Columba, the Irish saint who spent his life in 
evangelizing the Picts. From 5G3 to 597 he labored 
untiringly and with great success. The adoption 
by the primitive races of the religion brought over 
by the Celts did much to bring about the complete 
coalition of the two races, and to give the ascend- 
ancy to the invaders. It may be observed that the 
Celts of Ireland long protested against the applica- 
tion of the term Scotch to the combined people, in- 
sisting that they alone were Scotch. It is a curious 



the two strains mentioned. From the Danes and 
other Scandinavians they received large accretions, 
also from the Saxons and the Normans of England. 
The Teutonic element is not predominant, but it is 
very considerable. No people of Europe have such 
varietv of ancestry as the inhabitants of the Lowlands 
of Scotland. The Highlanders are descended almost 
wholly from the 'original or prehistoric inhabitants 
of the island. 

The next royal name of note after Kenneth was 



71~ 



48 



V 



•V9. 



3§4 



SCOTLAND AND THE SCOTCH. 



m~ 



Constantine III., great grandson of the former. 
His reign extended from 900 Lo !>43. lie acknowl- 
edged subordination to the English crown as the 
price of assistance in the interminable wars of the 
period, but only to retract his fealty when the im- 
mediate cause of it was removed, and then a conflict 
with England resulted. Constantine laid down his 
crown voluntarily, repaired to a monastery to pre- 
pare for death, leaving the throne to a near kin, 
Malcolm I. 

The grandson and successor of Malcom II. was 
the King Duncan of the play of Macbeth. The 
monarch of the later name was not the false friend 
Shakspeare represents, nor was the real Lady Mac- 
beth the monster of the stage. The historical ac- 
count differs widely from the histrionic representa- 
tion. Her brother, the lawful heir to the throne, 
had been cruelly put to death to make room for 
Duncan the Usurper. A battle was fought in 1040 
between the two factions, terminating in the defeat 
and death of Duncan. History says of Macbeth, 
" He governed Scotland with a firm hand and great 
wisdom, and his reign was a period of great national 
jirosperity." He and his queen were liberal friends 
of the poor. In 1057 he shared the fate of Duncan, 
the son of the latter coming to the throne. About 
this time William the Conqueror subjugated En- 
gland and placed Scotland under vassalage. 

The next noteworthy name in the royal annals of 
Scotland was David, who flourished about the mid- 
dle of the twelfth century. Under him Scotland 
made much progress in civilization. 

The wars of Wallace and Bruce for Scottish inde- 
pendence form a part of English history, and wore 
recorded in a previous chajjter. That struggle cost 
the country a vast amount of blood, but from a na- 
tional point of view it was a good investment, for it 
so far broke down the barriers of clan that Scotland 
became in reality one country. The treaty which 
terminated that long war dates from 1328. Thir- 
teen years later the jiarliament of Scotland admitted 
the commercial towns to representation. From 
that time to the consummation of the union with 
England, nearly four centuries, the " the third es- 
tate " was a great power in Scotland. 

The death of Robert Bruce brought to the throne 
his son, David II., then only eight years of age. 
War soon broke out afresh between England and 
Scotland. In the battle of Neville's Cross, fought 



in 134G, David was defeated and taken prisoner . 
His final ransom cost 100,000 marks. Otherwise 
his reign was uneventful. It extended to 13 70. At 
his death, there being no son to take the crown, it 
passed to his sister's son, Robert the Steward, who 
took the scepter as Robert II. With him began the 
dynasty of the Stuarts which became best known in 
connection with England. 

The first Stuart to distinguish himself was James 
I., who reigned from 1424 to 1436. He was abreast 
of his age at its best, and did much to systematize the 
government and advance the interests of the people. 
He was a poet of some merit. A few fugitive pro- 
ductions attributed to him still exist to attest his 
talent. Under him the baronial power was at its 
height. Douglas was the leader of the defiant feudal 
lords. James II. succeeded in breaking the power 
of the chiefs. The genius of Sir Walter Scott has 
clothed with perpetual radiance the struggle of 
that period. From the standpoint of history, di- 
vested of the glamour of romance, the Scottish an- 
nals of those times are simply the record of inter- 
minable civil and border warfare. . Generally the 
English crown claimed and received some slight 
recognition of sovereignty beyond the Tweed, but 
otherwise the Highlands and the Lowlands were alike 
free from foreign domination. 

Scotland should hold the memory of James I. in 
profound respect and lively gratitude. He was as- 
sassinated liv a base conspiracy and a brilliant reign 
closed in darkness. It was a great calamity to the 
nation. Political assassinations generally are. 

A long series of civil wars, a chronic state of an- 
archy almost, followed. The chiefs of clans would 
brook no authority. Feudalism had nowhere a firmer 
hold than in Scotland, and the nobility lived for the 
most part in hostile isolation. 

It was not until the reign of James IV., a contem- 
porary of Henry VII. of England, that really ami- 
cable relations between the crown and the nobles were 
established, and that by affability rather than force. 
About the court of James the Fifth at Edinburgh 
gathered luxury, and the chieftains found it more 
agreeable to bask in the courtly sunshine than share 
the vicissitudes of war, as depicted in the Scottish 
lays. Many of them plunged wildly into dissipa- 
tion, but even their vices were public benefactions, 
for while they revelled the common people were left 
to the jiursuit of the paths of peace, and Scotland, 



SCOTLAND AND THE SCOTCH. 



385 



hitherto frenzied with contention, enjoyed content- 
ment. Fisheries were encouraged, a navy built, and 
commerce sprang up. The king married Margaret, 
daughter of the Tudor Henry VII., and thus laid 
the foundation of the union of the two kingdoms of 
the island. 

All went smoothly until after the accession of 
Henry VIII. to the English 



crown. That king hated 
Scotland, or rather covet- 
ed the sovereignty of Scot- 
land. In an evil hour 
James was provoked into 
war with his more power- 
ful neighbor. The result 
was disastrous. The Scotch 
navy was destroyed and the 
army signally defeated at 
Flodden Heights, Sep- 
tember 9, 1513. The 
slaughter was terrible and 
the overthrow complete. 
The great king himself was 
among the slain, leaving 
an infant to inherit the 
throne, James V. 

The queen mother, 
Margaret, was made re- 
gent. The old feud be- 
tween the crown and the 
nobility soon broke out 
with renewed virulence, 
secretly aggravated and 
intensified by Henry, who 
was as bad a brother as 
husband. It must be ad- 
mitted that Margaret was 
a? unfaithful to her marital vows as her brother, and 
her personal vices, and the crimes to which they led, 
served to keep the country in a state of misery. But 
all that was no excuse for her brother Henry. 

At last the child became a man and was allowed 
as early as seventeen years of age to be his own master. 

We now return to James V. He was a ruler of 
great ability. He strove assiduously to free his coun- 
try from foreign dictation. It had become little 
better than a shuttlecock for French and English 
battledore. James succeeded in commanding the 
respect of his royal peers and gaining for Scotland 




an honorable rank among nations, and all this while 
yet a youth. He could have married Henry's 
daughter, Mary, or another Mary, the Spanish Prin- 
cess of Portugal (Spain and Portugal then being 
one), but he preferred an alliance with the daughter 
of the king of France. The fruit of that marriage 
was the beautiful and unhappy Mary, Queen of Scots, 

whose melancholy career 
forms a part of the history 
of England, and was nar- 
rated under the Tudors. 
Her son, James VI. of 
Scotland, was James of 
England, the first British 
sovereign of the house of 
Stuarts. In him was se- 
cured the " married calm" 
of a perpetual union be- 
tween England and Scot- 
land, no longer two na- 
tions, but two made one, 
England being the one. 

It is hardly too much to 
say, paradoxical as it may 
sound, that when Scotland 
ceased to exist its existence 
began. So long as it v as 
a kingdom, with its inter- 
minable feudatory and 
border warfare, it was little 
better than a heroic bar- 
barian. But when those 
civil wars were over the 
energies of the people took 
a direction which reflected 



John Knox Preaching to Queen Mart. 




the highest honor up- 
on the nation, prepar- 
ing the way for splen- 
did achievements. 

The first pre-emi- 
nence of Scotland 
was in the line of 
church reform. With 
Henry VIII. and his 
motive the Scotch had mart, queen of scots. 

no sympathy, but with tin- reformation as pushed by 
Luther, and above all by Calvin, it had the deepest 



3 86 



SCOTLAND AND THE SCOTCH. 



sympathy. Among those who sat at the feet of 
John Calviu and imbibed his austere theology and 
republican polity in matters ecclesiastic, was John 
Knox. He returned from Geneva to Edinburgh to be 
the great defender of Protestantism, the bold assail- 
ant of the Romish church with which Mary the queen 
was in close affiliation. Out of the movement in 
which he was the acknowledged leader grew not only 
the Kirk of Scotland, but Presbyterianism in Amer- 
ica, with its many branches and mighty member- 
ship. Wherever a Presbyterian bell calls to prayer 
or spire points to heaven there unconscious homage 
is paid to the religious genius of Scotland. Perse- 
cution could not stay the progress of Presbyterian- 
ism, and the nation soon became substantially united 
in the rejection of all intervention from Rome. The 
Confession of Faith was adopted by the Scotch Par- 
liament in 1560, and to-day Scotland stands in the- 
ology substantially on that creed, except that a 
somewhat liberalizing tendency is manifest. Scot- 
land is the most evangelically orthodox laud on the 
globe, and of all Christian people the least given to 
heresy. They are especially distinguished for the 
strict observance of Sunday as a day of rest. 

The crowns of Scotland and England were united 
forever in the year 1603. Separate parliaments 
were maintained for a century. The union, the 
complete consolidation of the countries, dates from 
1707. At that time the population was 1,050,000. 
It is now about three times that amount. The great 
vice of the people is drunkenness. The ratio of 
illegitimacy is also excej:>tionally large. In the eigh- 
teenth century vagabondage was something appall- 
ing, "tramps" being the curse of the country ; but 
with good laws came industry and thrift. At home 
and abroad, especially abroad, the Scotch have 
shown remarkable ability in the prudent manage- 
ment of great business enterprises. 

It only remains to speak of the literature of the 
Scotch people, which, as already observed, is a part of 
English literature. 

The supreme name in Scottish literature is Robert 
Burns, whose works have well been called "The 
Songs of the People." He touched and won the 
heart as no other singer ever did. For the most 
part, he followed the Gaelicized English of the com- 
mon people in his own country. His genius lifted a 
form of speech from the level of provincialism to 
the lofty eminence of a classic. Personally the vic- 




tim of misfortune, his life darkened by poverty and 
misery, he is now in the enjoyment of a most envia- 
ble posthumous fame. Burns was born in 1759 and 
survived until 1796. 
His life was unspeak- 
ably sad. The son 
of a humble peasant 
of Ayrshire, his early 
advantages were ex- 
ceedingly meager. 
Throush life he had 



a hard struggle with 
poverty. He died 
with the shadow of 
the jail for debtors roeert burns. 

on his heart. His somewhat voluminous correspon- 
dence shows him to have been a master of exquisite 
prose. It has been said that Shakspeare gave us the 
Bible of secular literature and Burns its hymn-book. 

Sir Walter Scott is the 
second great name in Scot- 
tish literature. Burns em- 
ployed the provincialisms 
of his country in his songs, 
while Scott wrote the pure 
English, but in both his 
poetry and his novels he 
showed himself to be a 
loyal Scotchman. He was 
born in 1771 and died in 
1832. He was educated at Edinburgh university. 
He was raised to the peerage in 1820 in recognition 
of his literary services. In the domain of the his- 
torical novel he has never been equaled. 

Scotland can boast 
great eminence in met- 
aphysics. The phi- 
losophers Hume, Reid 
and Hamilton were 
Scotchmen. But the 
greatest of Scotland's 
sons, after Burns and 
Scott, was Thomas 
Carlyle, critic and his- 
torian. In him are seen 
the strength and acute- 
ness which characterize the nation. He was born in 
1795 and died in 1881. He spent manyyears in Lon- 
don, but never ceased to be a thorough Scotchman. 




SIR WALTER SCOTT. 




THOMAS CARLYLE. 



■*4r= 



-pr 



niiinimiiiiiiniimmii iihiiimiiiiii 



1111 "" ' ' TTTTTTTT- 



111 





UkK 



Situation, Area, Roads and Products of Ireland — St. Patrick— Language and Literature 
—Counties and Provinces— Irish Linen— English Rule in Ireland — The Battle of TnE 
Boyne — Daniel O'Conntl and Parnell— Revolution and Reform— Emigration from Ire- 
land and Immigration to America— Irish Land Law— Irish Cities— Education in Ire- 
land — Emmet and "The United Irishmen'" — Fenian Brotherhood — The Land League 
and the English Constitution. 





HERE is no more fertile 
land beneath the sun than 
Ireland, known to the Ro- 
mans as Hibernia, to the 
Celts as Erin, or Scotia. Its 
area is only 31,874 square 



mileSjOr, 
includ- 
ing the 
nearly 
two hun- 
dred less- 
er isles 
belong- 
ing to it, 
32,531. 
The Irish Sea separates 
it from England, with 
St. George's channel be- 
tween it and Scotland. 
The soil is too moist, the 
rainf all too abundant for 

grain raising to the best advantage. The bogs of 
the low lands are a prominent feature of the island, 
but grass grows luxuriantly, and the yield of pota- 



toes is enormous. The only danger in the case of the 
latter is that the wet soil will breed decay, or the seeds 
of it, before the crop can be secured. Flax is a prod- 
uct for which the country is well adapted. These 
three, grass, potatoes and flax, have been peculiarly 
significant in making Irish history, as will appear 

presently 




Irish history can hard- 
ly be said to extend far- 
ther back than the fifth 
century when Christian- 
ity was introduced. Be- 
fore that time the barbar- 
ic tribes of the island were 
almost unknown, or if 
known, little regarded. 
The conversion of the 
island was undertaken by 
St. Patrick, who is its 
patrmi saint. He was a 
Frenchman according; to 
some, a Scotchman ac- 
cording to others. Taken 
captive in war, he was 
sold into Ireland where he remained six years. Dur- 
ing that time he seems to have conceived a strong 
interest in the people, for some twenty years after 



PATRICK IN IRELAND. 



(387) 



-ap 



3 88 



IRELAND AND THE IRISH. 



leaving there he returned as a missionary of the 
cross, spending over thirty years in his holy work. 
1 1; ins are obscure, but all this was certainly in the 
fifth century, probably in the early part of it. His 
death is fixed for March 17th, with wide variations 
in the year, and that day is observed by the Irish 
people as sacred to his memory. Confused as is the 
1 >i< igraphy of this man, there are extant two undoubt- 
edly genuine productions of his pen, the chief being 
his "Confession,'' wherein he affords an interesting 
view of his theological opinions. Curiously, none of 
the dogmas peculiar to Romanism, as compared with 
Protestantism, find a place in St. Patrick's Confes- 
sion. I An absurd tradition at- 
tributes to his miraculous pow- 
er the banishment from the isl- 
and i if toads and snakes. What- 
ever else he did or failed to do, 
he surely succeeded most re- 
markably in his mission as a 
Christian propagandist. | 

The original language of Ire- 
land was Gaelic, now spoken, 
with some variations, in the 
Hebrides and Highlands of 
Scotland, in the Isle of Man, 
and in some sections of Ireland. 
There tire about 100,000 of the 
people who speak nothing else, 
and many more who speak both 
it and English. There is asmall " 
body of literature in this language, but- it is devoid 
of much merit. The Irishmen who have excelled as 
authors have used the English language. Thomas 
Moore and the historian Locky may be mentioned 
as Irishmen who have enriched literature. 

The island is divided into thirty-two counties and 
the four provinces of Lemster, Minister, Connaught 
and Ulster. The latter is in the north and largely 
settled by Protestants, many of them of Scotch 
descent. The relations of landlord and tenant are 
regulated in that province by just customs having 
the force of law. 

There is no mining of any consequence in Ireland, 
mid very little manufacturing. Belfast spins a great 
deal of flax and makes large quantities of linen, but 
that once-flourishing industry was crushed to death 
in other parts of Ireland by the British government 
in the interest of Protestant manufacturers. At one 




time southern Ireland displayed, remarkable aptitude 
for this branch of skilled labor, and if events had 
been allowed to take their normal course, Irish lin- 
en would have made that island rich and contented. 
The policy of the British government was protective 
to one section and prohibitory to another. Once 
England imported its linen from that part of 
the island. Heavy export duties ruined the busi- 
ness where the peojjle were Catholics, while Prot- 
estant Belfast was exempt from this restriction. 
This unjust discrimination extended frcm 1699 to 
1828, when its object had been completely effected. 
Irish linen thus affords a striking instance of both 

sectional and sectarian iniquity. 

From the eighth to the elev- 
enth century was the period of 
Ireland's greatest comparative 
civilization. During that pe- 
riod it was more advanced in 
learning and culture than En- 
gland, and certainly not inferior 
to any part of the continent ex- 
cept Moorish Spain. Colleges 
flourished and the arts were 
carried to a high degree of in- 
fection. In education and re- 
ligion it was independent, pro- 
gressive and potential. The 
church of Rome became jealous 
of the Irish church and insti- 
gated Henry II. of England to 
make a war of subjugation upon the smaller but more 
advanced island. The Irish were not united under a 
strong central government. On the contrary, they 
were divided into petty kingdoms having no secure 
bond of union. This fact facilitated conquest. Hen- 
ry made his raids in 11 72. From that time to the 
present England has claimed Irish allegiance. 
Sometimes the yoke would be thrown off briefly, but 
only to be made all the more galling. The most 
memorable struggle between oppressor and ojipressed 
was the Battle of the Boyne, fought July 1, 1690. 
The Catholics of Ireland had espoused the cause of 
James II. after his expulsion and the coronation of 
William and Mary, and that battle was the result 
The anniversary of the victory achieved by the Or- 
angemen on that occasion is still observed In some 
sections as a day of rejoicing and occasion of secta- 
rian riot. Numerous have been the attempts of the 



,k 



IRELAND AND THE IRISH. 



389 




Irish, eveu in later times, to achieve independence, 
the abortive Fenian uprising being the last armed 
rebellion against British authority. The more im- 
portant details 

and general 
facts in this re- 
gard have been 
given in pre- 
vious chapters. 
The greatest 
of Irish pa- 
triots was Dan- 
iel O'Connell. 
He was a phe- 
nomenal ora- 
tor, the su- 
preme agita- 
tor. "No revo- 
lution is worth 
one drop of 
blood " was his 
motto. Con- 
vinced of the 
futility of arm- 
ed resistance, 

he sought to secure by parliamentary jirocess the 
mitigation of Irish grievances. His efforts were not 
without much success. Many infamous laws were 
repealed in 
consequent c 
of his agita- 
tion. The 
latest and 
most for- 
midable re- 
bellion oc- 
curred in 
1798, and 
raged for 
two years. 
When sup- 
pressed the 
Irish Par- 
liament at 

Dublin was abolished, and now Ireland is represented 
in the British Parliament. 

By far the greater part of the population of Ire- 
land is Catholic; but until 1869 the Episcopal 
church was the state church. In that year, after a 



long contest in parliament, it was disestablished and 

disendowed, and the endowment, except as used for 

annuities, was dedicated to educational and other 

secular pur- 



=«3? 



TOM HOl'SK, DUBLIN 




poses. 

That reform 
was not satis- 
factory, how- 
ever, whereup- 
on a powerful 
movement was 
i naugurated 
for securing re- 
form in the ten- 
ure of laud and 
the relations of 
landlord and 
tenant. The 
leader in this 
movement is 
Mr. Parnell, a 
large land own- 
er and Protest- 
ant who has 
shown himself 
to be a gi eat organizer, parliamentarian and de- 
bater. Eeform within the constitution is his aim 
and scope. The present ministry and parliament 

have been 
almost ab- 
sorbingly 
occu pied 
with this 
subject, and 
the reform- 
ers have rea- 
son to take 
heart, there 
being some 
chance that 
the Irish 
may yet be 
placed on 
a political 

and industrial equality with the English and Scotch, 
although much remains to be done. 

The statistics of Irish population are very remark- 
able, In 1 750 the population was a trifle over 2,000- 
000, and in sixty years it lacked only a trifle of three 



- 1 ^ 
51 v ' 



39° 



IRELAND AND THE IRISH. 



times that number ; by 1841 it was over 8,000,000, 
Before another census, came the terrible famine, 
when thousands died of starvation, and vastly more 
sought relief in emigration to this country, some to 
England. It is estimated that over 2,000,000 came 
to America between the years 1851 and 18T3, and 
that there are more Irish, including their children, 
in the United States than in Ireland. There are 
certainly more in New York City than in Dublin. 
The English and the landlords do not regret this 
loss of population, for they prefer cattle and sheep 



that reasonable men among them expected, or even 
demanded, down to the year before its passage. It 
secures to all tenants throughout the sister island the 
right of free sale for which Ulster was wont to be 
envied. It gives them the privilege of getting the 
• fair rent' of their holdings fixed by the court, and 
of obtaining what is in fact a statutory, or lease for 
fifteen years, renewable at the end of the term. It 
extends the authority of the tribunal created to ad- 
minister the new law over contracts of the most sol- 
emn and stringent character, so that leaseholders 




to men and women ; butter and beef, wool and mut- 
ton, to potatoes. In this country the industrious 
citizen, irrespective of nationality, is a public bene- 
factor, whatever his employment. That the Irish 
immigrant is welcome here and the Irish emigrant 
bidden godspeed there, is a difference largely due 
to different economical conditions and circumstances 
of nature. 

The London Times', thus briefly sums up the Irish 
land bill, which became a law in August. 1881, after 
one of the most memorable of parliamentary strug- 
gles, extending over seven months : 

" It gives the tenant farmers all, and more than all 



may not be excluded from the benefits of the bill. 
It greatly enlarges the opportunities for the creation 
of peasant proprietory with the aid of public funds." 
The chief cities of Ireland are Dublin, Belfast, 
Cork, Limerick. Londonderry and Queenstown. The 
river Liffey, flowing through Dublin, divides it into 
two nearly equal parts. The population is about 
350,000. The former capitol of Ireland, situated 
there, is now used as a bank building. Belfast, 100 
miles north of Dublin, is the chief city of the Prot- 
estant portion of the island. It has nearly 200,000 
inhabitants, very few of them being Romanists. 
Linen manufactories were established there as earlv 



TH 






IRELAND AND THE IRISH. 



393 



as 1637. It is still the center of Irish textile 
manufactures. Cork is almost wholly Catholic, and 
its manufactures are glass and other minor staples. 
It is situated 136 miles southwest of Dublin and has 
an excellent harbor. Limerick has the honor of be- 
ing the last place to surrender to William III., in 
1691, on which occasion it secured important con- 
cessions for the Catholics within its limits. It is the 
chief city of Munster. Londonderry, like Belfast, is 
in the north of Ireland, and an important center of 
Protestant influence. It was once a fortified town. 
Very many of the people are of Scotch descent. 

Trinity College, Dublin, is the principal university 
of Ireland. It was founded in 1320, but it fell into 
decay, until revived by Queen Elizabeth in 1593. 
Her successor, James I., granted it representation in 
parliament, and munificent endowments. It is a 
very rich institution and its rank is with the best 
universities of Europe. Among its graduates are 
numbered Swift, Goldsmith, Burke, Berkeley and 
Sheridan. Queen's colleges, Cork,Galway and Belfast, 
are somewhat important centers of liberal and pro- 
fessional education ; but not as well known as May- 
nooth College. The latter is designed for the educa- 
tion of priests. It has provision for about five hun- 
dred students. It was founded in 1795. It has a state 
endowment and is the only state endowment of any 
kind in Ireland for the benefit of Roman Catholics. 

In Irish affection no name has a more tender 
place than Robert Emmet, born in 1780. He was 
a leader of the United Irishmen, a great organiza- 
tion, having for its object the liberation of their na- 
tive country from British rule. In 1803 he and his 
associates were engaged in an uprising which was 



premature, to say the least of it. Young Emmet 
was arrested, tried, convicted and executed. His 
speecli in his own defense on the trial is a very re- 
markable piece of eloquence. His sad fate inspired 
the muse of Thomas Moore, whose " Irish melodies" 
give voice to Irish jiatriotism. 

The latest formidable and avowed organization in 
favor of Irish nationality is, or was (for the society 
seems to be a thing of the past), the Fenian Broth- 
erhood. In medieval and legendary Ireland there was 
a tribe by the name of Finns orFinians. The mod- 
ern society of the name was started in 1859, in both 
America and Great Britain. It held a " Congress" 
at Chicago in 1863. That first gathering attracted 
much attention. Another, held at Cincinnati two 
years later, was more important. It represented a 
constituency of 80,000, and seriously threatened 
trouble. The next year two military companies of 
Fenians crossed from the United States to Canada. 
to strike at England through the New Dominion, 
The raid was abortive and inglorious. Several Fe- 
nian riots occurred in Great Britain during 1867, but 
they accomplished nothing directly, but indirectly 
they wrought a great work for Ireland, impress- 
ing upon parliament the necessity of Irish reform. 
In that point of view the Fenian Brotherhood de- 
serves much credit. 

The Land League is a radically different organi- 
zation. It aims at British reforms within the limi- 
tations of the British constitution, rather than the 
dissolution of the union. It has secured very much 
through the land bill and the readjustment of rents 
thereunder, and it is still a tremendous power in Ire- 
land and the British parliament.* 



*Note to Latest Edition.— At this writing (October lSSfi), Ireland is threatened with wide spread distress. The tenants in great 
numbers are being evicted for the non-payment of rents, and a winter of appalling misery seems imminent, A recent parliamentary 
contest was fought on the issue ot Home Rule in Ireland and land reform. Mr. Gladstone committed the Liberal party to conceding 
to Ireland the right to regulate its own domestic public- affairs bya par.iament sitting- in Dublin. On that issue the Liberals were 
beaten by the Conservatives and their allies among the disaffected Liberals; but the cause of justice to the Irish was greatly 
strengthened and promoted by the attitude of the progressive party in England and Scotland. The Irish in America contributed 
liberally to the expenses i if that parliamentary campaign. 




7^ 



- >V 

-J'v 




a 




CHAPTER LXV. 

Extent of Canada— Census Returns of 1881— English Discovery of Canada— French Set- 
tlement of Canada — Acadia and the Acadians— Old France in "New France "—Cham- 
plain and his Policy— British Policy in Canada— The Perpetuation of National Types 
and Old World Prejudices — The Canadian Indians— Manitoba— lTudson Bay and the 
Hudson Bay Company — Political System of Canada — Virtual Independence — Reciproc- 
ity — The Cities of Canada— Education — Railroads— Labrador and the Esquimaux. 



>-tH 




NTIL the year 1867 the 
term Canada applied sim- 
ply to a tract of country 
some 1,400 miles long and 
from 200 to 400 miles wide, 
% just north of the United 
f«- u)l 8^ States, divided into Upper 

^& and Lower Canada, and 

{^. forming the better, but by no means the 
\^l larger, part of British America, and now 
jfju known as the provinces of Ontario and 
Xskr Q ue bec. But the term now has a much 
wider import. What were so long 
distinct provinces of the Atlantic 
coast. Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, 
and Prince Edward's Island, are now 
included; also, British Columbia, 
Manitoba. Labrador, the Hudson Bay region, in 
fine, "the whole boundless continent" north of the 
United States, except Alaska, reaching to the North 
Pole and from ocean to ocean, formerly known as 
British America. The complete consolidation of 
the Dominion was not effected until 1872, Prince 
Edward's Island being the last province to join the 
confederation. The total area of the Dominion is 
about 3,500,000 square miles. 



The Canadian census of 1881 may bo summed up 
in its more important features thus: 080,498 are the 
figures for the total increase during the last decade 
immediately preceding the enumeration, and the to- 
tal population is now 4,350,533. The inhabitants of 
Ontario now number 1,913,400 ; of Quebec, 1,358,- 
4G9; of Nova Scotia, 440,585; of New Brunswick, 
321,129. The population of Prince Edward's Isl- 
and is 107,781, and of Manitoba 49,509. British 
Columbia and the territories are estimated at 160,- 
000. As compared with the census of 1871 Ontario 
shows the largest increase, the percentage being 
18.05, Quebec, 14.02, Nova Scotia, 13.61, New Bruns- 
wick, 12.44 and Prince Edward's Island, 14.63. 

It was in the spring of 1497 that John Cabot, a 
foreign merchant of Bristol, England, set sail with 
a fleet of five vessels on a voyage of discovery in the 
new world. Henry VII. commissioned him. His 
son, Sebastian Cabot, commanded one of the vessels. 
They reached the Newfoundland coast in June, 
and were the first Englishmen to behold America. 
They returned to England almost immediately. No 
settlement was effected. Two years later the younger 
Cabot conducted a second expedition across the 
Atlantic, but this time came to anchor as far 
south as North Carolina. The Cabots accom- 






(394) 



THE DOMrNION OF CANADA. 



395 




plisbed nothing, beyond the dissemination of 
New- World knowledge. 

The first practical discovery of Canada occurred 
in 1534. Jac- 
ques Cartier, a 
French navi- 
gator, reached 
the mouth of 
the St. Law- 
rence, and as- 
cended that 
lordly river as 
far as the site 
of Montreal. It 
was two years 
before Cartier 
returned to 
France. Prior 
to that time the 
New Found- 
land fisheries 
had tempted 
the French, 
English, Spanish and Portuguese across the Atlantic, 
but Cartier was the first permanent settler. He 
brought to these shores a very considerable colony 
from the west of 
France, men in 
whose veins there 
coursed the blood 
of the old Norman 
rovers and robbers. 
A little prior to 
Carrier's explora- 
tions a French fleet 
had sailed along 
the American con- 
tinent from Florida 
to Canada,dubbing 
it " New France," 
but doing nothing 
to really justify the 
appellation. The 
first French settlers 
had for their main 
object trade in furs 

and fish. Gradually they formed permanent settle- 
ments, near the coast and along the St. Lawrence. 

One of the primitive settlements of " New France" 




was Acadia, or Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and 
a part of Maine. The first Acadian settlement was 
in 1605. Its close proximity to the fishery banks 

rendered it 
especially im- 
portant. In 
1713 France 
ceded Acadia 
to England. 
The people 
resolutely re- 
fused to take 
the oath of al- 
legiance to the 
English crown. 
There were 
eighteen thou- 
sand of them, 
and the ruth- 
less hand of 
British power 
removed them, 
in many cases 
separating families. The melancholy fate of the 
Acadians furnished and suggested Longfellow's 
great and substantially historical poem of " Evan- 
geline." 

The French of 
Canada belong to 
the old regime, the 
France which pre- 
ceded the Revolu- 
tion. They are and 
always have been 
singularly out of 
all sympathy with 
then- fatherland of 
a century past, 
and pride them- 
selves upon their 
cons er v a t i s m . 
They are profound- 
ly religious and as 
orthodox as a col- 
lege of cardinals. 
They have no share 
in the work wrought for the French people by Did- 
erot and Voltaire, Rousseau and Danton, the Cyclo- 
pedia and the nans cuh/fe. They have remained 






,4 — -- 



396 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 



as nearly stationary as possible, and show no signs 
of uneasiness in a sitting posture. As contradic- 
tory as it may sound, it is none the less true, that 
old France is to be found only in " New France," 
among a people who left their ancestral homes be- 
fore the Renaissance. 

Second to Cartier was Champlain, in whose 
honor Lake Champlain was named. He came to 
this country in 1603. His aim was more to found 
a state than to establish a trading-post. In 1008 he 
laid the foundations of Quebec. The policy of 
Champlain was to found an empire by converting, 
civilizing and subduing the Indians, rather than by 
building up a purely French colony. The colo- 
nists were to be lay missionaries, instrumental in 
elevating the aborigines of the New World, much 
as the barbarians of Northern Europe had been 
transformed by intercourse with civilized peoples. 
But he did not know the unchangeable savagery of 
the Indian. .Many were Christianized, and for the 
most part friendly relations have always been main- 
tained between the races; but the distinctive idea of 
Samuel Champlain, as of John Eliot, proved a flat 
failure. 

From the days of Champlain dates the real pros- 
perity of Canada. The white population increased 
with considerable rapidity. By the year 1759, when 
the whole country passed into English control and 
the French flag was furled, the French population 
numbered about 65,000 souls. There has been no 
increase since by immigration, and a great many of 
the French Canadians have emigrated and are emi- 
grating to the United States, the "States," as they 
call it. 

The sad fate of Acadia was not shared by the 
Canadians of half a century later. On the contrary, 
the French took the oath of allegiance in good 
faith and the English adopted a very conciliatory 
policy. They respected the rights and indulged the 
preferences of the conquered people to an unprece- 
dented degree. They were allowed to retain their 
peculiarities of language, religion, and to a large 
extent, laws. To this day Canada is governed upon 
a dual plan which fosters the maintenance of the 
French population as a distinct part of the people. 
The present French population of Canada is some- 
thing over one million, and the toleration of the 
British crown, together with the radical changes in 
France, have developed in those people a loyalty 



to the imperial government second only to that of 
the Russian peasantry. 

The great bulk of the present population of 
Canada is divided between the French, Irish, Scotch 
and English, with a few Germans in the larger 
towns. Along the United States border are scat- 
tered some descendants of the Tories of the Revolu- 
tionary War. It may be remarked that the different 
elements of the population, whatever their nation- 
ality, maintain their national peculiarities more te- 
naciously there than anywhere else. For example, 
the Battle of the Boyne is fought over with disrep- 
utable frequency between the Catholic Irish and 
the Orangemen upon Canadian soil. Nor is it an 
uncommon thing to find settlements of Scotch High- 
landers where Gaelic only is spoken and the English 
language is an unknown tongue. 

Theie are about 100,000 Indians in Canada, not 
including the Esquimaux of the far north. Many 
of these aborigines are on reservations, and all of 
them are peaceable. No complaints of Indian wars 
and " rings " arc made. The larger part of these 
savages are to be found in British Columbia and the 
far north, where there is ample game. Those upon 
reservations are making some progress in the arts 
of civilization. 

The older part of Canada is adapted to and de- 
voted to miscellaneous farming, but Manitoba, the 
Red River region of the north and center, is pecul- 
iarly suited to wheat growing. It resembles Min- 
nesota which it joins. That far-reaching tract of 
country in the very heart of the continent, under 
proper cultivation and with transportation facilities, 
might furnish bread to the whole world, if necessan. 
The great difficulty of course is transportation. A 
railroad across the continent on Canadian soil has 
been projected, and strong hoj)es of its construction 
are entertained. A railroad to Hudson's Bay has 
teen contemplated — one could hardly say projected. 
The province of Manitoba was purchased by Thomas 
Douglas, Earl of Selkirk, from the Hudson Bay 
Company in 1810. The "Red River Settlement," 
or Pembina, was effected under his lordship's auspi- 
ces, a colony of Highlanders establishing themselves 
there. It was not at all flourishing. At last the 
Northern Pacific railroad came near enough to fur- 
nish an outlet for the wheat crop and aneraof some 
prosperity was inaugurated. 

Hudson's Bay has been well described as " a great 



%*?- 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 



397 



landlocked sea." It is S00 miles in length from 
uorth tn south and 600 miles in width, covering 
an area of 300,000 square miles. Hudson's Strait 
is its outlet to the Atlantic. It is icebound in win- 
ter and rendered somewhat dangerous by floating 
ice in summer. The ideaof reaching the seaboard 
from Manitoba by that route is wholly chimerical. 
The Hudson's Bay Company was the last of the 
great British commercial monopolies. It was char- 
tered in 1670 by Charles II., and it did not surrender 
ts powers and rights to the crown until quite re- 
cently. The act of parliament authorizing the sur- 
render and providing therefor, was passed in 1808. 
The transfer 
was perfect- 
ed in 18 TO, 
just two cen- 
turies after 
its corporate 
creation. It 
traded main- 
ly in furs. 
i 1 radually it 
spread its 
area of traf- 
fic and estab- 
lished tra- 
il ing-p OS t s 
from ocean 
ti.i ocean. Its 
profits were 
enormous. 
So too were 
its benefits to 

the world, for it set in operation a stupendous 
mechanism by which the savages of the northern 
pi irtiou of North America were induced to harvest the 
fur crop of that part of the continent for the com- 
fort and health of the civilized world. 

The political system of Canada is somewhat com- 
plicated. The fetters of colonial dependence are 
simply bracelets, worn for ornament. The home gov- 
ernment appoints a governor-general whose princi- 
pal duties consist in the maintenance of a miniature 
court at the capital, Ottawa, for the diversion of the 
good people thereabouts. The actual authority of 
government is divided between the Dominion parlia- 
ment and the parliaments of the provinces. That im- 
posing figurehead, the Governor-General, has the 




PAKLTAMEXT HOFSE, OTTAWA. 



pardoning power, and that is about all. At the pres- 
ent time the position is tilled by the Marquis of 
Lome, eldest son of the Duke of Argyle and son-in- 
law of Queen Victoria. He is a worthy gentleman 
and gives satisfaction, although, perhaps, not quite 
as popular as his immediate predecessor, Lord Duf- 
ferin. The constitution of the dominion, adopted 
in 1807, defines the relative functions of the general 
and the local governments. The former has juris- 
diction of criminal law, including the penitentiaries ; 
bankruptcy proceedings; marriage and divorce; 
naturalization of aliens ; Indians and their reserva- 
tions, and, in fine, all matters not expressly assigned 

to the pro- 
vincial legis- 
latures, re- 
versing, on 
this latter 
point, the 
policy of the 
constitution 
of the Uni- 
ted States. 
Provincial 
legislatures 
are restrict- 
ed to strictly 
local mat- 
ters. The 
judges in 
Canada hold 
office during 
good behav- 
ior, and the 
courts consist of the local tribunals and a Su- 
preme Court and Court of Exchequer at Ottawa. 

There is no longer any considerable desire on the 
part of Canada to be free from England, nor yet to 
be annexed to the United States. The present sys- 
tem of government seems to meet the popular views 
admirably. The existence of vexatious tariff re- 
strictions upon commerce across the border is a mu- 
tual source of regret, but so long as the interest of 
this republic requires protective or revenue duties, 
these restrictions would appear to be inevitable. At 
least there is no indication that a reciprocity treat} 
will be entered upon between the United States and 
Canada. 

Quebec is a quaint old town with walls and battle- 



~ 



~2te 



59 8 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 



mentSj and streets which are mure lanes and alleys. 
Few cities of European; as suggestive of the medieval 
age as Quebec. 
Montreal is a 
thrifty port, ad- 
mirably situated 
at the conflu- 
ence of the river 
and gulf of St. 
Lawrence. It is 
the natural head 
of that chain of 
lake navigation 
which extends 
from the upper 
waters of the Su- 
perior and links 
together Du- 
luth,Milwauk ;e, 
Chicago, De- 
troit. Cleveland, 
Toledo, Buff alo, 
Oswego, Ogdens- 
burg and Mon- 
treal. It was for- 
merly the capi- 
tal of Canada. 

A formidable riot dispersed parliament in 1850. and 
burnt down the capital. It was not rebuilt. The 
capital was 
removed to 
Toronto 
during the 
next two 
years, and 
then to Que- 
bec for four 
years. To- 
ronto is on 
the shore of 
Lake Onta- 
rio and is the 
pr o v incial 
capital of 
the province 
of Toronto. 
WhenUpper 

or Western Canada was distinct from Lower or 
Eastern Canada, Toronto was the capital. It has 




QUEBEC. 



many fine buildings, the most notable being the 
University of Toronto. It was hi 1857 that the seat 

of government 
was removed to 
the interior town 
of Ottawa, which 
has remained 
the capital ever 
since. St. John's 
in New Bruns- 
wick and St. 
John's in New- 
foundland are 
both very con- 
siderable ports. 
So is Halifax, 
Nova Scotia. 
Hamilton and 
London are 
flourishing 
towns in On- 
tario. 

In the matter 
of education a 
public school 
system prevails 
wherever the 
population is dense enough to admit of it, with the 
exception of the Province of Quebec. The French 




I 



UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO. 



Canadians 
are not to be 
lured to de- 
struction by 
spelling- 
books. The 
priests hold 
firmly to the 
children, and 
carefully 
train them 
up in ignor- 
ance and the 
Catechism. 

Speaking 
of the rail- 
roads of the 
country, 

Frederick Martin says, " The Dominion of Canada 
bad a network of railways of a total length of 5,574 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 



399 



miles at the end of June, 1878. There were at the 
same period lines of a total length of 1,996 miles hi 
course of construction, and 3,000 miles more had 
been surveyed, and concessions granted by the gov- 
ernment. Partly included hi the latter class is a 
railway crossing the whole of the dominion, from 
the Atlantic to the Pacific, to the construction of 
which the British government contributes a grant, 



applies to an area of about 500,000 square miles 
north of Hudson Bay, the home of the Esquimaux. 
This branch of the family of American aborigines, 
found at the extreme north on both the Atlantic 
and the Pacific coast, are thought to be the connect- 
ing link between the Indian and the Mongolians 
mentioned in a succeeding chapter on the Chinese 
Empire. They are short, thick, muscular and stupid, 




ST. JOHN'S, N. B. 



in the form of a guaranteed loan of $2,500,000." 
Since the term Canada, in its fullest sense, extends 
to the North Pole, this chapter may close with some 
account of Labrador and the Esquimaux. 

Labrador means " arable land." It is as great a 
misnomer as the name Greenland. A distinct coun- 
ty by that name in the valley of the Sagueney, and 
province of Quebec, is inhabited by a few French 
Canadians who thrive by fishing. Labrador proper 



expert only in fishing or hunting. They are sup- 
posed to number about 50,000, including those found 
in Greenland and Alaska. Their domestic animal 
is the dog, and their principal food is the blubber of 
the whale, walrus or seal. Their color is a light 
brown. Originally they were almost wholly destitute 
of religious sensibilities. Christian missionaries, Mo- 
ravian and Danish Lutheran, have done something 
in the line of their conversion to Christianity. 



*lfc 




Jtsmm 



5° 





CHAPTER LXVI 



Imperial India— The Birth-place op the Aryan Race— Ancient Ruins— Alexander in India- 
Portuguese and Dutch India— British Expulsion of the Netherlanders— The French 
in India— Lord Clive and Surajah Dowlah— Warren Hastings— Lord Cornwallis— Se- 
poy Mutiny and its Results — Viceroys of the Crown — "Owen Meredith" and Lord 
Ripon— The Mogul Empire — Benares the Holy City— Sanskrit and the Possibilities 
of the Future. 



K— §3}3>£f-.- Ti 



"TIRING the premiership 
of the late Lord Beacons- 
field the Queen of En- 
gland added to her titles 
that of Empress of India. 
That country, sometimes 
called Hindustan, is in- 
empire, containing as it does no 



lessthau250,000,- 
000 people, not 
savages either, 
but the inheritors 
of a splendid civ- 
ilization, effete, it 
is true, but not 
wholly lost and 
wasted. In pop- 
ulation this im- 
perial possession is 




NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. 



pire at its best. With the Himalaya mountains on 
the north, and the Indian Ocean on the south, it is 
a land by itself, rich in resources and under a high 
state of cultivation in many parts. Such a country 
contributes greatly to the wealth of England, both 
by its imports and its exports, furnishing the raw 
material and consuming the manufactured article, 
all to an extent which may fairly entitle India to the 

designation of the 
backbone of Brit- 
ish prosperity. 

By a careful 
comparative 
study of lan- 
guages it has been 
ascertained that 
the present great 
nations of the 
world came, for 
the most part, 
from the Aryan 
race, which can 
be traced to In- 
dia. The Brah- 
min, the Greek, 
the Roman, the 



double that of the Roman em- | Englishman, the German, the Yankee, all belong 



(400) 



-&K 



£1 



5 f 



BRITISH INDIA. 



403 



to the same stock. But the connection is too re- 
mote and obscure to be traced in this volume. It is 
enough for our purpose to follow the footprints of 
historical devel- 
opment. 

India is splen- 
did, yet mournful 
in ruins. Fallen 
temples and de- 
caying pagodas 
attest a past which 
is sealed from the 
vision of history. 
Eventually their 
mysteries may be 
explored and the 
gold of facts sep- 
arated from the 
dross of fiction. 
Now those mon- 
umental ruins are 
surrounded by the 
wall of mystery. 

The first ap- 
pearance of India 
in history dates 
from B. C. 327, 
when Alexander 
the Great attemp- 
ted its conquest. 
His intrepid army 
was flushed with 
victory over the 
Persians, and eag- 
er for '•' more 
worlds to con- 
quer.'' India was 
little more to the 
Greeks than a 
vague rumor, a 
fabulous land of 
wealth and lux- 
ury, a veritable 
Eldorado. But 
the march itself 
was exhaustive. 




ENGLISH LIFE 



The Ganges was his goal, 



and no 

serious human obstacle impeded his course; but 
the heat of the country melted the heroism of the 
brave Greeks, and the sand choked their enterprise. 



The intrepid and dauntless Alexander spent two 
years in the country including the time spent in the 
march thither and back, returning without a per- 
manent foothold. 
The invasion wras 
not wholly fruit- 
less, however. 
Greek culture ac- 
quired some ad- 
vantage from con- 
tact with what 
may probably be 
set down as the 
oldest of all ex- 
tant or known 
civilizations. But 
no vital connec- 
tion was formed 
between the two, 
and India soon 
dropped out of 
the great world 
with which an- 
cient history has 
to do, leaving be- 
hind hardly a 
single landmark 
or trace of any 
kind. 

The first Euro- 
pean, after Alex- 
ander, to pene- 
trate to India and 
establish relations 
with it was the en- 
terprising Vasco 
da Gama, whose 
exploits were told 
hi connection with 
Portugal. Eor a 
century the Por- 
tuguese enjoyed a 
monopoly of ori- 
ental commerce, 
and then came the 
in great measure. 
Antwerp, Amster- 
°rew rich in the 



INDIA. 



Dutch to wrest it from them 

During the seventeeth century 

dam and other commercial cities 

Indian traffic. The Dutch East India Company 



SC 



4°4 



BRITISH INDIA. 



was formed in 1602. The English were not slow in 
trying to gain a footing, and the Dutch, who had 
succeeded in eclipsing the Portuguese, found a for- 
midable rival in the British. That rivalry was sharp 
and bloody until 1689, when the accession of Wil- 
liam of Orange to the English throne brought com- 
parative peace. 

Before that time the union jack of England had 
successfully defied the Dutch broom in Indian waters, 
and Lord Olive had laid firmly and broadly the foun- 
dations of British India. The decisive blow was 
struck in 1758. But it was during the period when 
Europe was the theater of almost constant warfare, 
from 1781 to 1811, that England succeeded in expell- 
ing the Dutch from India. Even Java, afterwards 
restored, was wrested from the Hollanders. By 
the last census returns the Dutch population in In- 
dia proper had dwindled to seventy-two. Many 
houses and some canals remain to testify that the 
Netherlander once possessed the land, or the sea 
rather, but they themselves have gone. When Ad- 
miral Duncan, of the British navy, almost annihi- 
lated the Dutch fleet off Camperdown, on the 
eleventh of October, 1797, that was the virtual end 
of Dutch East India. 

The East India Company, chartered by the En- 
glish parliament in 1600, may be said to have be- 
gun England's connection with Indian affairs. It 
took about a century to dispossess the national rivals 
already mentioned. A third rival was Erance. To 
the French belongs the dubious honor of origina- 
ting the policy of employing native soldiers under 
foreign officers, to conquer the country. They were 
called Sepahs, or Sepoys. England soon adopted 
the same policy. About the middle of the eigh- 
teenth century the Indian rivalry of the two nations 
was very sharp. For a time it seemed that the En- 
glish were to have meted out to them the same 
judgment that had been awarded to the Portuguese 
and Dutch. The honor of arresting the progress of 
the French aud finally insuring British supremacy, 
belongs to Robert Olive, afterwards Lord Olive. He 
entered the service of the Company as a clerk. He 
never enjoyed the advantages of a military or lib- 
eral education. His first exploit was the recapture 
from the French of the city of Arcot, having at 
command only 500 men. He held the city against 
a besieging army of 10,000 natives. Dupleix, the 
French governor, was held in check and defeated in 




several engagements. A decisive battle was fought 
June 23, 1757, on the field of Plassey. Olive had 
1,000 English and 2,000 Sepoy troops, and with that 
handful he defeated the native Viceroy of Bengal, 
who was the ally of the French, Surajah Dowlah, at 
the head of 65,000 
men. That great 
victory shattered 
the French rule 
and broke the pow- 
er of the Viceroy. 
The French rapid- 
ly dwindled away, 
but did not aban- 
don all hope of re- 
gaining lost ground 
until hi 1801 their 
expulsion was com- 
pleted. The final 
outcome of the Na- 
poleonic campaign surajah dowlah. 
made assurance doubly sure. In the battle of Wa- 
terloo the last remnant of Indian hope for France 
disappeared forever. 

Lord Olive was something more than a brave sol- 
dier. He was the first Governor-General of the 
country. His administration of affairs was only for 
the period of two years, but during that time he 
succeeded in crushing out all European rivalry and 
in making highly important inroads upon native 
rule. The Viceroy Surajah Dowlah was a powerful 
prince, but he was destroyed. He it was who in 
1756 took Calcutta from the English and crowded 
150 of the prisoners taken into the dungeon rendered 
famous as the " Black Hole of Calcutta." All ex- 
cept twenty of the number died the first night of. 
suffocation. But his cruelty was trivial and mild 
as compared to the relentless despotism of Olive, 
whose policy was to terrorize the Hindoos into sub- 
jection. 

In 1773 the British East India Company under- 
went some changes, and the notorious Warren Hast- 
ings was appointed Governor-General. He pursued 
the policy of Lord Clive. To cruelty was added 
rapacity of the most ravenous sort. The corpora- 
tion which they served was a commercial organiza- 
tion and judged everything from the standpoint of 
revenue only. Vast fortunes were accumulated by 
private individuals in their employ, and expenditures 



-a \ 

" 



&. 



BRITISH INDIA. 



4°5 




Tie- 



BRITISH INDIA. 



407 



for pensions, bribes and subsidies were immense ; 
but so long as the Company received the lion's share 
in net profits abuses were unchecked. But public 
sentiment was at last aroused. Warren Hastings 
was impeached by parliament. His trial was one of 
the most memorable in all history. It called out 
the eloquence of Burke and others. Hastings was 
acquitted by the peers before whom he was tried, but 
convicted by the court of public opinion, which also 
sat in judgment upon his case. The result was a ref- 
ormation in Indian affairs. Under the lead of Wil- 
liam Pitt, jjarliament in 1784 made a radical change 
in tiie political system of India. Hitherto the Com- 
pany had been absolute and despotic, but henceforth 
a board of control was to have supervisory power. 
It was not un- 
til 1858 that 
the govern- 
ment took up- 
on itself large- 
ly the manage- 
ment of the 
country, doing 
away with the 
Governors- 
General be- 
holden to acor- 
poration, and 
subs tituting 
for them 




was in the hands of the Sepoys from the first, and 
the fall of that city was fatal to the mutiny. Strong 
was the provocation of the mutineers, and not in 
vain was the bloodshed in the struggle. From sub- 
jection to a soulless corporation to the rule of an 
empire which is based largely upon regard for the 
welfare of the people was a most beneficent revolu- 
tion. During that war General Havelock became 
famous as the ideal Christian soldier. The utter 
inability of the natives to cope with the English was 
so fully shown, and the British policy so far reform- 
ed, that since the fall of Delhi there has been no in- 
surrection, nor any serious manifestations of disaf- 
fection. 

Under Beaconsfield the viceroyship was held by 

Lord Lytton, 
son of Bulwer 
E. Lytton, the 
novelist. His 
rule was devoid 
of special in- 
terest. It must 
be admitted 
that as "Owen 
Meredith," 
author of Lu- 
cille, he won 
far more hon- 
or than he did 
could 



Viceroys of the crown. There were twenty Gover- 
nors-General during the eighty-3ix years of Com- 
pany rule, Earl Canning being the last. Among 
these was Lord Cornwallis. After his inglorious 
career in America, upon Indian soil he achieved sub- 
stantial victories which showed that his surrender at 
Yorktown was not the cowardice of a poltroon, but 
the wisdom of one who bowed to the inevitable. The 
Marquis of Wellesley, or Duke of Wellington, was 
another of the governors and soldiers who preserved 
and extended British rule in India. 

The East India Company, which ranks as the 
most gigantic monopoly of all history, received its 
death-blow from the Sepoy Mutiny. The first out- 
break occurred May 10, 1857. It spread like wild- 
fire over the country, the central points being Cawn- 
pore, Lucknow and Delhi. The Europeans in the 
former were slaughtered, men, women and children ; 
in the latter they held out until relief came. Delhi 



TOWN HALL. BOMBAY. 

' or could as 

Viceroy. Mr. Gladstone appointed as his successor 
Lord Ripon, one of the framers of the Treaty of 
Washington, which settled the " Alabama claims." 



Without going into wearisome details, it may be 
added that the present British policy is to allow the 
native population to be governed in accordance with 
their own system of laws and methods of justice, so 
far as such liberty may be indulged without endan- 
gering English supremacy. In that way can the 
interests of the British public be best conserved and 
promoted. 

Having traced the course of events in India from 
the standpoint of foreign intervention, showing the 
relations of that country to the rest of the world, it 
will be of interest to ascertain its history from an 
independent standpoint. 

The great Hindoo epic, Rammjana, not inaptly 
called " The Iliad of the East," is supposed to be at 
least three thousand years old ; but its statements 



7F 



5 1 



y£- 



408 



BRITISH INDIA. 



are self-evident fiction, for the most part. The first 
kingdom of India within the range of authentic his- 
tory was the Mogul Empire. Mogul is a corruption 
or abbreviation of Mongol. The dynasty was founded 
by Baberin 1525, a descendant on his mother's side of 
that great Tartar, Tamerlane. These Mogul emper- 
ors, fifteen in number, were all Mohammedans. 
They were fierce warriors and terrible bigots. Their 
zeal for Islam was only equaled by their slakeless 
thirst for plunder. They ravaged India and gathered 
the rich spoils of the more civilized but; less warlike 
"heathen round about." The empire was at its 
height in the last half of the seventeenth century. 
Delhi was the 
capital. The 
E u rope a ns, 
whether Portu- 
guese, Dutch, 
French or En- 
glish, avoided 
conflict with 
the great Mo- 
gul. The great 
Sepoyrebellion 
was abetted by 
Bahadur, the 
emperor at 
Delhi. The 
empire had al- 
ready been 
greatly weak- 
ened by schism 
and dissen- 
tions, and that 
English shot his sons and grandson, and trans- 
ported the emperor himself to Burmah where he 
died. Thus with the close of the Sepoy rebellion 
the Mogul Empire disappeared, and has since shown 
no symptoms of life. 

In 1880' the total railway mileage in India was 
12,005 There had been expended in the construc- 
tion and equipment of these railroads over $500,000,- 
000. The population of British India, classified 
according to religion, is Brahmans, 140,000,000 ; 
Mohammedans, 40,000,000; Buddhists, 3,000,000; 
Christians, 900,000 ; various forms of aboriginal be- 
lief, 6,000,000. In Southern India the missionaries 
have met with some success. Buddhism is a reformed 




Sepoy alliance was fatal. Th 



or later Brahminism, Buddha sustaining much the 
same relation to Brahma as Jesus Christ does to 
Jehovah in our religion. The total following of 
Buddha at the present day in British India is con- 
fined to the Burmese possessions. 

India has several splendid cities, centers of trade 
and \vealth,the most notable of these being the seldom 
visited, because far inland, Benares. It is upon the 
banks of the Ganges. The Brahmans regard it with 
sacred veneration. It is the chief seat of Indian 
education. It contains some splendid mosques and 
temples. It has a population of about '250,000. 
A glance at the Sanskrit language and literature, 

and we take 
leave of India. 
In the study 
of languages 
as a science, 
the Sanskrit is 
the most help- 
ful. It ceased 
to be spoken 
so many cen- 
turies ago that 
its death is 
shrouded in 
impenetrable 
mystery. The 
sacred books 
of the Brah- 
mins are pre- 
served from 
vulgar knowl- 
edge by being entombed in a dead tongue. This 
religious literature is enormous in volume, and 
contains some remarkably fine productions. Max 
Milller has placed a very considerable knowledge 
of this literature within the reach of English read- 
ers, and made the terms Vedas and Puranas some- 
what familiar. Religion and philosophy not only, 
but the sciences, are discussed at great length in these 
ancient tomes. Evidently, the Hindus in their best 
estate were a highly intellectual people, and it is not 
at all improbable that with the aid of this Sanskrit 
literature the scholarship of the future will be able to 
trace the stream of civilization, by a broad and un- 
mistakable channel, and not by mere conjecture, to 
its very fountain-head. 



■ "i;z=: = 



"*» Q_ 



ihL 





^Hr3 3 *€~-'^ 



m 



MERICA is called the new 
world, and Australasia 
might well be called the 
newest world, and positively 
the last. This globe has 
2^ been thoroughly explored, 
and no continent or conti- 
nental island remains to be 
discovered. The surface of the whole 
earth is now within the compass of hu- 
knowledge. Between the southeast- 
ern shore of Asia and the western coast 
of America stretch many small islands 
and some large ones, the more im- 
portant of these being the group called 
Australasia, with an area of 3,425,000 
square miles and a population of about 5,000,000- 
This portion of the British Empire (for such it is) 
lias seven natural and political divisions. It is pro- 
posed in this exceptionally long chapter to present 
the more interesting facts in regard to each colony 
in their proper order. 

New South Wales, as it is now called, was discov- 
ered by Captain Cook, in 17T0, and eighteen years 
later, a convict colony was established at Botany Bay. 
The country was so beautiful, that Cook suggested a 
name reminding the reader of a choice garden, or site 
for villas ; and the British government had no higher 



conception of the discovery than that it might serve 
as a depot, whereon the mother country could dis- 
charge the criminality that she was slowly ascer- 
taining could not all be put to death. There was 
no realization that a country so desirable deserved 
a worthier population, or that a section of the people 
at home that trembled on the verge of pauperism, 
but had not been tainted by crime, had rights to an 
asylum in the new paradise. The urgent need was 
a corral for prisoners, and Botany Bay would serve. 

The first shipment consisted of 565 male prisoners 
and 192 females, condemned to banishment for life. 
They were accompanied by sufficient military to 
guard against an otherwise possible outbreak, and 
the civil staff to administer the affairs of the settle- 
ment. Free settlers were not encouraged. Their 
presence might have interfered with discipline. 
There were free colonists, but they were people that 
could be relied on as aids in any emeutej and they 
were favored with convict labor to any extent de- 
sired in prosecuting their personal enterprises. 

The area given up to the criminal classes and their 
custodians was ample, including all that is now 
South Australia, Victoria and Queensland, as well 
as the colony of new South Wales; and yet within 
fifteen years another convict settlement was estab- 
lished in Van Diemen's Land. The country was not 
overstocked, but the island presented advantages, 



(4") 



_il2 



js\j- 



412 



AUSTRALASIA. 



which could not be so easily secured on the main- 
land. The latter settlement was a dependency of 
the former, prisoners being transferred from one 
colony to the other, as well as shipped direct to Van 
Diemen's Land from Great Britain. For ten years 
from 1803, no free colonists were permitted in the 
new settlement. The island was a prison and noth- 
ing more. But in 1813 the desirability of free set- 
tlers, as part of a reformatory system, led to the 
home government offering grants of land to fami- 
lies possessing capital, and prison labor without 
charge, as inducements to take up their abode in the 
colonies. There was little difficulty in procuring 
limited emigration, as the climate in each case was 
good, in the case of Van Diemen's Land especially, 
and the soil could hardly be too highly praised. It 
was not until men arrived in the colonies that the 
heinousness of the system became apparent. It was 
hardly possible for imagination to present a pic- 
ture of such conditions of life as were realized by 
the colonists after their acclimation. 

Prisoners on their arrival in the colony, after the 
system was in full bloom, were housed in depots, 
waiting to be selected by free settlers. Sometimes 
the relatives of a criminal reached the colony before 
him, selected land, and were ready to take him as 
their assigned servant, so that in his case transpor- 
tation was no punishment ; but in the majority of 
instances prisoners, men or women, taken as assigned 
servants, were treated worse than slaves, as the mas- 
ter generally spoken of as the "cove" had no inter- 
est in preserving the servant as a piece of property. 
If twenty were worn out, other twenty could be pro- 
cured to take their places, with no more trouble 
-ban sending an application, or calling to select from 
the next shipment. Usually the convicts were of 
the worst type, short of meriting capital punish- 
ment; and if there were any redeeming features in 
men or women, when first placed on the vessel for 
transportation, four to six months' life on shipboard, 
exposed to the contaminating influence of convict 
opinion, seldom failed to produce an inverted 
scheme of life before the end of the voyage. Some 
on each ship were as nearly demons as could be 
found on earth, and they were idolized. 

The assigned servant was usually at the mercy of 
men very little superior in education or morals, as 
the better classes in Great Britain shunned the con- 
vict colonies, and if they must needs emigrate, found 



homes in Canada or in the United States, rather 
than expose their families to the degrading associa- 
tions of penal settlements. 

Servants who had offended their masters were 
sent to the stipendiary magistrate with a sealed let- 
ter, specifying the number of stripes they were to 
receive, and on that warranty without inquiry the 
prisoner was handed to the flagellator to be flogged 
as per mandate. After the punishment they were 
sent back to the employer knowing insubordination 
would be still more severely castigated. Wrongs of 
that class rankling in natures naturally brutal, re- 
sulted in conspiracies and murder, and then the 
fiends, goaded to desperation, betook themselves to 
the unsettled country, called " the bush," to subsist 
as bushrangers by spoliation until they were hunted 
down like wild beasts with the aid of native track- 
ers and bloodhounds to lead the military and po- 
lice to their lairs. Prisoners brought in after bush- 
ranging were hanged or sent to Norfolk Island, or 
attached to chain-gangs, compelled to work 011 the 
roads or public works, having manacles to drag that 
rendered their escape impossible. 

Norfolk Island was a deeper pandemonium at- 
tached to Van Diemen's Land from 1835 to 1855, 
to which the worst criminals were sent as the last 
resort this side the gallows. The island is on the 
Pacific, about five miles long, by little more than 
two miles broad ; and in that limited area, Dante 
might have gathered many unimagined tortures for 
the completion of the agonies of the damned. 

This abhorrent system continued in New South 
Wales until 1840, and in Van Diemen's Land until 
1853, after which no new shipments were sent 
from Great Britain to the colonies named. Queens- 
land was also first settled by convicts in 1825, 
the country being then known as Moreton Bay ; but 
that region was thrown open to free settlement in 
1842, and in 184G there were only 2,257 inhabitants 
in the settlement, including free and felon. West- 
ern Australia is the only settlement in Australasia, 
that is still cursed with the convict system, and its 
continuance there is due to the petitions of the in- 
habitants, addressed to the mother country, setting 
forth that the free settlers are precluded by the re- 
pute of the colony from obtaining free labor, and 
must be ruined if denied the aid of prisoners in the 
prosecution of their enterprises. Under such repre- 
sentations the colony is allowed 200 prisoners per 



^C 



AUSTRALASIA. 



4 r 3 



year, imder protest from the other colonies, and the 
i "i ill population is only 26,100, including 1,?90 pris- 
oners. Western Australia was first settled in 1829, 
anil developed slowly. 

The total population of Botany Bay in 1788 was 
1,030, of which number 757 were life prisoners, the 
remainder being guards, military government offi- 
cials, and the multitudious hangers-on that always 
surround the fleshpots in Egypt, or elsewhere. The 
free population increased to 20,029 in forty years, 
and the convicts then numbered 15,669, of which 
total 1,513 were females. The growth of New South 
A\ ales was slow until the incubus of transportation 
was removed in 1840, and in the year following that 
event, there was an addition of 20,206 to the popu- 
lation. The decade following the discontinuance 
saw an advance to 265,503 ; but at that time the 
district of Port Philip was agitating for separation, 
and in the following year its desire was granted by 
its erection into the colony of Victoria. 

Gold was discovered on several occasions in New 
South Wales before its discovery in California, but 
the free settlers were of the opinion that its exploi- 
tation would unsettle labor, and for that reason the 
auriferous wealth of the country was belittled, so 
that hardly any person understood the significance 
of " the find." The great geologist, Sir Roderick 
Murchison, addressing the Geographical Society of 
London in 1845, announced the probability of ex- 
tensive gold-fields being opened in Australia ; but it 
is only fair to mention that the precious metal had 
been then recently found near the Macquarie river, 
following up in a desultory way previous "finds" in 
1829. The colony of New South Wales appointed a 
geologist in 1850, and about the same time a work- 
ing miner in California, impressed with the similarity 
of the two countries, determined to return to the col- 
ony to search for a payable gold-field. Mr. Hargraves 
was fortunate in his investigations, as we find him in 
May, 1851, established at Ophir, near Bathurst, New 
South Wales, leading a party of miners whose oper- 
ations speedily made that country the cynosure of 
all eyes. The surrounding colonies were largely de- 
pleted of their young and vigorous men by the rush 
toward Bathurst. Every vessel that put into an 
Australian port .was immediately deserted, unless 
the commander had the wisdom to announce the 
ship to sail for Sydney ; in that event he could man 
and load in a few days and procure any rates he 



thought fit to ask for freight. Port Jackson, the 
port of Sydney, was the busiest spot in Austra- 
lasia as long as the colony enjoyed the monopoly 
of gold discoveries ; but the other members of the 
group hail long been playing at hide-and-seek with 
treasure, and Victoria offered a reward to any per- 
son who might open a payable gold-field in its terri- 
tory. Later in 1851, discoveries in Buninyong at- 
tracted attention to Victoria, and since that date it 
has become well understood that the whole of the 
continent is auriferous. The colony of New South 
Wales in its first year of gold production raised 
82,341,680 worth, and in the following year over 
§13,500,000. Subsequently the returns were larger, 
although never to exceed $15,000,000, and that 
amount included gold received at the mint from 
other colonies for conversion into coin and bars- 

In four years from the establishment of Victoria 
as a separate colony, New South Wales had passed 
the highest point previously reached hi population, 
continuing to grow rapidly until the year 1859, when 
the constitution of Queensland, as a separate govern- 
ment, reduced the aggregate from 342,000 to 336,- 
000 in round numbers. The areas nominally gov- 
erned, in the colony, as originally defined, were ''all 
territory from Cape York iu the parallel of 10° 37' 
south latitude, to South Cape in latitude 43° 29' 
south, including the islands in the Pacific within 
this latitude, and inland to the westward as far as 
the 135th meridian of east longitude," could not be 
even approximately administered by the official 
staff available, and, in fact, the elder colony did not 
attempt any such feat of statecraft. The jjrocess 
consisted mainly in drawing from the outlying por- 
tions the means to pay for the physical improvement 
of the governing center. 

South Australia was cut off from the first colony 
in 1836, in the days of penal settlements, but that 
segregation did not seriously affect the total of pop- 
ulation. The area of New South Wales at present 
is 310,938 square miles. Its greatest length being 
900 miles, with an average breadth of about 500. 
On the north is the colony of Queensland ; on the 
south Victoria ; on the west South Australia, and 
on the east the Pacific Ocean. The population of 
the country, according to the latest returns, pub- 
lished in 1884 by the authorities in Sydney, gave an 
aggregate of 921.268 persons; the increase of the 
last year having been about 50,000 



V 



»jL 



4H 



AUSTRALASIA. 



Until 1S55 government was by means of a nomi- 
nee council, or legislature, to which the members of 
the administration were admitted, ex officio j after 
that time, responsible government was inaugurated. 
The parliament of two houses imitates Lords and 
Commons, and the governor represents the first es- 
tate. All money bills must be initiated in the low- 
er house, on a message from the viceroy, and such 
legislation may be rejected in tutu, but cannot be 
amended by the upper house. The British theory 
of rule by three estates is in fact carried out in the 
practice of the whole group of Australian colonies, 
except the colony of Western Australia, and the in- 
formation now given will serve in all the cases indi- 
cated, the differences being trivial. 

The council consists of twenty-one or more nomi- 
nees ajjpointed by the crown, as advised by minis- 
ters; there were thirty-nine members in 1878 ; and 
the assembly is an elective body of 102 members, 
chosen by universal male suffrage. The governor 
is the executive, but he is advised, and in most mat- 
ters controlled, by a responsible ministry, raised to 
office on the votes of the lower house, and answera- 
ble to that body for every official act. The ap- 
pointment of the governor rests with the home 
authorities, but the salary to be paid depends on the 
colonial assembly, with the proviso that no chansre 
can be made during a term of office to affect the 
salary and allowances of the then incumbent. The 
present governor receives $35,000 per year and 
a residence ; and the ministry, eight in number, 
are paid, the colonial secretary $10,000, and the 
other ministers $7,500 per year. The governor is 
commander-in-chief of all the forces of the colony. 

The public lands of the colony are made over to 
the people to be administered by their representa- 
tives, and the sale and rent of lands constitutes a 
large item in the revenues of the colony, amounting 
to more than half the receipts from all sources. 
There is no direct taxation ; the second largest item 
of income being from customs duties. The annual 
outlay ranges from about $16,000,000 in 1870 to 
$27,500,000 in 1880, including $2,000,000 for new 
public works. The public debt of the colony 
amounted at the close of 1885 to $0,800,331, main- 
ly incurred for railroads, telegraph lines and other 
public works, the property of the state. There were 
at the time named 600 miles of railroad open for 
use, and in the succeeding year 223 miles were add- 



ed to the network. The telegraph lines at that 
date aggregated 8,472 miles. 

From 1850, the year preceding the opening of the 
gold-fields, to 1864, trade more than quadrupled ; 
but from that time there was a steady falling off for 
about six years, followed by a gradual increase until 
1878. The chief exports are wool, tin, copper, tal- 
low and preserved meat. The country is richer in 
coal than any other part of Australasia, and its gold- 
fields cover a vast area known as the Western, 
Northern and Southern fields ; but the produce has 
not kept uj> to the figures that at one time prom- 
ised to rank New South Wales among the great gold- 
producing countries of the world. The fiscal policy 
of the colony is a near approximation to free trade, 
and the crown lands are in part devoted to squat- 
ting, or what is known among us as ranche-keeping, 
and ordinary farming, the principal crops being 
wheat and maize. Cattle and sheep abound, and 
pigs and horses present large and profitable aggre- 
gates. 

The colony now known as Tasmania, in honor of 
the Dutch navigator, Tasman, by whom the island 
was first discovered, was in the beginning named 
for a governor of the Dutch East Indies. Cook 
partly explored the country, and, as we have seen, it 
was for many years a penal settlement. That un- 
fortunate commencement has detracted greatly from 
the success that must otherwise have attended on 
colonization in the midst of so many natural advan- 
tages. The area is estimated at 26,215 square miles, 
including a number of small islands in two groups, 
northeast and northwest. The country and climate 
invite settlement, and when the initial mischance 
has been lived down, its numerous advantages will 
make Tasmania the abode of the wealthiest families 
in Australasia. At the present time the outlook for 
the colony is not cheering. In 1853, 2,314,414 acres 
of land had been leased from the crown, yielding a 
rental of $147,845 ; but in 1877 the quantity leased 
had fallen to little more than one million, and the 
rental was only $31,960. Of more than four million 
acres of land sold at that date, less than one mil- 
lion was under cultivation. The country had fallen 
into bad repute, and something more than a mere 
change of name is requisite to give the infant state 
a new start in life. 

The first years of the colony have been glanced 
at under the head of penal settlements, and need 



4 



AUSTRALASIA. 



415 



! W 1 ; 



MM 

III 
HI 

lIEii 

■III 



lain 




lH 
HI 

mm 

1 



52 



r 



AUSTRALASIA. 



4*7 



in it be referred to in detail; but a new regime was 
inaugurated after the system of transportation came 
tn an end. A constitution was granted to the col- 
iinv, permitting all persons who possessed property 
to the extent of $1,000 in leasehold, or §150 freehold, 
to vote for members of the Upper House, and all 
persons occupying or owning houses, of the value of 
135 per annum, or freehold property worth $250, to 
vote for members of the Commons. A commission 
in the army or navy, or holding a degree, or being 
in holy orders, entitled the person so distinguished 
to exercise the franchise for both houses ; the actual 
fact being that education and respectability were 
the desiderata at which the constitution aimed, 
through provisos as to freehold and leasehold prop- 
erty. The substratum of society could not be en- 
tirely excluded from a voice in the administration 
of affairs ; but checks were demanded. 

The system of government described as operating 
in the other colonies obtains also in Tasmania 
without material change. The governor, appointed 
by Great Britain, is allowed $17,500 ; and he is ad- 
vised by five responsible ministers, each of whom re- 
ceives $3,500 per year. As in all the other colonies, 
the ministers must hold a seat in the Upper or 
Lower House. 

The revenue of the government is derived mainly 
from customs, excise, aud bonding duties ; the terri- 
torial revenues are small, and manufactures are 
inconsiderable. The public debt in 1880 was $S,934,- 
000, resulting from loans incurred to prosecute 
public works; the debentures redeemable before 
1902. Population does not increase rapidly, but 
there is an increase of about ten per cent. The pro- 
portion of uneducated persons is large, but decreas- 
ing. Immigration is very slightly in excess of 
emigration, the movement being almost entirely 
between the colonies, as Tasmania has no attractions 
for Europeans looking to Australia. The same may 
be said of the commerce of Tasmania ; it is purely 
local. Wool is the staple, but the island will repay 
expenditure of capital. Horses, cattle, sheep, and 
swine thrive ; the soil is fertile ; roads are excellent ; 
there are large beds of coal ; iron ore and tin 
abound, and gold-fields have teen worked, which in 
1879 gave returns to the value of about $729,000 ; 
exports of tin in the same time exceeding $1,500,000. 
Railroads were opened for traffic in 1871, and ex- 
tensions have been made that aggregated 215 miles 



at the beginning of 1885. The telegraph system is 
also state property, and at the commencement of 
1885, 1313 miles of line were being worked. The 
department does not yet pay expenses, but viewed as 
part of a system of police, it is indispensable. 

The colony called South Australia occupies the 
central portion of the Australian continent, between 
12° and 38° south latitude, and 129° and 141° east 
longitude, stretching from the Indian to the South- 
ern Ocean ; a territory about 2,000 miles long by 500 
miles wide; an area of 903,000 square miles, bound- 
ed on the east by Victoria, New South Wales, and 
Queensland ; and on the West by Western Australia. 
The country is just ten times the size of Great 
Britain. Colonization has been confined almost 
entirely to a small section in the south of the 
greater area, and much of South Australia is yet 
unexplored. 

The prevalent characteristics of one colony are 
so nearly like the features of each other, that a brief 
description of South Australia may serve to deline- 
ate in a sketchy manner the whole of the continent. 
Particular aud detailed pictures of the territory 
would demand pen photographs, inconsistent with 
the design of this work, so we content ourselves 
with a few general observations. 

There are parts of the Pacific slope on this con- 
tinent that so closely resemble Australian contours, 
that it is easy to believe that the two countries were 
at one time a continuous territory, subject to like 
influences for a geologic era ; but there are no 
Andes nor great mountain ranges to give grandeur 
to the scene. Mountains, as they are called, in 
that country, might be described as mere foot-hills. 
The principal range in South Australia, known as 
the Flinders, rises north of the head of St. Vincent's 
Gulf, and runs several hundred miles north to Lake 
Blanche ; continuing, after a break by the hills called 
the Hummocks, to Port Wakefield, due south and 
southeast, by ranges to Cape Jervis. At intervals, 
Flinders Range is followed by similar elevations, the 
highest points on Musgrave and Macdonnell being 
about 4,000 feet above the sea. Mount Lofty, the 
background of Adelaide, capital of the colony, is 
2,334 feet high ; and mounts Remarkable and Brown 
reach 3,200 feet. A succession of hills is all that 
can be said for them, by men who bave seen the 
Cordilleras or the Altitudes in Colorado. The slopes 
and valleys are often of great beauty, and dotted 






AUSTRALASIA. 



with homesteads, have a peaceful charm ; but in 
many districts the soil is light, covered with scrub 
and brushwood. Considerable areas near the hills 
tell of the drenching rains that at times wash the 
vegetal matter and fertilizing salts from the ranges, 
and have made tracts of superb farm land not 
surpassed in the world. 

Where the Mallee scrub once nourished, there are 
good pasture lands, not the most fertile, but ex- 
cellent third-rate territory, on which squatters make 
full unes, and over parts of which farmers combine 
grazing with agriculture. Saltbush and Myall 
Country, in the far North, remind the traveler of 
the saltbush plains, that used to torture pilgrims 
to Utah, in the days of Brigham's " Hand-Cart Brig- 
ades"; and on which so many hundred gallant fel- 
lows laid down their lives, during the early exodus 
to the Californian gold-fields. There are no great- 
lakes. Where such desirable features are promised, 
the depth is inconsiderable, and the heat of summer 
leaves little more than a swamp. The country 
wants only extensive irrigation, to make a paradise 
for farmers and raisers of cattle. India already 
looks to Australasia for supplies of horses, and the 
wool of the continent is never surpassed. Wheat of 
the finest grade is produced in Australia, and it 
would be difficult to name a fruit that will not 
nourish. 

The Murray is the only river of any volume in 
South Australia, and that is common to the three 
great colonies. It runs into the Southern Ocean, 
within the territory we are describing, rising near 
mount Kosciusko, New South Wales, and forming 
the boundary between that colony, Victoria, and 
South Australia; running about 2,400 miles, of 
which extent nearly 2,000 miles is navigable. The 
mouth is impeded by a shifting sand-bar, but that is 
no great difficulty. The rivers generally diminish 
from fair streams to creeks in summer, often 
becoming a mere succession of water-holes. There 
are lakes in the colony, the principal being Alex- 
andria and Albert — almost the only fresh-water 
lakes, the great majority being small and brackish. 

The flora of the Australian continent is decidedly 
limited ; set down a traveler in any part of the 
country, and it would be hardly possible for him to 
determine from the vegetation around him which of 
the colonies he inhabited, except that he could pro- 
nounce between the extremes of north and south. 



Forest lands are mostly in the mountainous districts. 
The deep gullies are covered thickly with shrubs ami 
ferns, and the table lands are well grassed. Vege- 
tables or European fruits grow abundantly in the 
gullies, and on the grass lands wheat comes to per- 
fection. The scrub lands fail more on account of 
surface water than from any want in the compo- 
nents of the soil. The saltbush is ex?ellent feed for 
sheep and cattle, and the country can sustain almost 
unlimited stock. Artificial grasses thrive, and most 
squatters have some portion of their lands improved 
by their introduction for fattening their cattle and 
sheep. 

The climate of the peopled portions of South Aus- 
tralia resembles that of Southern Europe ; parts of 
Spain and Italy seem to be reproduced on the new 
continent, but the Alps and Pyrenees are wanting, and 
tUe idleness of both countries may also besought in 
vain. The heat of the country does not oppress as » 
much as lower temperatures on this continent, the 
atmosphere being less humid. There are but few 
days in the year in which the colonist desists from 
out-door labor on account of the sun, or of the hot 
winds — a kind of sirocco — that blow across the con- 
tinent and strike all animal and vegetable life with 
desiccating dryness. March, April and May are pleas- 
ant months, and September, October and November. 
The spring and early summer could hardly be desired 
more beautiful. 

Aborigines are seldom lovely, and still less fre- 
quently lovable ; the Australian is no exception. 
They were never powerful in numbers or physique 
except in some few regions, and they are dying off, 
having no desire to learn the arts of civilization- 
Schools established for their benefit do not win their 
regard, and although they profess any creed in re- 
turn for gifts of tobacco, their acquirements always 
end in smoke. It is supposed that they are allied 
to the Papuans, as although black, they are not of 
the Negro type. Their hair curls, but is not woolly. 
The men are not muscular, but they are tolerably 
well formed, built of bone and sinew. The women, 
worn out by incessant drudgery in the service of 
their thankless masters, are perhaps the least prepos- 
sessing human beings to be found on this footstool. 
They have few accomplishments and no ambition to 
rise above the status in which nature and accident 
have placed them. The weapons of the men are 
spears, thro wing-sticks, waddies and boomerangs, and 



AUSTRALASIA. 



419 



they make shields of bark with which they will 
defend themselves from the assaults of numerous 
enemies as long as the assailants are not at close 
quarters. 

The first year of this century was signalized from 
an Australian standpoint by the discovery of por- 
tions of South Australia by Lieutenant Grant of H. 
M. S. Lady Nelson, but it was not until 1803 that 
the country was surveyed by Captain Flinders. That 
gentleman was not very favorably impressed, or he 
failed to convey his impressions to others, as the 
country was left severely alone for almost an aver- 
age lifetime after the visit of the investigator. A 
wiser and more daring explorer, Captain Shirt, in 
1830, found his way from the Murrumbidgee to the 
Murray, and followed that river to its mouth in En- 
counter Bay, traversing the territory from New 
South Wales. The result of that journey, and the 
report of the captain was an application of gentle- 
men in London to the home government. An un- 
favorable reply, from the powers that were, deferred 
action for three years, but in 1834 the colony was 
founded on condition that no convicts should be 
sent there. 

The first governor landed in Holdfast Bay in 
1836, but prior to Captain Hindmarsh's arrival, the 
colony had been governed by commissioners. Nomi- 
nee government continued until 1851, when a con- 
stitution granted partial election of the legislature. 
In 1856 responsible administration became the law 
under the system already described. Six ministers 
advise the crown, and are answerable to parlia- 
ment for the management of affairs. The governor, 
who is commander-in-chief of the forces, receives 
$25,000, and ministers are paid $5,000 per year each. 
Public works of various kinds have teen undertaken, 
including railroads, and that has resulted in a debt 
of $85,171,000. There were inl885,l,060miles of 
railroad in use, and 262 miles in construction, be- 
sides 5,686 of telegraph line, inclusive of a line 
across the continent of 2,000 miles. Tbe population 
of the colony in 1884 was, 312,781 persons. 

Wool, wheat and flour, and copper ore are the sta- 
ples, and mining operations are extensively carried 
on, but nothing has yet been done in the way of ex- 
ploiting the iron ore of the country. Great enterprise 
has been displayed by the colony in exploring the in- 
terior of the continent. About 250,000 square miles 
of territory are put to profitable use. Farmers are 



permitted to take up lands after survey with the ad- 
vantage of credit to the extent of 1,000 acres of 
ordinary lands, or of 640 acres of lands reclaimed by 
drainage. Lands bought and sold in the colony 
pass by registration under the Torrens Act, and the 
saving in expense is great. The tariff of tbe colony 
imposes the highest duties on articles that can be 
manufactured in the country, but the people that 
administer the law call it incidental protection. 
There is only one colony that directly advocates and 
insists on protectionist legislation in the Australian 
group, and that is Victoria. 

The northern territory annexed to this colony has 
one prosperous settlement at Port Darwin. The 
climate is tropical, the rainy season commencing in 
Octobor and continuing five months ; the greatest 
heat and rain coming together. Fever and ague is 
the great trial to which settlers are liable. The soil 
is fertile, and all tropical fruits flourish. Alluvial 
mines have been opened in many localities and are 
paying ; but the population shows 2,070 Chinese and 
Malays to only 400 Europeans. 

Victoria, once the Port Philip District of New 
South Wales, and at one time called Australia Felix, 
was first settled in 1835. The area of the country 
is not extensive, but the enterprise of the popula- 
tion and other advantages have given the commun- 
ity a lead in the affairs of the group, that is not 
likely to be soon lost. 

Victoria is the southernmost colony on the conti- 
nent, between the 34th and 39th parallels of south 
latitude, and between the 141st and 150th meridi- 
ans of east longitude. Its coast line is about 600 
geographical miles, extreme length from east to west 
about 430, and its greatest breadth about 250 miles. 
The colony embraces one thirty-fourth of the con- 
tinent, being 88,198 square miles, a little less than 
the area of the main island of Great Britain. Blun- 
ders in defining the territorial lines between the col- 
onies have given to Victoria a considerable strip of 
country, that properly belongs to South Australia. 
The bounds of Victoria, landwards, have already 
been given. She is shut in by the two sister colonies 
and the Murray. The southern boundary is the 
southern ocean, Bass's Straits and the Pacific. Cap- 
tain Cook, in 1770, sighted Point Hicks, in what is 
now Victoria, the country probably having been vis- 
ited by navigators more than a century earlier. 
Western Port was discovered in 1798, and the strait 



77 



- \V) 



420 



AUSTRALASIA. 



that divides the continent from the Van Diemen's 
Land was sailed through and named for Bass in the 
same year. Port Philip Bay, the harbor of Mel- 
bourne, was discovered in 1802, and after that time 
the country became well known to the leading men 
of New South Wales ; but its value as a pastoral 
region was not understood for one-third of a cen- 
tury. Colonel Collins, in charge of convicts, at- 
tempted to settle the territory in 1803, but happily 
he abandoned the enterprise in 1804, declaring the 
land unfit for habitation. Twenty years later the 
country was traversed by colonists from New South 
Wales, but settlement did not follow for ten years. 
In November, 1834, the Brothers Henty, interested 
in whaling, established their home at Portland, and 
remained in that section, although their occupations 
changed to squatting soon afterwards. The first 
settlement in Melbourne was made in May following 
by Batman, who bought of the natives 000,000 acres 
of land. Fawkner, who always asserted that he was 
the founder of the city, sent a party in August, 
and himself entered the settlement in October. The 
name Australia Felix was bestowed on the western 
portion of the country in 1836, by the explorer, 
Major Mitchell, since knighted. The administration 
of law in the settlement was inaugurated in the 
same year by Captain Lonsdale, resident magistrate, 
and from that date regular government was the rule. 
The governor of New South Wales visited and 
named Melbourne in 1837, and half acres of laud 
were sold in the village for $175. In 1851 Victoria 
was allowed to assume control of its own affairs. 

Gold had been discovered in several places, by 
squatters, but the significance of the "find" was not 
comprehended ; it was only feared that publicity 
given to the auriferous condition of the soil would 
raise the wages of labor, and disincline the working 
class to serve as shepherds. The establishment of 
self government was immediately followed by more 
vigorous action. Active search for livable fields com- 
menced, and finds were reported, in July and Aug- 
ust. In September of that year all Melbourne was on 
the inarch toward Buuinyong, where a good lead 
had been found. 

The government imposed an extraordinary license 
fee on gold miners ; a tax so great that only a few of 
the diggers could pay the imposition in advance. 
Gold-field commissioners and mounted jjolice were 
sent to the gold regions, to arrest men found mining 



without a permit. Thousands of men on the gold- 
fields in the most prosperous times did not realize as 
much money from their operations as would have 
enabled them to pay the demands of the govern- 
ment and buy food. 

Sir Charles Hotham was sent out as governor by 
the mother country, and he brought with him the 
manners of a man-of-war captain, imjiressed with 
the necessity for rigorous proceedings against the 
diggers. His line of policy was to worry the miners 
into rebellion by incessant hunting for licenses, and 
then crush them into submission by an overwhelm- 
ing display of military force. He was successful. 
The miners of Ballarat built a stockade at Eureka, 
and presented front against the injustice with which 
they were treated ; but they were not able to with- 
stand the force of soldiery and police sent against 
them. The rebellion was suppressed, as were other 
emeutes on other gold-fields, and many prisoners 
were taken. 

There was an attempt to rally the people gener- 
ally in Melbourne, in support of the governor, but 
the demonstration was a failure, resulting only in 
calling out the mass of the population to denounce 
his high-handed proceedings. The martinet discov- 
ered that his work was only commenced, and he 
induced his secretary, Mr. Foster, to resign his office, 
assuming the blame that properly belonged to his 
superior. That was the end of absolutism in 
Victoria. 

The new constitution was proclaimed in 1855, and 
after that the ballot was introduced, followed by an 
abolition of property qualification for members of 
the Assembly, and after a little while by universal 
male suffrage for voters for that house. Property 
qualification for voters and members of the council 
continues to be the law, but in each case the require- 
ment has been reduced. Non-payment of members 
was found practically a disqualification of the non- 
propertied classes, and in consequence the people 
commenced agitating for that concession to justice. 
They were met on the threshold by the refusal of 
the upper house, representing projierty, to concur in 
any such measure. To allow payment of members 
was to diminish the power of the wealthier classes, 
and the fight was continued for years ; but in the 
end the rjopular party, carrying the war into Africa, 
won the battle, and now there cannot be found on 
this footstool a more complete presentation of 



v — 
~7FF 



AUSTRALASIA. 



423 



democratic government than is offered by the colony 
of Victoria. 

Gold was raised in Victoria in the first year of the 
gold-fields to the value of 82,903,9-10, the mines not 
being opened, in reality, until September. In the 
next year the total exceeded 855,000,000, and in the 
following year, $63,000,000. It is useless to repro- 
duce the figures for each year from that date to the 
present time ; the vast population, that was almost 
exclusively employed on the gold-fields, has been 
largely called off to more satisfactory pursuits, and 
as a consequence the totals have dwindled under 
that head to an aggregate of about 815,000,000 in 
1885. the total to that date being about 81,061,043,- 
880. The calculation presented is based on an aver- 
age of 820 per ounce for gold, and economists are 
well content to see the totals diminish, seeing that 
gold lias never been raised to the price for which it 
sells. 

Victoria commenced its public debt in 1855 with 
a trifling loan of about 82,400,000. Its total in 1885 
amounted to 8158,787,035, all incurred for public 
works, on which sum the interest has never been be- 
•hind by one day. There are 1,624 miles of railroads 
in operation, as shown by the returns in 1885, and at 
that time 71 miles in addition had been authorized 
by parliament. There were in use at the same date, 
8,055 miles of wire in telegraphic work, and tlie 
number of messages exceeded 1,500,000 annually, 
the rates having been reduced, to bring the service 
within the reach of the poorer classes. All these 
works are the property of the state, and many others, 
including docks and the Yan Yean water works, are 
valuable assets. The gold-fields are being supplied 
with expensive reservoirs, some assisted by the gov- 
ernment, and others entirely at the cost of the state, 
rates being charged for water supply. 

The governor is allowed 850,000 per year, besides 
810.000 for rent of the residence at Toorak ; and 
the ministers are paid : 810,000 to the premier, 88,000, 
to the attorney-general, and $7,500 to the other seven. 
The leader of the miners in the rebellion at Ballarat, 
Mr. Lalor, is now speaker of the assembly, with a 
salary of 87,500 per year. Members of the lower 
house are paid : 81,500 per year. Members are elected 
to the assembly for three years, subject to dissolution, 
and to the council for ten years, a fifth of the body 
retiring every two years. The population of Victoria 
to the present time, is about 960,000. Gold, wool, 



tallow, and preserved meats are staple imports; 
wheat is also exported, but not in such quantities as 
to challenge a place in the record. The country is 
by far the most densely populated of the Australian 
colonies, with the most complete educational system, 
although it has not yet arrived at the eminence of 
being compulsory. The colony has an armed force 
and a navy for defense. 

New Zealand is known to have been visited by 
Tasman in 1642, and again by Cook hi 1769, but 
was not colonized until long after. It consists of 
two groups, the north and middle islands ; but there 
are also several outlying islands, including South, or 
Stewart Island and Chatham Island. The coast line 
is about 3,000 miles, the group aggregating 1,000 
miles in length by about 200 miles across. Its area 
approximates to 105,342 square miles, about two- 
thirds being fit for pastoral purposes and agriculture. 
The population in 1854 was 32,554, exclusive of 
maorjes, and the number in 1879 was reported 463,- 
729, of which total about 300,000 were able to read 
and write. Gold-fields were first opened in 1857, in 
which year over 8200,000 value was raised, hi the 
following year there was a slight increase, followed 
by decreasing yields for two years, after which better 
" finds " were struck, showing in 1861 nearly 84,000,- 
000, the next nearly $8,000,000, and subsequent 
yields that approximated to 814,000,000. The total 
yield, to the end of 1879, being $180,635,410. The 
maori, or native population, in 1878, according tore- 
turns then obtained, aggregated 43,595. They are 
vary intelligent aborigines, capable of receiving civil- 
ization, and as farmers, are persevering and success- 
ful. In war a large amount of courage and skill 
has been displayed by them, taxing the powers of the 
colonists, and British military forces. The maories 
are now peacefully disposed. 

The present government was established by stat- 
ute in 1852, dividing the colony into six provinces, 
which were afterwards increased to nine. The suf- 
frage is practically household, giving a vote to every 
person that is beneficially interested in the country. 
The system of government by provinces was super- 
seded in 1875, when superintendents and provincial 
officers gave place to local boards and the governor. 
Legislation is vested in a parliament of two cham- 
bers, each member of either house being paid $1,050 
per session. Four aborigines are elected to the lower 
house by the maories. The governor is the execu- 



53 



-^ 



424 



AUSTRALASIA. 



fcive, having in consideration of his duties as gover- 
nor and commander-in-chief of the forces, 837,500 
per year as salary and allowance. He is advised by 
nine ministers, who are responsible for the adminis- 
tration of their departments, and for the general 
management of affairs. Two maories are always 
included in the cabinet, but they are not in charge 
of any branch of the government. The home gov- 
ernment used to control native affairs until 1863, 
but since that date the colonists have been in the 
enjoyment of full responsibility. The seat of the 
general government is at Wellington since 1864 ; up 
to that date 
the capital was 
Auckland. 

Public works 
have been very 
expensive in 
New Zealand, 
and their prose- 
cution has im 
volved the col- 
ony in a consid - 
erable debt, part 
of which is guar- 
anteed by the 
Imperial gov- 
ernment. The 
total to 1879 
was $119,791,- 
550.TheChinese 
in New Zealand 
numbered 4,382 
in 1878, and of that number only eight were 
females. The natives of the Flowery Land have 
the same peculiarity in all their travels; they 
leave their better-halves under the shelter of " the 
Brother of the Sun and the Moon." They are not 
valued as colonists, partly on that account, but they 
are industrious and frugal, and grow rich on land that 
would hardly give bread to Europeans, either as gar- 
deners or as miners. In some of the Australian col- 
onies Chinese are subject to special taxation, to ex- 
clude them. 

Population in New Zealand increases more rapidly 
by excess of births over deaths, and by immigration, 
than in any other colony in the group, and exports 
are increasing. Commerce in twenty years to 1878 
has grown more than twenty-fold. The staple ex- 




ports are wool, corn, flour, kaurie-guin and pre- 
served meat. Gold was exported in 1875 to the 
amount of 318,367 ounces ; in 1876 to the extent of 
371,865 ounces, and in 1877, 310,486 ounces. Rail- 
roads were commenced in 1872, at the cost of the 
state by loans, and at the end of 1879 there were 
1,171 miles open for traffic, besides 284 miles in 
course of construction. At the same date the length 
of electric telegraph in use aggregated 3,512 miles, 
which had sent during the preceding year 1,448,943 
messages. The General Assembly in 1879 sanctioned 
further constructions to the extent of 938 miles ex- 
tra broad, to be 
completed with- 
in the five years 
then ensuing. 
The completed 
lines, when pre- 
pared for ser- 
vice, are to cost 
$80,000,000. 

The system of 
government in 
this colony is in 
the main similar 
to that describ- 
ed in connec- 
tion with other 
colonies. Each 
colony is per- 
mitted to draft 
its own consti- 
tution, provided 
that it embodies the principle of responsible admin- 
istration, but when the form has been adopted, as 
for instance in the case of Victoria, an appeal for 
change, beyond what is contemplated in the original 
instrument, is received by the imperial government, 
with a tone and demeanor that seems to say, ''You 
have made your choice and must content yourselves 
to work out your own salvation." The bicameral 
system is by all the colonies treated as indispensable : 
but in course of time, in many of the states single 
chambers must be resorted to, because of the unac- 
commodating spirit that is manifested. The re- 
sponsibility of rule can be borne by one chamber as 
well as by two or more. 

We have already glanced at Queensland under the 
name of Moretou Bay, forming part of the penal 



TV 



MS 



AUSTRALASIA. 



4 2 5 



colony of New South Wales. That name ended 
when the settlement was cut adrift from its old asso- 
ciations, and the better title, Queensland, was be- 
stowed with the constitution and powers of respon- 
sible government. Earliest colonization dates from 
the year 1825, when the first shipment of "govern- 
ment men " arrived. That was the euphonious 
method by which convicts were indicated ; they were 
" government men." Seventeen years elapsed from 
that arrival, and in 1843 the country was thrown 
open to free settlers. An enumeration four years 
later showed a population of 2,257, including free 
and felon, and the transportation system at an end. 
The virus had not gone far enough to establish 
acute pymmia, as in Tasmania. Change of name 
and improved habits have placed the country among 
the best conditioned communities. 

The boundaries of Queensland are, on the north, 
the gulf of Carpentaria, on the east, the Pacific 
Ocean, on the south, the colony of New South Wales, 
on the west, the 141st meridian of longitude from 
the 29th to the 26th parallel and thence to the 138th 
meridian, north, to the gulf first named, '"including 
all and every the adjacent islands, their members 
and appurtenances, in the Pacific Ocean and in the 
Gulf of Carpentaria." The dimensions were estab- 
lished by Her Majesty's order in council, when the 
first governor arrived, in December, 1859, and inau- 
gurated responsible administration. Parliament 
consists as in Great Britain, of two houses: the 
council of thirty members, nominated for fife by the 
crown ; the commons, or assembly of 55 members, 
chosen by ballot from as many electorates ; voting 
among males being as wide as taxation. Holders of 
property, either leasehold or freehold, are in addition 
permitted to cast a ballot for each property, as well 
as for their residence. Considering the origin of 
the community, it is perhaps but natural that prop- 
erty should have been fenced about with safeguards. 

The governor of Queensland, commander-in-chief 
and vice-admiral, as his commission runs, is allowed 
a salary from the imperial authorities, like all other 
such officials, merely to define his character as a 
civil servant, somewhere about $5,000 per annum; 
his allowance from the colony being $25,000 per 
annum. Responsible ministers, to the number of 
six, are paid $5,000 per year each, and are answer- 
able to parliament for every act of the administra- 
tion, as well as for their personal deeds. The rev- 



enues of the colony are derived mainly from sales 
and rents of public lands, customs duties, and ex- 
cise. Public works and aid to immigration have 
compelled the country to incur a public debt. In 
1879 the total liability of the colony was $50,960,- 
430, but in the year last passed the parliament 
authorized a new loan, and in 1885 the debt was 
$95,354,250. Considering the vast area of the 
country, 669,520 square miles with a seaboard of 
2,250 miles, and that the debt is a first charge on 
all lauds and revenues, the public creditor is of 
course perfectly safe, and would be though the 
liability were largely increased. The population 
of the colony does not increase rapidly. It is depend- 
ent on Chinese and South Sea Islanders for a large 
part of all recent arrivals, and even with such ques- 
tionable aids the immigration of 1879 only aggre- 
gated 6,896, while the emigration for the same term 
amounted to 8,134. Similar results were chronicled 
in the preceding year, although the figures were not 
quite so unfavorable. The climate is semi-tropical, 
and Europeans suffer so severely from exposure to 
the heat, that none remain in the country longer 
than is absolutely necessary to protect their inter- 
ests. The population in 1885 amounted to 318,606, 
including 1 1,369 Chinese at work on the gold-fields. 
The number of Aborigines in the territory appears 
to be undetermined. 

Wool is the staple export, the other items being of 
small amount, including preserved meat, copper, 
and gold. Cotton and sugar-cane are said to flour- 
ish in Queensland ; they have certainly been accli- 
mated successfully, but the supply of suitable labor 
is so limited, that some time must elapse before the 
returns upon the outlay will sensibly affect the ex- 
ports of the colony. There are probably about 
25,000 acres under sugar-cane at the present time. 
Livestock does not flourish quite so well as in Vic- 
toria, but the figures under that head are satisfac- 
tory. Coal-mines have been opened and promise 
continuous yields ; gold-mines, which were entered 
on in 1867, gave $6,532,155 value in precious metal 
in 1877. Kailroads in operation in 1884 were 
1,207 miles, and at that time 746 miles in addition 
were in course of construction. At the end of 1884 
the telegraph service of the colony employed 11,300 
miles of wire with 321 stations. Like all the other 
colonies having responsible government in the 
Australian group, Queensland has an agent general 



"*7[s 



\*? 



426 



AUSTRALASIA. 



in Loudon, whose duties are mainly to keep the 
friends of the colony in parliament advised as to 
its interests, which, added to the dignity of having 
such an officer, is perhaps a justification for the 
outlay involved. 

The exceptional conditions of Western Australia, 
the only penal settlement now retained by Great 
Britain, and retained as such at its own solicitation, 
removes that colony from the category in which 
the other colonies of the group appear. It is the 
Ishmael of settlements, and if the hand of every 
other colony is not against it, the reason must be 
sought in the fact that its conditions are too feeble 
to demand much energy in dealing with all the mis- 
chief that it is capable of accomplishing. It is also 
supposed in its defense that "its poverty and not its 
will consents" to receive such poor yokefellows in 
the difficult task of building up a colony in Western 
Australia. The area of the territory is great, esti- 
mated at 1,000,000 square miles, its greatest length 
being from north to south 1,600 miles, and from 
east to west 1,000 miles. The actually colonized 
territory is within an area of about 600 miles by 
150. The outlying territory operates as a kind of 
sanitary ground, over which the infected cannot 
approach the other colonies. Vessels from the 
pariah settlement are subjected to strict examin- 
ation and social quarantine regulations on their 
entry to healthy ports. More severe measures were 
once threatened. 

There is not responsible government, only the 
nominee system that has been mentioned before. 
The governor, who is paid $12,500 per year, dis- 
charges executive functions, and calls to his aid a 
legislative council of 21 members, seven nominated 
and the remainder elected. Property qualifications 
are demanded from voters and representatives ; in 
one case a minimum of $50 per year, and in the other 
of $5,000 in lauded property. Instead of a respon- 
sible ministry there is an executive council, composed 



of officials, including the judiciary, the professional 
heads of departments, and six secretaries of state. 

The governor, within the instructions given to 
him with his commission, or subsequent directions 
from the colonial office in London, is dictator in the 
colony. His councilors have no control. The 
income of the state is derived from sales of land, 
leases, licenses, and customs ; added to an imperial 
grant in aid of $76,620 per annum. In the year 
1879 Western Australia incurred a debt for the 
construction of a railroad, amounting in all to 
$1,805,000. At the end of 1879 there were 78 miles 
of road open for traffic. The territory, as defined 
by the royal commission, includes all that portion 
of New Holland to the west of 129° east longitude. 
The first settlement was made in 1829, and 21 years 
later the gross total was only about 6,000 persons, 
bond and free. The last census, taken in 1871, 
showed only a population of 25,353, nearly 1,800 of 
whom were prisoners. The exports of the colony 
consist almost entirely of wool and lead ore ; the 
value of wool in 1884, the highest point reached, 
was $1,213,930; the lead ore exports for that year 
aggregated $16,875. Coal has been found in 
small quantities, and recent investigations favor the 
belief that the colony is rich in minerals, including 
copper. 

It is highly probable that the Australasian colon- 
ies will, in the course of a few years, constitute 
themselves a republic after the manner of the United 
States, the home government being willing to afford 
the colonists every facility to carry out desires for 
independence whenever the popular will may take 
that form ; and almost inevitably the city of Mel- 
bourne will be the capital of the nation in the day 
which no loyal Australian would wish to hasten. 
The Queen of Great Britain has no portion of her 
well-ruled empire in which her name is more revered 
than in Australia, but in the progress of human 
affairs, change is certain. 




^ 



liL 



f^W^^^S^^ 





V * V w -4i 

l '^4 ^ 4yvo T |, E ,tftf^ 



1 



^ 




CHAPTER LXVIII. 



The Great Britain of the East— The Country Described— The Cities of Japan— Products 
and Population— Mines — Early History — Japan in the time of C*ksar— The Great 
Queen— Introduction from China of Letters and Philosophy— Buddhism Introduced— 
First Contact with Europeans — Jesuit Missions — The Butch in Japan— Tycoon Iyeyas 
—Two Centuries of Peace— America and Japan— Fall of the Daimios— Christian Cal- 
endar Adopted— New Japan — Japanese Idolatry and Sintuism— Transportation — Mod 
ern Missions — Japanese Literature. 




* 



*¥ 



3* 



^SAI Nippon, or Nihon, is 

the native name of that 

" Sunrise Kingdom," 

known to Europe and 

America as Japan. This 

land of the dawn, which 

we are to visit, is not a 

part of the continent of 

Asia, but sustains to it much the same 

relation that Great Britain does to 

Europe. 

Japan consists of four large islands 
and numerous minor isles, embracing 
"The Thousand Islands" of the Ori- 
ent. The four large islands are Nipon, 
or Niphon, with an area of 95,000 
square miles ; Yesso, with 30,000 square miles ; Kin- 
sin, area 16,000 square miles ; Sikok, 10,000. The 
entire area, including the 3,846 small islands, is 
about 150,000 square miles. The total length of the 
empire is 1,600 miles from north to south. Conse- 
quently the climate varies widely, but as a whole it 
belongs to the temperate zone. 

Japan is the home of earthquakes. The country 
is mountainous ; the mountains show volcanic effects. 
The highest peak, Fusiyama, 14,170 feet high, is an 



extinct volcano. The rivers are short, shallow and 
rapid. Throughout the empire there is only one 
fresh-water lake of any considerable extent. That 
is called Biwako, or Lake Orni. 

Near this lake is the city of Miako, or Saikio, the 
western, or ancient, capital. Tokio, commonly 
called Yeddo, is the eastern capital. The former 
was long kept sacred from the intrusion of foreign- 
ers. It was built about 1100 years ago. It is almost 
surrounded by mountains. This ancient capital lias 
a population of about 380,000 inhabitants. Tokio 
has about three times that number of people. The 
most important seaport of Japan is Yokohama, the 
third city in size. Its spacious and pacific harbor 
affords protection for ships. It is on the bay of 
Yeddo, and only twenty miles from the national 
capital. Osaca, on the island of Nipon, is second 
only to Tokio in population. Next to Yokohama 
in size ranks Nagasaki, on the island of Kinsin. 
Neigata, on the northeast coast of Nipon, Kobe, near 
Osaca, and Hokodate, on Yesso, are the remaining 
cities of some magnitude. 

Japan is highly cultivated, so far as it is arable. 
The population, by the census of 1872, was 33,110,- 
825, and it requires good tillage to support so large 
a number of inhabitants on an area so small, as com- 



(427) 



& 



tlL, 



428 



JAPAN AND THE JAPANESE. 



pared with population. The same census gave the 
number of farmers as 14,870,420. The mulberry 
tree,with its silk-worm, and the tea-plant, furnish the 
main articles of export. Kaw silk goes to Europe 
in large quantities. The surplus tea of the country 
finds its way, most of it, to this country. For home 
consumption rice is the chief product of Japan. It 
exports more to the United States than to any other 
country, and imports more from England than from 
any other, although the import trade with the 
United States is 
increasing very 
rapidly. 

Speaking of 
the rural popu- 
lation, a recent 
visitor to that 
country writes, 
" The farmers 
are a simple- 
hearted and in- 
dustrious race. 
Rakes, spades, 
and plows used 
by them are of 
rude construc- 
tion. Sometimes 
the plows are 
drawn by oxen, 
but just as fre- 
quently by men, 
women or chil- 
dren. They show 
great kindness 
to animals, very 
few of which, however, are to be found in the em- 
pire." The grass in Japan is so coarse that sheep 
and cattle cannot thrive upon it. The few domes- 
tic beasts of Japan are fed on grain exclusively. 
The people live almost exclusively on rice, fish and 
radishes, with some potatoes, fowl, onions, pump- 
kins, and the like. The fruits of Japan are of an in- 
ferior quality. 

The mines in Japan are very important. Gold, 
silver and copper are exported in large quantities 
and have been for a long time. It is said that be- 
tween the years of 1550 and 1G39, the Portuguese 
exported from that country not less than $297,500,- 
000 in gold and silver. The yield has fallen off in 



very important feature of 




late years, but it is still 
Japanese resources. 

It is now time to turn our attention to history. 
It is impossible to fix a boundary line between fable 
and reality, legend and authentic history, with any 
degree of precision. The Japanese have a literature 
running far back into the remote past, and some 
things are credited by them which are simply incredi- 
ble. The people themselves believe that they had 
national existence about 2500 years previous to the 

present empire, 
and this was es 
t ab lished by 
Jimmu Tenno 
in the year 007 
B C. According 
to this the period 
of the Japanese 
world does not 
differmuchfrom 
the jjeriod of the 
Christian and 
Hebrew world. 

This Jimmu 
was a great war- 
rior, and estab- 
lished his king- 
dom over the 
entire area of 
Japan. It was 
in his day that 
the people of 
that country 
learned to di- 
vide time witli 
some degree of accuracy into months and years. 
That fact perhaps, rather than any great exploits 
and conquests, makes the year B. C. 667 the begin- 
ning of definite computation and narration in 
Japan. The emperor, or mikado, was also high- 
priest, or pope. 

The first capital was Kaswabara, but it was 
changed several times. Saikio, or Miako, was the 
capital for nearly a thousand years. It was removed 
from there to Tokio in 1867, as one of the results of 
the great revolution to be explained later. Native 
writers agree in stating that the total number of 
emperors in unbroken line was one hundred and 
twenty-four. The emperor, or mikado, became so 



"^ 



JAPAN AND THE JAPANESE. 



429 



sacred and august a personage that he could not 
stoop to practical statesmanship, and for a period 

of six hundred 

\rars the real 
rulers were the 
tycoons, or shio- 
goons. Origin- 
ally the tycoons 
were the mili- 
tary chieftains. 
They ruled by 
fear and fre- 
quently involv- 
ed the conn try- 
in civil war over 
their rival and 
hostile ambi- 
tions. 

The first cen- 
sus of Japan 
was taken B. C. 
97. The emper- 
or who caused 
this enumera- 
tion of his subjects was Sujin-tenno. lie built a 
powerful navy and established commercial relations 
with Corea, ir- 




SB 



NIPHON BASHI BRIDGE, TOKIO. 




rigated the arid 
land and drained 

the lakes. Evi- 
dently he was a 
great statesman. 
It was his suc- 
cessor Quinin- 
tenno, who abol- 
ished the hid- 
eous practice of 
requiring the 
empress and her 
court to commit 
hari-kari upon 
the death of the 
emperor. His 
humane reforms 
extended to oth- 
er things, and 
the actual civil- 
ization of Japan was greatly advanced 
He also paid much attention to irrigation. 



by him. 
During 



his reign 800 canals and ponds were constructed 
in the interest of agriculture. After him came 

Kekotenno,who 
had the land 
surveyed and 
large grain ware- 
houses built, in 
which the sur- 
plus of the years 
of jilenty could 
be stored for use 
in the years of 
scarcity. 

In the year 
A. D. 200, a wo- 
man ascended 
the throne of 
Japan, Jingu 
Kogu, the widow 
of the emper- 
or Chinaitenno. 
She had been 
her husband's 
companion in 
arms, and her scepter was a sword. She led her 
army to victory over Corea. She acquired more 

renown than 
any predecessor, 
and to this day 
the painters and 
poets of Japan 
delight in set- 
ting forth her 
exploits. At that 
time the art of 
working in silk 
was unknown in 
the empire. It 
was introduced 
from Corea dur- 
ing the reign of 
her son. 

Late in the 
third century of 
the Christian 
era, Chinese lit- 
erature and let- 
ters were introduced into Japan, and Confucius 
became the great philosopher and teacher of the 



^ 



43° 



JAPAN AND THE JAPANESE. 



Japanese. His practical ideas commended them- 
selves to their approval, and they adopted him 
as their intellectual father. The introduction of 
Chinese letters was a very great event. " Prior 
to that event,'' says Lanman, " their own tongue 
dors not appear to have been reduced to writ- 
ing." About that time the favorite Japanese mu- 
sical instrument, the koto, was invented. The 
emperor, Osin-ten no. son of Jingu Kogu, also intro- 
duced >om China improvements in silk culture and 



grand on the little island of Eno-Shima. It is called 
Dai Butmi, or " The Great Buddha." 

The mild and meditative religion of Buddha did 
not prevent war, civil or foreign. An attempt was 
made to subjugate China. It resulted in failure 
and the bootless invasion of Japan by the Chinese. 
It was found that either could repel the other ; 
neither could subjugate the other. Even among the 
disciples of Buddha in Japan there arose war. The 
priests quarreled so. bitterly that to their animosity 







DAI BUTSA, OR, THE GREAT BTTDDI1A. 



manufacture. Dikes were constructed to guard 
against inundation, and rice-mills built. 

The first national history dates from A. D. 400. 
One hundred years later Buddhism was introduced. 
It also came through the gateways of Corea and 
China, and it found ready acceptance, rapidly dis- 
placing the old Sintu worship. The national char- 
acter was very materially modified by this religious 
innovation. The higher classes were especially in- 
fluenced by it, and it became the fashion for the em- 
perors to abdicate and adopt the life and habit of 
the Buddhist priesthood. 

One of the truly great works of art in Japan is 
the bronze image of Buddha, fifty feet high and ad- 
mirable in proportion, which stands solitary and 



is attributed a great conflagration, which in 1536 
destroyed about one-half of the capital. During the 
period known as the Dark Ages in Europe, Japan 
was on very nearly the same plane, as regards civil- 
ization, as that continent. The records of that 
period in both cases should be written with blood. 

The first connection between Japan and Europe, 
so far as known, dates from 1541. Some Portuguese 
traders voyaging from Siam to China were wrecked 
on the coast of Kiusin. The national records make 
mention of the fact on account of the firearms which 
the strangers had. Two years later the Portuguese 
opened important communications with Japan for 
the double purposes of traffic and evangelization. 
The Jesuits and the merchants kept each other com- 



■ri<r 



JAPAN AND THE JAPANESE. 



43 l 



pany. It was in 15-19 that Francis Xavier, called 
" the bright and morning star of modern missions," 
visited Japan. He spent ten years in the establish- 
ment and sujjerintendence of Jesuit missions in In- 
dia, Ceylon, Japan and Malacca, baptizing, it is said, 
a million converts. Two of those ten years were 
spent in Japan. Such was the progress made by 
missionaries of the cross, that Tycoon Nobu Nanga 
who rose to eminence in 1557, like Constantine the 
Great, espoused the cause 
of Christ from motives of 
policy. He waged war up- 
on the Buddhists, begin- 
ning his crusade in 1569. 
A great many lives were 
taken and temples de- 
stroyed. The Jesuits were 
delighted with their prog- 
ress. In 1581 their com- 
munion numbered 150,- 
000. Bat the triumph was 
short, and the reaction 
destructive. Buddhism 
had a firm hold upon the 
people, especially the 
higher classes, and the 
seeming prosperity of the 
Jesuits was due to no real 
sympathy with their mis- 
sion. With a change of 
power came the reaction, 
and the Jesuits were 
swept out of the country, 
utterly and ruthlessly. 
They appealed to the 
sword, and fell by it. In 1585 they were ordered to 
leave the country within twenty days, and desist at 
once from preaching and baptizing. Those who 
should disregard the warning were threatened with- 
death. But for some time the execution of the 
threat was evaded. The Jesuits had ships of their 
own, and the tycoon concluded that instead of send- 
ing them away it would be better to employ those 
ships in war with Corea. 

It was the last year of the sixteenth century that 
the English and Dutch mariners first visited Japan. 
The English never made much headway in estab- 
lishing commercial relations with that country until 
our own times. The Dutch were more successful. 




JAPANESE WOMEN. 



They seem to have succeeded in. convincing the Jap- 
anese authorities that they had no religious designs, 
but were purely commercial and financial in their 
purposes. Such certainly was the fact, and for quite 
a long period after the representatives of all other 
parts of Europe had been expelled, the Dutch were 
allowed to maintain a trading post at the island of 
Ilirado, and the profits realized from this monopoly 
of European commerce were very considerable. The 
overthrow of this monop- 
oly was brought about by 
the United States. But 
before passing to that re- 
volutionary event we must 
return to the political 
affairs of the empire. 

During the year 1G0O a 
battle was fought near 
Lake Orni which gave 
to Iyeyas total authority 
over the country. This 
soon removed the capital 
to Yeddo. He gave the 
country a most admirable 
system of laws, and estab- 
lished justice upon so firm 
a foundation that for 
more than two hundred 
years after his death the 
laud had peace. No por- 
tion of Christendom could 
ever boast so conspicuous 
a practical exemplification 
of the religion of the 
Prince of Peace as the 
Japan of that period. The first American ship in 
Japanese waters was a man-of-war commanded by 
Commodore Bidell. That was in 1846. The naval 
visit which accomplished jjractical results was made 
by Commodore M. C. Perry in 1853. He negotiated 
a commercial treaty in 1854, which was the be- 
ffinnine of one of the most radical revolutions that 
country ever exjierienced. Thesameyear Sir James 
Sterling of the British navy arrived at Nagasaki, de- 
termined to secure for England as much latitude of 
commerce with Japan as had been granted to the 
United States, and he was successful. Other 
nations followed, and the Dutch monopoly fell, and 
with it Japanese exclusiveness, to a very consider- 



54 



43 2 



JAPAN AND THE JAPANESE. 



able extent. Trade was limited and hedged about 
with man)- restrictions. The new policy was firmly 
established by 1858. 

Japan, like France and Italy, had its Renaissance. 
It began about the first of the eighteenth century. 
There was a great revival of learning, a mighty 
intellectual development. The government at 
Yeddo, as it was then called, had presumed 
too much and gone too far in ignoring the law- 
ful authority of the Mikado at Mikio. When 
in 1868 the Tycoon, now for the first time officially 
taking this title, negotiated treaties by which 
foreigners were al- 
lowed some com- 
mercial privileges, 
that innovation was 
made the occasion 
of revolution. The 
battle of Fushimi 
was fought, and 
the daimios and 
their leader put 
down. Suddenly 
as if by magic the 
power which had 
been supreme for 
centuries waserush- 
ed and the Mikado 
moved from Kioto 
to Yeddo, hence- 
forth Tokio, and 
became in fact, as 
in theory, the supreme authority in the nation. 

The immediate object of the revolution was not 
obtained. The Mikado found that what the Tycoon 
had assented to he could not escape from. The 
foreign governments were quite too powerful and 
their navies too strong to be defied by a kingdom of 
islands. A little injury was inflicted upon property 
owned by foreigners and a few outrages committed 
(for which ample indemnity was soon paid), and 
then the Japanese accepted the situation. The 
government and the great mass of the people were 
so well pleased to be rid of the daimio despotism 
that they were in no humor to maintain a cpiarrel 
with foreigners. "Finding."' says an able writer, 
"it impossible to drive out the foreigners, as many 
of the patriots desired, the new government ratified 
the treaties, and thenceforth followed in quick suc- 







^iSsfcl 




COMMODORE PERRY LANDING IN JAPAN. 



cession those radical changes in the national policy 
which made Japan the wonder of the nations. The 
feudal system, after seven centuries of existence, 
was abolished in August, 1871, and the daimios 
made to reside as pensioners at Tokio. The 
Mikado appeared in public as the active patron of 
the dock-yards, light-houses, hospitals, schools, 
colleges, railways and telegraphs which were rapidly 
established." Finding that isolation was impossible, 
Jajnan entered with enthusiasm upon a study of 
Western civilization, fully resolved apparently to 
adopt and adapt the latest improvements of the 

day. In a short 
time a flourishing 
newspaper press 
was established, 
and the decimal 
system of reckon- 
ing money, as it 
obtains in the Uni- 
ted States, was 
adopted. TheJaji- 
auese sen corre- 
sponds to our dol- 
lar. National banks 
on the American 
plan were establish- 
ed. They now num- 
ber over 200. The 
western postal sys- 
tem is also in 
vogue there. The 
English postal savings system has been adopted, 
and is very largely patronized. 

All these changes were not wrought without 
some very stubborn resistance, especially in Kinshui. 
These rebellions required the intervention of the 
military for their suppression. The chief of these 
was the Satsuma rebellion, led by Saigo Takamori. 
It began February 1, 1877, and lasted seven months. 
The rebels numbered 37,500, and the losses in killed 
and wounded on both sides amounted to about 
15,000. 

The total public debt of Japan, Sej)tember 1, 
1878, was ¥375,725,077, all of which was held at 
home except $13,399,010, held in England. These 
figures include the paper money in circulation, $121,- 
054,731. By the operations of a sinking fund the 
debt was reduced in 1885 to $324,709,010. 



"71* 



'* 



JAPAN AND THE JAPANESE. 



433 



The first line of railroad, from Hiogo to Osaka, 
35 miles, was opened in the summer of 1875. At 
the close of 1884 there were open to business 250 
miles of railway, with 140 miles in process of con- 
struction and 455 additional miles chartered. The 
mileage of telegraphs at that time was 5,000. The 
standing arm)' is about 80,000, with a militia, or 
home-guard liable to duty, of 5,000,000. The navy- 
consisted in June, 1884, of twenty-one steamers 
and five sailing vessels. 



political control. As Sintuism is the indigenous 
religion, it deserves especial consideration. The 
worship of the sun is its fundamental idea. 
The moon is also an object of adoration. The 
emperors claim descent from the sun. Image 
worship, or idolatry, abounds. There are gods 
of war, rice, riches and the like. Perhaps the 
most curious feature of Sintuism is the seven 
happy gods, who are represented in a way 
quite foreign to occidental ideas of deity. The Jap- 




TH£ SEVEN HAPPY GODS 



In theory the government is an absolute mon- 
archy ; in practice it is a responsible ministiy. 

The empire is divided into thirty eight hens, each 
having a governor appointed by the central govern- 
ment at Tokio. There are three imperial cities, To- 
kio, Osaka and Kioto, governed by mayors. The 
area of the rice-fields is 5,585,900 acres ; of the other 
cultivated fields, 3,817,300 acres. 

In 1872 the calendar of Christian nations was 
adopted, and it may be said that old Japan dated 
from B. C. 667 to A. D. 1872. The ancient faith 
has 97 temples, the Buddhists 296,900, sustaining a 
priesthood numbering 168,654. But new Japan has 
by imperial decree abolished the religious machinery 
of former days, so far as the same was subject to 



anese, whatever his religion, worships his ancestors, 
and reverence for parents is carried to an extreme 
unknown in Europe or America. 

The government school for boys (Kaiseivak-ko), 
at Tokio, employs German, French and English 
teachers, and thousands of boys and young men 
may now receive a complete education in the 
science and literature of these different nations. It 
is the science and worldly wisdom of the Occident, 
far more than its religion, that the Japanese are 
disposed to adopt. Japan has a voluminous litera- 
ture, and the great majority of the people can read. 
No European or American has ever yet discovered 
in their books, whether prose or poetry, any flashes 
of genius. 



-a V 

T 




CHINESE EMPIRE. 



t?HEE== fl 



tL£i 



JSfc^ L 



>g^y >g^y j^z 




^feffeSE^E^i^ 



sy ^ -^ g 




CHAPTER LXIX. 



Territorial Extent— China Proper— The Chinese Coast — The Shanghai Region — The Val- 
ley of the Hwang-ho — The Interior — Products — The Rivers of China — The Climate — 
The Forests — The Flora of China — Geology of the Country — Mineral Wealth and 
Petroleum — Chinese Animals — Corea and its Exclusiveness— Manchuria and the Mod- 
ern Tartars— Mongolia— Thibet and the Grand Llama. 




HINA, embracing China Prop- 
er, Corea, Manchuria, Mon- 
golia, Thibet, Eastern Tur- 
kestan, and exclusive of Co- 
chin-China, Siam and other 
merely nominal tributaries, 
^t&S^" covers an area of 4,740,000 
square miles. This is equal to nearly the 
whole of continental Europe. It extends 
from the parallel of north latitude 18° 
30', which runs nearly centrally through 
Soudan, Africa, and falls about sixty 
miles south of the City of Mexico, to 
north latitude 33° 25', almost corre- 
sponding to the parallel of Liverpool, 
England, and the northern extremity of 
the Province of Quebec. . In longitude 
it sti etches through fifty degrees, from the 80th to 
130th meridians. Russia bounds it along its entire 
northern line, of nearly 3,000 miles; the Pacific 
Ocean (or its subdivisions known as the Japan, the 
Yellow and the China Seas) washes its entire east- 
ern and southeastern boundary, of more than 4,000 
miles in extent ; Cochin-China, Burmah, British 
India, Bootan, Sikkim and Nepaul border it on the 
south and southwest, and the latter and Russia on 
the west. 
China Proper, or that portion which is distinctively 



Chinese in civilization and autonomy, embraces only 
about half of this vast empire, yet it has an area 
nearly equal to that of Germany, Austria, France, 
Italy, Spain, Norway and Sweden, and the British 
Isles united, having a coast-line of about the same 
contour and length as that of the United States on 
the Atlantic, and a land frontier estimated at 4,400 
miles. With the exception of an inconsiderable 
projection in the northeast, between the Gulf of 
Pe-chi-li and Corea, it corresponds in latitude with 
that portion of the United States south of the south- 
ern line of New York State and that part of Mex- 
ico north of the city of Vera Cruz. It lies south of 
all Europe, except the southern portions of the Span- 
ish, Roman and Grecian peninsulas and their out- 
lying islands. About half of China Proper is hilly 
or mountainous, containing a large proportion of 
lauds which cannot be cultivated even by the labori- 
ous methods of terrace-farming and artificial irri- 
gation, so largely practiced in that country. 

From its southernmost limit, on the gulf of Ton. 
quin, to the Chusan Archipelago, nearly a thousand 
miles northward, the lookout of China on the sea is 
indescribably cheerless. A range of disintegrated 
granite mountains frowns, or, under a tropical sun, 
glares, on the passing voyager all the way. Treeless, 
shrubless, almost bladeless, their flanks of rotten 
granite gullied into red and yellow gulches, and their 



(434) 



f 



CHINESE EMPIRE. 



435 




CHINESE EMPIRE. 



437 



intervening ridges and summits heaped with black- 
ened boulders, these desolate mountains yield no 
hint of the rich, populous interior just behind them. 
But within a hundred and fifty miles of Shanghai 
the prospect changes. Here the charming Chusan 
Archipelago appears off the Bay of Hangchow. 
These islands are beautifully terraced from their 
summits to the sea. Temples perched on the prin- 
cipal eminences or on the ledges of rocky promon- 
tories, where they can only be reached by steps cut 
in the solid rock, stand embowered in lovely groves ; 
shrines dot the waysides ; walled towns andunwalled 
villages are seen on every side ; and around all 
glistens the sea, animated 
by gaily pennoned junks and 
bevies of fishermen's boats. 
Not far north of these 
islands appears the low, flat, 
alluvial plain, on the edge 
of which stands Shanghai, 
in the delta of the river 
Yang-tse-Kiang. This plain 
is one of the most remark- 
able geographical develop- 
ments of China. It extends 
inland from Shanghai (in 
north latitude 30° 10') to- 
wards the south 150 to 250 
miles ; westward, from 300 
to 500;and northward about 
800 miles, to the gates of 
Peking and the base of the mountains over which 
climbs the great wall, the northern boundary of 
China Proper. From its southern verge, on the bay 
of Hangchow, to its northern limit, on the gulf of 
Pe-chi-li, only the bold, mountainous promontory 
interjected between the Yellow Sea and the gulf of 
Pe-chi-li, constituting the greater part of the prov- 
ince of Shantung, intervenes between this plain and 
the ocean. In the interior this vast sea of verdure 
sweeps northward past the Shantung promontory, 
comes out to the gulf coast beyond it, and continues 
about a hundred miles still farther north. Prom the 
west the mountain ridges and lines of foot-hills 
which make the water-shed between the tributaries 
of the two great water-courses of China, the Yang-tse 
and the Yellow rivers, project into it. From south 
to north, through its greatest length, runs the Grand 
Canal, about 800 miles in length, one of the grand- 




CnrXESE junk. 



est achievements of man, considering the early age 
in which it was constructed, whether regarded as a 
feat of civil engineering or as a project of political 
and commercial sagacity. 

This whole plain, except in seasons of extreme 
drought, or when the Yellow river overflows its 
banks (which, like those of the lower Mississippi, 
are in many places higher than the surrounding 
country) and floods whole districts, is one u nbroken 
sea of harvest. Rice, maize, millet, mulberry, cot- 
ton, sugar-cane, vegetables of every variety, and or- 
chards, interspersed with innumerable cities, towns 
and hamlets, fill the entire region. Westward of this 
wide, extended plain lie sev- 
eral large, populous prov- 
inces of rich valleys and 
table lands, finely watered 
by the sources and upper 
tributaries of the Yang-tse 
and Yellow Rivers, and va- 
ried by hill and mountain 
scenery growing more and 
more wild and romantic as it 
extends westward and south- 
ward, until the limits of 
China Proper are reached in 
the lofty mountain chains 
which make the boundaries 
of Kokonor and Thibet, and 
the glaciered heights of the 
Himalayas. Southward of 
the Yang-tse river, the mountains and hill coun- 
try bordering the Great Plain are the favorite 
habitat of the tea-plant. The bulk of the teas 
and their choicest varieties are produced on the 
beautifully terraced hill and mountain sides of 
this rough, broken region. Rice is the principal grain 
raised in this portion of the country, which yields 
nearly all the fruits produced in the south-temperate 
zone and the tropics, in America. Oranges, bana- 
nas, pomaloes (or shaddocks), peaches, pears, and 
smaller fruits known in our markets, and mangoes, 
lichens, arbutus, lungaus, carambolas and other fruits 
peculiar to Asia, grow in abundance. Sweet potatoes 
and ground-nuts (or peanuts) and yams are produced 
in large quantities. 

The rivers of China are numerous, but only a few 
of them are of great length. The principal of these 
are the Hwang-ho, or Yellow river, in the northern 



IK** 



43§ 



CHINESE EMPIRE. 



provinces, the Yang-tse-Kiang in the central prov- 
inces, and the Se-Keang, or Western river, in the 
south. The Peiho, a narrow and exceedingly tortu- 
ous stream, in the northeastern province, the Ning- 
po river, emptying into the Bay of Hangchow, a 
little south of the Yang-tse, and the river Min, in 
the province of Fuh-kien, are all navigable for ocean 
or foreign river steamers only to the head of tide 
water, a distance of 12 to 100 miles. The Pearl, 



province of Thibet, among the Min mountains, it 
enters the western central province of Sze-Chuen, 
and, first making a great bend to the north, receiv- 
ing its chief tributary, the Hean-Keang (a river of 
about the size of the Ohio), then curving for mure 
than three degrees to the south, it finally bears 
northward and eastward again, and empties into the 
Yellow Sea in north latitude 31°. From its source 
to the sea it traverses not less than 2,900 miles. 




TIENTSIN. 



or Canton, river, a branch of the Se-Keang, is now 
navigable for the same class of vessels about sixty 
miles. The Yellow river, though a stream of im- 
mense length and often of enormous volume, has a 
broad, inconstant channel, full of shifting sand-bars, 
and is practically unnavigable for anything but 
small native fiat-boats. The one grand river of 
China is the Yang-tse-Kiang, which is navigated by 
daily lines of American and English-built steamers, 
mostly of the Hudson river pattern, for a distance of 
750 miles, and could be used for several hundred 
miles further by vessels like those employed on the 
Ohio and the Upper Mississippi. Rising in the 



Through the lower 750 miles of its channel it is 
thronge 1 in all seasons of the year with native craft 
and large numbers of foreign-built vessels, many of 
which are owned by native guilds. 

The climate of China Proper corresponds in the 
main to that of the United States and northern 
Mexico in the same latitudes. The winter tempera- 
ture in the northern provinces is rather milder than 
in the corresponding latitudes of the United States, 
and is not quite so mild as in the same belts of Eu- 
rope. On the other hand, the summer heat aver- 
ages somewhat higher than it does in this country 
and Europe. 



CHINESE EMPIRE. 



439 



This may be due in part to the fact that so large 
a portion of China is denuded of forests ; which also 
accounts for the small rainfall and slight humidity 
of many parts of the country, and frequent famines 
consequent thereon. The most thickly settled parts 
of the country, whether in the plains or in the 
mountains, are quite bare of timber, the exceptions 
being chiefly the groves around the temples and 
monasteries of the several religious orders ; where the 
priests protect the trees, jjartly for the purposes of 
ornament and the delectation of themselves and the 
devotees who throng here in the hot season to enjoy 
the cooling shade and romantic beauty of these syl- 
van retreats, and partly as a source of revenue. For 
lumber and wood-fuel the most populous regions 
are now dependent mainly on the timbered districts 
far back in the sparsely inhabited mountain regions, 
or upon importations by sea. 

China, one name of which is " The Central Flow- 
ery Kingdom," is unusually rich in the variety 
and commercial value of its flora ; particularly as re- 
gards its shrubs and flowering plants and trees. 
Through the painstaking efforts of early Dutch and 
English gardeners many of the latter have been ac- 
climated in Europe, and distributed from Holland 
and England into the gardens and hot-houses of all 
the civilized world. Of the useful shrubs and trees 
whose products are eagerly sought for by all nations, 
the list is remarkably long. The principal ones are 
the tea-plant, cinnamon, camphor, the mulberry- 
tree, ginger, rhubarb and ginseng. 

Comparatively little is known of the geology and 
mineralogy of this country. It is certain, however, 
that northern China is largely covered with the loess 
formation, identical in nature with the loess of the 
Rhine, and the similar formation covering eastern 
Kansas, Nebraska, and southeastern Dakota to the 
depth of from fifty to several hundred feet. No 
more fertile soil and subsoil have been discovered in 
any land. The mountains and hills of southern 
China are for the most part of igneous origin — 
composed largely of a rotten feldspathic granite, 
easily excavated with the pickaxe, interspersed with 
quartzose boulders and blocks of gneiss. 

Iron, copper and coal are known to exist, the lat- 
ter of good quality and in large quantities, and of 
late the Chinese government has consented to the 
employment of foreign capital and mechanical ap- 
pliances for mining it. Petroleum has been discov- 



55 



ered in several parts of the country, and if foreigners 
were permitted to explore for it by right methods 
there is good reason to believe it would be found in 
paying quantities. China imports many thousand 
gallons of kerosene from America every year, and 
the trade is constantly increasing at a rapid rate — 
when a little encouragement from the Chinese gov- 
ernment would lead to home manufacture equal to 
all their present demands, and much more. Gold 
and silver are found hi small quantities, but the 
government jealously restricts information of this 
nature, and the product is a matter of mere conjec- 
ture. The mineral wealth of this great empire lies 
as yet undeveloped. When Western learning has 
raised up a class of Chinese scientists and civil en- 
gineers, and the imperial government becomes more 
tolerant of foreign enterprise, then the rich mineral 
treasures of China will burst into view in the midst 
of the hundreds of millions of people that crowd 
Asia in all quarters, and the stories of the caves of 
Aladdin will be surpassed by the new-found wealth 
of Cathay. Already enough is known of these re- 
gions to warrant the fulfillment of this prediction. 

The fauna of this empire comprehends all the 
genera and most of the spjecies of animals known to 
Asia. Ah the domestic animals of Europe and 
North America are found here. Tigers, lions, leop- 
ards, and other beasts of prey haunt its southern 
and southwestern jungles ; apes and monkeys are 
found in the districts bordering on Cochin-China ; 
and the Bactrian camel and the elephant are reared 
in the west and southwest, from which regions 
troops of camels come and go along the great cara- 
van routes of Central Asia. Venomous reptiles are 
numerous, of which the most dreaded is the cobra j 
the scourge of India. Birds of innumerable varie- 
ties, from the diminutive humming-bird to the con- 
dor and the eagle, are native to the country. Among 
those remarkable for the beauty of their plumage 
are the silver and the golden pheasant, the argus- 
bird, paroquets of several varieties, the cockatoo, 
the peacock, the mandarin duck, and humming-birds 
of more than a dozen species — "flying flowers," as the 
Chinese call them. Food birds of delicious quality 
are found in large quantities, including the rice- 
bird, quails, snipe, woodcocks, pigeons, pheasants, 
and ducks and geese, both wild and tame. Fish of 
excellent sorts are taken in large quantities from 
the rivers and along the coast, and are raised in arti- 



qr 



i^st 



440 



CHINESE EMPIRE. 



ficial ponds, this kind of food being the main re- 
liance of a large proportion of the inhabitants for 
their supply of meat-food, particularly in the south- 
eastern provinces. 

North of China Proper lie Oorea and Manchuria. 
The former maintains the most complete self-isola- 
tion, excluding foreigners from direct social or com- 
mercial intercourse with a rigor unknown to the 
Japanese at the time that Commodore Perry first 
visited them, to negotiate the treaty that has succeed- 
ed in bringing Japan into the general comity of na- 
tions. It is death for a foreigner to enter Corea with- 



seen of this sealed and mysterious land. Man- 
churia, the native land of the present Tartar 
dyuasty of China, lies north of Corea and China 
Proper, stretching northward to the Amoor river. 
It is composed in large part of delightfully di- 
versified regions of fertile hills and vales, covered 
with extensive forests, broad native parks of oak 
openings and vast areas of prairie land, nearly all 
lying within the same latitudes as Iowa and Min- 
nesota, or France and Northern Spain. Other por- 
tions of it are rugged and mountainous, bleak and 
barren. This entire country is divided into three 











CHINESE STREET SCENE. 



out special permit, and the latter is very rarely given, 
and then under the severest restrictions and a sys- 
tem of intolerable espionage. It is for the most 
part a fertile country, well diversified with hill and 
vale. The government is a despotism. Still people 
are industrious, and seem to be contented. Suffering 
for lack of the necessities of life is thought to be 
almost unknown. The attemptsof the United States 
to lead the rest of the world in opening the ports of 
Corea to commerce, as it opened Japan, although 
persistent, have effected little beyond the ameliora- 
tion of the condition of sailors wrecked upon that 
coast. Such unfortunates were, until very lately, 
either massacred or held in perpetual slavery in 
Corea, to prevent their reporting what they had 



sub-provinces: Moukden (or Shin-king), Kirin, and 
Tsi-sti-har, of all which a great part is believed to 
be as capable of high cultivation as the American 
and European States generally are. Yet, with the ex- 
ception of the small district of Moukden, which 
contains a considerable population of Chinese ag- 
riculturists, mechanics and traders, it is still the 
home of nomads, a region roamed over by a people 
scarcely more nearly assimilated to Chinese civiliza- 
tion than are the Sioux of Dakota to that of the 
adjacent American States. The merchants of the 
few rudely constructed trading towns and stations 
of this region are Chinese ; the Tartars them- 
selves preferring to live by the chase, fishing, 
and a rude style of agriculture but little bet- 



A 



CHINESE EMPIRE. 



44I 



ter than that practiced by the North American 
Indians before recent efforts to civilize the latter. 
In fact, not only in this respect, but in many 
others of their practices in peace and in "war, as 
well as in physiological distinctions, they bear 
striking resemblances to several North American 
tribes. 

Mongolia lies west of Manchuria, on nearly the 
same parallels. It has the lofty Altai Mountains in 
the north, the snow-covered Ala-shan and Kin-shan 



subject to the ruling dynasty of China, to which the 
Mongols acknowledge hereditary allegiance, while 
they maintain their ancient Tartar form of gov- 
ernment. 

South of Mongolia, and directly west of China 
Proper, are piled the mountains of Kokinor ami 
Thibet, with their glaciers surpassing those of all 
the world besides, and their intervening fertile valleys 
and plains and burning deserts. Tibet is the throne- 
land of the Grand Llama, who is pope to a church of 





VIEW OF AMOY. 



Mountains in the south, and several lateral ranges, 
between which extend plateaus of different degrees of 
elevation, from 900 feet to over 3,000 feet above 
the ocean. There are many dreary deserts in this 
immense country, but, on the other hand, there are 
broad areas of fertile prairie land and rich hill and 
valley country, as capable of producing enormous 
crops of wheat and maize as are the plains of Kan- 
sas and Nebraska. But with the exception of lim- 
ited portions settled in part by Chinese agriculturists 
and traders, they are under the control of nomads, 
in a state of semi-barbarism, kindred to that of the 
Manchus. Mongolia is rather nominally than really 



many millions more than confess allegiance to the 
Roman pontiff. He resides at the sacred city of Lassa, 
renowned in all Buddhist countries for its holy tem- 
ples and immense monasteries. The people arc en- 
gaged chiefly in agriculture, herding, and a rude form 
of mining for silver, gold, copper and precious stones. 
Must (if them live in the greatest poverty, the prey of 
despotic rulers and swarms of idle monks who 
infest the countless monasteries and constitute a 
larger ratio of the population than the religious 
orders in any other part of the globe. The history 
and civilization of the Chinese people will form the 
subject of another chapter. 



=SFT 




CONFUCIUS. 




CHAPTER LXX. 



The China op Fable— Table op Dtnasties— The Age of Confucius, and the Great Wall- 
Peace on Earth— The Most Civilized Land— Kublai Eahn and Marco Polo — Inter- 
national Commercial Intercourse— Population op China— The Government— Revenue 
and Taxation— Peculiarities of the People— Food— Occupation— Architecture and Art 
—Education and Office-holding— The Hanlin University— Religion op China. 




p^-i**i— ^ 



>HINA is undoubtedly the old- 
est of now existing nations. 
Its poets, like those of Greece, 
claim eons upon eons when 
the earth was filled with de- 
migods, demons and giants. 
Some of these fables refer the 
origin of man to a point of 
time more than 3,800,000 years an- 
tecedent to the birth of Christ. The 
earliest epoch of rational Chinese his- 
tory begins with the reign of Fuhi, 2,825 
years before Christ, or only 303 years 
after the deluge — reckoning according to 
Hales' Chronology, which nearly corre- 
sponds with that of the Septuagint. Per- 
haps some credence is due to the tradi- 
tions of the two fable-obscured sovereigns immedi- 
ately preceding Fuhi. One of these, Yu-chow, is 
said to have led the Chinese into China from the 
far West, down the left bank of the Yellow river, 
and to have settled them in some measure in its 
great bend, in the province of Shansi, teaching 
them to exchange their shifting tents for huts of 
boughs and trees. His successor, Sin-jin, the 
" Preacher of Righteousness," laid the foundation of 
the Chinese worship of Shang-te, the " Supreme 



Ruler," which is the only state religion of China to 
this day, and of which the emperor is the sole priest. 
He was also, they believe, the discoverer of fire, by 
friction of two pieces of wood. However that may 
be, he encouraged his people to set up permanent 
homes and hearths, and abandon nomadic life. 

Fuhi, who began his reign B. C. 2,852, organized 
the people into tribes with distinct names, heads, 
and judges. He also discovered iron, and taught 
men to use it for implements of peace and war. lie 
was the Tnbal-Cain of China. After reigning 115 
years, he was succeeded by his son, Shinnung, the 
" Divine Husbandman," who invented the plow, and 
encouraged men to engage in agriculture, and taught 
them the use of herbs. He reigned 140 years, and 
was succeeded by the usurper, Hwang-ti, about B. C. 
2,697. Hwang-ti was a great general and a wise 
ruler. He taught the people arts and manufactures, 
encouraged learning, and instituted the sexegenary 
cycle, by which the Chinese still reckon time. The 
first of these cycles dates from the sixty-first year of 
Hwaug-ti's reign, or B. C. 2,637, i. e., 518 years af- 
ter the Deluge. He seems to have had no little 
knowledge of astronomy, and he established the 
Chinese calendar with a true understanding of the 
length of the year, not recognized by the Romans 
until nearly 2,650 years later. His wife, Seling, in- 



*n 5 



(44 2 ) 



^kv 



THE CHINESE. 



443 



vented and taught the art of silk-spinning and 
weaving. He reigned 100 years and was succeeded 
by three kings of much less importance, when the 
reign of Yau the Great began, B. C. 2357. Here 
commences the authentic history of this wonderful 
nation. The historical writings of Confucius, the 
records of his great book, the "Slinking," go no 
farther back than Yau. Under this sovereign and 
his successor, Shun, there was a remarkable flood, 
or overflow of the Yellow river, along which the 
densest population had settled. Shun called Yu to 
his aid, and by deepening the bed of the river, open- 
ing new channels, and casting up dikes, the inunda- 
tion was assuaged and the fields reclaimed. Yu 
became the founder of the first Chinese dynasty, 
that of Hia. The sovereignty, theretofore regarded 
as elective, became from this time on hereditary in 
the eldest son ; and the records cease to claim for 
sovereigns reigns of improbable duration. It is im- 
possible in this volume to do more than name the 
several dynasties which from that time have ruled 
the destinies of China, as in the following table : 



Dynasties. 

Hia 

Shang 

Chau 

Tsin 

Han 

After Han.. 

Tsin 

Sung 

Tsi 

Liang 

Chin 

Sin 

Tang 

After Liang- 
After Tang. 
After Tsin 
After Hun 
After Chan. 
Interregnum 

Sung 

S. Sung 

Yuen 

Ming 

Tsing 



Founder. 



Yu, the CJreut 
Ching-tang 
Wu Wang 
Chwang-siang 
Liu-Pang 



Liu-Yu 
Kau-ti 
Wu-ti 

Yang-Kien 
Li-Yuen 

Chwaug-Tsung 
Ko-Wei 



Kublai Kahn 

Hung-Wu 

Sun-chi 



No. Sov- 
ereigns. 



Years. 



Eras 



17 

28 

35 

3 

26 

2 

15 

8 

5 

4 



20 
2 

3 



9 
9 

16 



439 

644 

873 
47 

423 
44 

155 
59 
23 
55 
30 
31 

289 
16 
13 
11 
4 
9 
10 

157 
153 
88 



B. C. 2205 to B 
B. C. 1766 to B 
B. C. 1122 to B 
B. C. 249 to B. 
B. C. 202 to A. 
A. D.221 to A. 
A. D. 865 to A. 
A. D. 420 to A. 
A. 1). 479 to A. 
A. D. 5 2 to A. 
A. D. 557 to A. 
A. D. 587 to A. 
A. D. 618 to A. 
A. D. 907 to A. 
A I). 923 to A. 
A. D. 936 to A. 
A. D. 947 to A. 
A. D. 951 to A. 
A. D. 960 to A. 
A. D. 97(1 to A. 
A. 1). 1127 to A. 
A.D. 1281 to A. 
A 0.1368 to A. 
A. D. 1644 to- 



C. 1766. 
C. 1122. 

C. 249. 

C. 202. 

D. 221. 
D. 265. 
D. 420. 
D. 479. 
D.502. 

D. 557. 
D. 587. 
D, 618. 
D. 907. 
D. 9*3. 
D. 936, 
D, 947. 
D. 951. 
D 960. 
D. 970. 
D. 1127. 
D. 1280. 
D. 1368. 
D 1644. 



The third dynasty is remarkable for its great 
length of rule, 873 years — the longest known to his- 
tory. It was during the sixth century of this dynasty 
that Confucius arose. The country increased in 
population and developed in resources during this 
long period, notwithstanding the many internecine 
wars growing out of the resistance of feudatory- 
lords to the power of the emperor. Learning was 
cherished, and men of letters were conspicuous in 
the councils of the government. The usurper, 
Chwang-Siang-Wang, after having exterminated the 



last of the Chau dynasty and reduced all the petty 
states to his sway, assumed the name of " The First 
Emperor," and addressed himself to the extinction 
of all past history. He ordered the principal schol- 
ars of the realm to be put to death, all books were 
to be delivered up to be destroyed, under penalty of 
death, and the royal and provincial libraries were 
burned. The loss to China and the world can never 
be estimated. 

Although Chwang-Siaug was one of the greatest 
military commanders in all Chinese history, and 
although he constructed bridges, dikes, canals, and 
many other public works, crowning all his feats of 
civil engineering by building the Great Wall of 
China, one of the marvels of the world, the name of 
this vandal emperor lives now mostly in execration. 
His dynasty survived him only seven years. 

It is a singular coincidence that the succeeding 
dynasty, the last of the old era of the world and the 
beginning of the Christian era, was remarkable for 
the progress of the nation in the arts of peace, and 
that at the same time that the Roman Empire was 
at peace with the world, and Jesus was born in Beth- 
lehem, the Emperor Ping-ti (signifying "peace ") was 
enjoying a quiet reign in China. 

Owing to the weakness of the last of the Han dy- 
nasty, and the quarrels attending the attempts to set 
up its successor, the empire became divided into 
three principalities. The divisions were not over- 
come and the country reunited until nearly four 
hundred years later, under the strong government 
of Yang-Kien, or Kautsu. One of the most illustri- 
ous dynasties in Chinese history was that of Tang, 
extending from A. D. 618 to A. D. 905, when, as 
that learned American sinologue, S. Wells Williams, 
has well said, " China was probably the most civil- 
ized country on earth" — Europe being then '•' wrapped 
in the ignorance and degradation of the Middle 
Ages." Taitsung, the second of this dynasty, es- 
tablished schools, instituted the present system of 
literary examinations, and made appointment to 
office conditional first of all upon the rank secured 
in these scholastic examinations. He extended his 
empire over all the countries now subject to China, 
and even beyond these limits. 

The Yuen dynasty, that of the Mongol Tartars, 
was founded by Kublai, grandson of Genghis Khan, 
the terrible Tartar chief who overran all Asia and 
Western Europe. It was during Kublai's rule that 



+i-. 



>\ 



J- 



444 



THE CHINESE. 



Marco Polo visited China, and on his return amazed 
all Europe by his truthful narrative of the high civili- 
zation, wealth and magnificence of " Cathay." The 
Grand Canal was constructed by Kublai, and under 
him and his grandson the empire enjoyed great 
prosperity. Their successors were profligate, weak 
or tyrannical, and after 88 years of Mongol suprem- 
acy the people threw off the Tartar yoke, and the 
Chinese dynasty of Ming swayed the imperial scepter 
for 276 years. 

In 1510, during the reign of Kiah-tsing of this 
dynasty, the Portuguese came to China. Foreign in- 
tercourse was soon 
begun. A Portu- 
guese colony was 
begun at Ningpo 
and a profitable 
trade established, 
when a series of 
acts of piracy and 
cruel outrages (in- 
cluding the kid- 
napping of Chinese 
to be sold into slav- 
ery), committed by 
the commanders 
and owners of Por- 
tuguese vessels, led 
to the expulsion of 
the foreign traders. 
Acts of rapacity 
committed by oth- 
er foreigners and, 
later, the quarrels of the Roman Catholic mission- 
aries of different orders, are chiefly responsible for 
that spirit of suspicion and exclusion which has 
ever since, to a greater or less degree, marked the 
Chinese treatment of foreigners. 

The Dutch first became known to the Chinese in 
a naval attack upon the Portuguese settlement at 
Macao, in 1622. Beaten off, they took forcible pos- 
session of the Pescadores islands in the China Sea, 
to the great annoyance of the Portuguese of the 
China coast and the Spaniards of the Philippine 
islands, as well as of the Chinese. After this, in 
1624, they seized a portion of the island of For- 
mosa, and held it by force for 28 years. The English 
appeared off the mouth of the Canton river in May, 
1637, and asked permission to trade. Partly by 




VIEW OF HONCi KONG 



force, they succeeded in disposing of their goods and 
obtaining cargoes. No further attempt was made 
until 27 years later, when the East India Company 
sent a single vessel to Macao, but, through the jeal- 
ous treatment of the Portuguese, failed to dispose 
of its cargo. Some desultory commerce was carried 
on at Formosa and Amoy. At last the English se- 
cured trading privileges at Canton in 1684. Their 
commerce with this country was of small impor- 
tance, however, until the opening of the present cen- 
tury, when the opium trade set in. This soon assum- 
ed frightful proportions. The Chinese strove to ex- 
clude it, but it was 
smuggled into the 
country under cov- 
er of the arma- 
ments of the cor- 
rupt East India 
Company and hire 
of the English flag 
to Chinese and Por- 
tuguese coast-trad- 
ers. This led to 
the Anglo-Chinese 
war, known as 
the " Opium War," 
closing with the 
treaty of Nanking, 
and the compul- 
sory opening of five 
Chinese ports in 
1842. The first 
American vessel 
engaged in the China trade, the Empress, set 
sail from New York in 1784, only six months 
after the definitive treaty of peace with Great 
Britain acknowledging American independence. It 
made a successful voyage. The first American treaty 
of amity and commerce between the United States 
and China was negotiated at Macao hi 1844. Nearly 
all the commercial nations of the earth are now hi 
liberal treaty relations with the Chinese, securing to 
them, among other rights, the privilege of trading 
at twenty-one ports ; of traveling in the country ; of 
enjoying and disseminating their religious doctrines ; 
and, what is still more noteworthy, the jurisdiction 
of their consuls hi all actions for debt or damages, 
or prosecution for offenses of any kind committed 
by their subjects on Chinese soil. 



-T 



THE CHINESE. 



445 



In 1872, according to the returns of the Imperial 
customs, there were 3,661 foreigners in China, of 
whom 1,771 were natives of Great Britain and Ire- 
land, 1,541 of the United States, 4S1 of Germany, 
and 239 of France. More than half of all these, or 
2,047, were at Shanghai, and 308 at Canton, leaving 
1,306 scattered among the other treaty ports, at 
Peking, and at the several mission stations. This 
does not include the foreigners at the Portuguese city 
of Macao, and at the British island of Honar-Kong. 



mile. The most densely inhabited portions of both 
countries show a much larger average. The rich, 
alluvial Chinese provinces of Kiangsu, Anhevei, 
and Chehkiang, in the Great Plain of China, aver- 
age 850,705, and 671 inhabitants, respectively, per 
square mile. These are the most densely populated 
provinces. The Belgian j>rovinces of Brabant, East 
Flanders, and Hainault average fully as dense a 
population as this ; or, severally, 771, 760, and 679 
per square mile. Behm and Wagner estimate the 




The population of the entire Chinese empire is 
still an indeterminate problem, since the statistics 
of the dependencies are mere estimates. These are 
as follows : population of Manchuria, 6,000,000, of 
which the semi-civilized province of Moukden, or 
Shiuking, contains 2,187,286 ; of Mongolia. 3,000,- 
000 ; of Tibet, 6,000,000, and of Corea, 8,000,000. 
The population of China Proper is known with about 
as great certainty as that of most European and 
American countries. According to the latest official 
returns, the Eighteen Provinces contained 360,279,- 
079 inhabitants, or 277 per square mile. There is 
no good reason to believe that this is an exaggera- 
tion. Belgium has over 480 inhabitants per square 



total population of the Chinese Empire, excluding 
Eastern Turkestan, at 425,000,000, which is in ex- 
cess of the above figures. 

The government of China is practically dual ; a 
democracy within an autocracy. From the ancient 
patriarchal times there has come down a system of 
elders, chosen by the people to act as arbitrators in 
matters of disagreement and preserve the peace. 
As a rule their administration is eminently mild and 
just ; which cannot always be said of the imperial 
rule. The imperial government is wholly vested, 
theoretically, in the Hwang-ti, or emperor. Under 
the title of Tien-tzi, " Son of Heaven," he is both 
the spiritual and secular head of the nation, clothed 



sU- 



446 



THE CHINESE. 



with the highest legislative and executive authority, 
without limit or control. But in reality he is re- 
stricted and held in by time-honored and sacred 
customs, which have all the potency of a written 
constitution. The emperor is the sole high-priest of 
the Empire. He, with his representatives, performs 
the great religious ceremonies at the Temple of 
Heaven, the Temple of Agriculture and elsewhere. 
No ecclesiastical hierarchy is maintained at the pub- 
lic expense ; nor is there any priesthood attached to 
the Confucian or state religion. 

The succession since 1044 lias not been hereditary, 
but the emperor names his successor — any member 
of the imperial family, within certain limits. The 
administration of the empire is under the supreme di- 
rection of the Interior Council Chamber, comprising 
four members — two Tartar and two Chinese — assist- 
ed by two members of the llanlin, or Great College 
of Peking, who have to see that nothing is done 
contrary to the civil and religious laws of the em- 
pire laid down in the Ta-tsing-hwei-tien (i. e. Col- 
lected Regulations of the Great Pure Dynasty, the 
constitution or fundamental law of the empire), and 
the sacred writings of Confucius. Under this 
Council, or Imperial Cabinet, are six boards, each of 
which is presided over by a Tartar and a Chinese : 
the Board of Civil Appointments and Administra- 
tion ; the Board of Revenue, regulating all financial 
affairs ; the Board of Rites and Ceremonies ; the 
Board id' Military affairs ; the Board of Public 
Works ; and the Board of Judiciary — the highest 
tribunal of criminal jurisdiction. Theoretically in- 
dependent of the government, and above all these 
boards, is the Board of Public Censors, of about 40 
members under two presidents, one Tartar and one 
Chinese, who, by the ancient custom of the empire, 
have eacli the privilege of presenting any remon- 
strance to the sovereign. One censor must be pres- 
ent at the meetings of each of the six boards. This 
right of remonstrance, like the right of petition in the 
United States, is generally regarded as sacred and 
inalienable, and is exercised with a large degree of 
freedom. 

Great effort is made in this constitution to pre- 
serve a balance of power between the Chinese and 
the Tartar elements of China Proper — the standing 
army, however, being at all times largely Tartar. 
Every province and city has its military head, usually 
a Tartar, as well as its chief civil magistrate, a Chi- 



nese mandarin. The standing military force of the 
empire consists of two great divisions — the one com- 
posed of Tartars, the other of Chinese and other 
subject races. The latter is used mainly as a con- 
stabulary force, the former is maintained in garri- 
sons and fortifications in all the great cities along 
the coast and on the frontier. China had nothing 
worthy the name of a navy until 1877, when the 
government purchased four admirably constructed 
English-built iron gun-boats of ahout 450 tons each. 
To these they added in 1879 four similar ones, and 
recently they have constructed and equipped several 
small revenue cutters at their own navy-yards and 
arsenals. These yards, docks and arsenals, estab- 
lished with the aid of foreign instructors and me- 
chanics, are now largely operated by Chinese offi- 
cials and workmen. This navy is intended only for 
coast defense ami enforcement of the customs laws. 

The public revenue of China of late years has 
been estimated to average $135,000,000. Only the 
receipts from custom duties are made public. In 
1878 these amounted to 12,483,988 haikwan taels, 
or about $18,735,000. The largest expenditure of 
the imperial government is for the army — amount- 
ing to almost $45,000,000 per annum. 

China avoided the dangers of contracting a for- 
eign debt until 1874, when it negotiated a loan of 
£037,075 at 8 per cent., secured on the customs rev- 
enue. In 1878 it negotiated another loan of £1,- 
004,370 at 8 per cent., secured in the same way. The 
total foreign imports in 1878 at all the twenty-one 
open ports amounted to £31,341,208, and the exports 
to £30,151,054. In the ten years ending 1878 the im- 
ports increased 18 per cent, and the exports 25 per 
cent. Of this trade the English got the lion's share, 
carrying off, in 1878, £14,000,000 of the exports, and 
giving in exchange £6,008,931 of British home prod- 
uce and the whole of the balance in opium. There 
is no way of ascertaining the amount of the domes- 
tie trade of this populous country, or the volume and 
worth of the trade carried on with Asia and Europe 
overland. 

Physically, the Chinese of the Great Plain and 
Southern China are rather smaller than the average 
European. Their complexion is considerably lighter 
than the Hindoos, with that slight yellow or sallow 
tinge peculiar to the Mongolian race. The cheek- 
bones are prominent, the shape of the face is as 
generally round as that of the European is oval. 



THE CHINESE. 



447 



The hair is straight, coarse and black, the beard is 
thin (whiskers are scarcely ever seen), the eyes are 
in all cases black, small and almost invariably ob- 
lique. The nose is small, and without being flat, is 
wide and singularly depressed at the lower extrem- 
ity. The lips are seldom so thin as in the European 
type. The hands and feet are small and remarkably 
well-shapen ; the motions of the body are light, quick 



are secluded, except those of the laboring class, but 
they have large influence in their homes, where con- 
jugal and filial affection and respect are accounted 
the highest virtues. Children, as a rule, are treated 
with tenderness, and often with excessive indul- 
gence. 

On the other baud, filial respect and love are man- 
ifested more generally than in other nations. The 




TEA GARDENS AT SHANGHAI. 



and often graceful. This is a sketch of the typical 
Chinaman. The mountaineers, the people of the 
northwest provinces, and the Formosans, Coreans, 
and Tartar tribes in general average fully as great 
height and muscularity as the European or Anglo- 
American. All of these last-named Asiatics are 
semi-savage, or, at least, much more ignorant, coarse 
and tierce than the true Chinaman. The latter is 
peaceable, industrious, temperate in the use of in- 
toxicating drinks, frugal, yet kind and hospitable. 
The elders are sedate, dignified and polite. The 
younger people are full of good humor and bubbling 
over with love of social sports and mirth. Women 



doctrine of filial obedience is fundamental in their 
social, political and religious systems ; the first essen- 
tial of instruction that they receive at home, in 
school, in society, in and out of office. 

Among the vices most common in China, the 
opium-smoking, which has developed at an alarming 
rate since the early part of this century, is one of 
the most destructive. 

As to licentiousness, there is nothing to prove that 
this people is any more addicted to it than Europe- 
an races. Polygamy is allowable, and is practiced 
by men of wealth. Concubinage is honorable ; con- 
cubines and their children are legitimate, and the 



56 



44 s 



THE CHINESE. 



law compels the man to provide for them. But 
the great body of Chinese are monogamists, either 
from choice or necessity. Infanticide is practiced 
to some extent, but it is in direct violation of 
imperial rescripts against it and the popular sen- 
timent, and there is a benevolent society whose 
special business is to prevent thjs crime, and care 
for foundlings. 

The Chinese seem to have an unaccountable bent 
for doing tilings in a way directly opposite to the 
style of doing the same in other lands. The point 
of their magnetic-needle is toward the south ; the 
place of honor for their guests is on the left hand ; 
they wear white as 
a badge of mourn- 
ing ; their joiners saw 
inside of the gauge 
line instead of just 
outside of it, as Eu- 
ropean joiners do ; 
and they draw a 
plane towards them 
instead of pushing 
it. Scores of simi- 
lar inversions of Eu- 
ropean customs can 
be recited. They are, 
perhaps, more sensi- 
ble than some other 
people in abjuring 
artificial heat in 
their dwellings as 
much as possible, supplying its place by increas- 
ing the weight and number of their garments, and 
wearing furs next the body instead of with the hair 
outward. The unnatural and barbarous practice of 
compressing the feet of their fashionable women, and 
insisting on it as an essential mark of high life, was 
introduced about A. D. 950. It is the most irration- 
al of their fashions ; less injurious than such ex- 
treme compression of the vital organs as is frequent- 
ly seen in other countries, but equally indefen- 
sible. The shaven head and long queue of the China- 
man are badges of loyalty to the Tartar government. 
Rogues, convicts and suspects are compelled to lose 
their queues and wear their hair long, which is the 
most effective means conceivable to induce an hon- 
est Chinaman to hold on to his queue and keep his 
head shaved. 




The food of the Chinese is largely rice, millet, or 
maize, and vegetables, fish and fowl ; which accounts 
for their living so inexpensively. Their habit of 
saving everything, of turning everything that is fit 
for nothing else into manure for the fields and con- 
verting it through agriculture into food or other 
field products, is worthy of universal imitation. The 
eating of rats and mice is confined to the poorest 
classes. None of them seem to crave such food, as 
the Viennese epicure does his fattened snails or the 
Frenchman his dish of frogs. 

The principal occupations of this people are agri- 
culture, manufactures and trade. Excepting lit- 
erature, no pursuit 
ranks so high in the 
Chinese code as agri- 
culture. The Tem- 
ple of Agriculture 
occupies a large in- 
closure in one corner 
of the Chinese quar- 
ter of Peking, and 
there, once every 
spring, the emperor, 
accompanied by all 
his ministers, goes 
to invoke the bless- 
ing of Heaven on 
the toils of the hus- 
bandman, while he 
plows a furrow in 
the sacred field, as 
an example to all his people. Artificial irriga- 
tion and fertilization are employed to a remark- 
able degree and the soil is made to produce from 
two to three crops a year, according to climate, 
from age to age, without impoverishment. 

There was a time when the inventive genius of 
the Chinese appears to have been as strikingly active 
as it is now sluggish. The use of the magnetic 
needle seems to have been discovered as early as in 
the reign of Hwang-ti, fully 2,650 years before the 
opening of our era, although it was not applied to 
navigation until very much later. Silk spinning 
and weaving is referred to a still earlier period. 
Costly furniture, richly embroidered robes, felts, 
mattings, ornaments of silver, gold, copper and 
brass, and the use of precious stones, were common 
in the older dynasties, contemporary with the best 



=Sj^ 



-^Is 



THE CHINESE. 



449 



periods of Egyptian and Assyrian magnificence. 
Porcelain was made long before the Christian era. 
The origin of paper, the art of printing, gunpowder, 
and numerous other inventions, are traced back to 
China at dates varying from 3000 to 3000 years ago. 
For reasons not well understood, the spirit of in- 
vention seems to have sunk into lethargy during the 
last few centuries, and the Chinese busy themselves 
in repeating the manufactures of their fathers, even 
the patterns of their costumes having remained 
unaltered for 
generations. 

The great 
quantities of 
their industri- 
al productions 
are beyond any 
known means 
of estimate ; 
besides supply- 
ing the home 
wants of their 
teeming mill- 
ions, they send 
their tea, silk, 
porcelain, mat- 
rings, drugs, 
and not less 
than one hun- 
dred other ag- 
ricultural or 
manufactured 
articles, to all 
parts of the 
world, either 

in fleets of Chinese junks and foreign vessels, or 
by caravans overland to various parts of Asia and 
into Europe. 

Chinese architecture is not of a high order. Their 
dwellings, for the most part, are of burnt or sun- 
dried brick and of stone, seldom more than two 
stories in height. Only the very poorest classes live in 
huts of bamboo, or mud and straw. Some of their 
temples, pagodas, palaces, and imperial tombs are 
works of considerable architectural grandeur, gar- 
nished without and within with highly colored porce- 
lains, enameled or glazed bricks, and porcelain 
figures, bas-reliefs and intaglios of human figures, 
animals, birds, flowers, fruits, etc. Their sculpturing 




is of little merit, being rather grotesque than nat- 
ural or of graceful and beautiful designs and pol- 
ished execution. Their carving, especially in ivory, 
is often marvelously elaborate and superb, only lack- 
ing a few of the characteristics of the most refined 
art. Some of their India-ink drawings (always 
excepting the perspective) and their paintings in 
water-colors of birds, fishes, insects, fruits, flowers, 
costumes, and other distinct objects, are exquisite. 
The brilliancy of their water-colors is unsurpassed, 

and European 
and American 
artists confess 
that in some 
shades of color 
they have not 
yet learned to 
equal them. 
The use of oil, 
in the painting 
of pictures, the 
Chinese have 
never acquired 
to any com- 
mendable de- 
gree ; and very 
few of them 
have manifest- 
ed any consid- 
erable effort to 
learn it. Then- 
pain tings on 
porcelains and 
their fine gild- 
ing in lacquer 
are justly admired the world over, — although these 
have stiff, hard, realistic features which separate them 
from superlative art. Feats of civil engineering have 
been performed by the Chinese which, considering the 
age in which they were wrought, were truly marvelous. 
The Great Wall already referred to deserves further 
attention. Starting at the sea, winding like a huge 
serpent along the crests of mountain chains, spanning 
intervening chasms on enormous arches, it ends at 
last far out in the Gobi desert, thirteen hundred 
miles from its point of beginning. It is constructed 
of huge bricks and stone facings, of from four to ten 
feet thickness, with fillings of concrete or indurated 
clay. For most of the immense distance above 



THE GREAT WALL OF CHTNA. 



=s*r 



45° 



THE CHINESE. 



k 



given it is thirty feet high, twenty-five feet broad at 
its base, fifteen feet at its summit, paved on top with 
brick or flag-stones, protected with crenelated battle- 
ments, and guarded every few hundred yards with for- 
tified towers rising forty feet or more above the ground. 
The Grand Canal is still unequaled in length by 
any other single canal in the world. Its influence in 
developing China is a study for statesmen of all 
lands. This is but one of the canals of this country- 
The great plains of the north and the broad, alluvial 
delta of the Canton river are ramified in all direc- 
tions with canals. In no other country, not even 
excepting Holland, is water so much relied on for 
transportation. Their means of land carriage are 
still exceedingly primitive, men being the chief bur- 
den-bearers in the most thickly populated provinces. 
Beasts of burden are more numerous in the northern 
and western provinces. Wheeled vehicles are few. 
The wheelbarrow is used to a considerable extent in 
some parts of the country — and along the Grand 
Canal and in other parts of the Great Plain region 
they are partly propelled by wind when the direction 
favors. Few roads are constructed for two-wheeled 
vehicles, whereas paved roads for footmen are meas- 
ured by hundreds of thousands of miles. Railroads 
could be constructed with ease in the greater part of 
the most fruitful regions of China, but the opposi- 
tion of the people and of the government, for various 
reasons, is still unsubdued, although there are indi- 
cations of late of a better feeling. A telegraph line 
has been opened between Shanghai and Peking, after 
long opposition, and it is hoped it will soon lead the 
way to other modern improvements in communica- 
tion. The government postal system has been re- 
stricted, until lately, to government dispatches, and 
private correspondence has been conducted by pri- 
vate expresses. Some of the bridges of China, built 
of marble, granite and other kinds of stone, are 
fine specimens of engineering skill and artistic taste. 
There are marble bridges high enough for large 
junks, with lowered masts, to pass under. The 
stone bridges of China, some of them several 
hundred feet long, are numbered by hundreds — one 
might say thousands. There are places where 
roadways have been quarried out of the sides of 
precipices in the canons of their great rivers, and 
through mountain passes, on a scale which com- 
mands admiration for the wisdom of their rulers 
and great engineers. 



The principal roots of the national existence are 
its form of local government, hitherto referred to, 
(the government of towns and city wards by elective 
elders), and- its educational system. The imperial 
government for nearly fifteen hundred years has 
intensified the influence of the latter by basing its civil 
service upon it, making the attainment of the high- 
est literary degrees a condition precedent to the hon- 
ors and emoluments of office. There is no heredi- 
tary civil office but that of emperor, and even that, 
as previously explained, does not follow the law of 
primogeniture. All other offices are held up before 
the sons of the rich and the poor, the sons of the 
ministers of state and those of the humblest peas- 
ants and mechanics, as prizes to be contested for, 
on equal terms, first of all in the schools, which 
offer them the only portal of admission. Subse- 
quent promotions depend, except when personal fa- 
voritism or corruption creeps in, both on scholarship 
and successful administration. Of course this is a 
powerful stimulus to the people to educate their 
children. The government provides a system of ex- 
aminations, from that of the primary schools up 
through all the grades to that which admits the gray- 
haired doctor of philosophy to the Hanlin Univer- 
sity, "the college of forty," from which the emperor 
selects his highest civil ministers. The people and 
their wealthy benefactors provide the schools. The 
founding of elementary schools and academies is one 
of the most common, as it is one of the most grate- 
fully appreciated forms of Chinese benevolence. 
Very generally the people tithe themselves to main- 
tain schools, or support them by voluntary subscrip- 
tions. Men of wealth employ private tutors. But 
wherever and howsoever educated, all the pupils 
must enter the examinations through the one door, 
and pass the same ordeal. First, there is an exami- 
nation annually in each district, presided over by the 
district magistrate assisted by examiners selected 
from among the elders and the first literati of the 
district. This examination contains certain specified 
elementary work in writing, reading, and the memor- 
izing of precepts inculcating respect and obedience 
to parents and magistrates, simple lessons in social 
virtue, the great importance of education, a very 
limited elementary knowledge of numbers, geogra- 
phy and history, the " five elements," the four sea- 
sons, the six principal kinds of grain, the six do- 
mestic animals, etc. Besides these elements, the 



THE CHINESE. 



45 1 



children are required to memorize pages on pages of 
the classics, without being expected to comprehend 
their meaning until they have advanced years farther 
in their studies. Those who pass this village exam- 
ination have their names posted at the entrance of 
the magistrate's office, and are said to have earned 
"the village name." These may enter, whenever they 
choose to present themselves, the aimual county or 
district examination, covering a much more arduous 
field of study. If they 



pass this ordeal they are 
said to have earned 
" the county name." 
Not more than one in a 
hundred of those who 
enter the district exam- 
inations ever attains to 
this distinction. !None 
however, but such as 
have, are perm i tied to 
enter the next examin- 
ation, which is for the 
first literary degree. 
carrying the title of 
" Beautiful Ability." 
This entitles the holder 
to wear "the gilt but- 
ton." •• the white robe" 
and other insignia of 
scholarly rank. The 
curriculum of study up 
to this point embraces 
a thorough memori- 
zing of the classical 
books of China (the 
writings of Confucius and his commentators), 
and a good degree of understanding of the most 
practical parts of them — including Chinese his- 
tory, geography, social science and political gov- 
ernment. From these graduates the army of 
teachers, scribes, lawyers, and physicians is continu- 
ally recruited; but before the citizen can hojie to 
hold any public office above that of constable, he 
must enter the triennial examinations, held at each 
of the provincial capitals, and win the second liter- 
ary title — that of " Advanced Man." Preparation 
for this contest carries him farther and farther into 
the depths of the Confucian philosophy. It involves 
great labor, embracing the mastery of the most 



abstruse doctrines of Confucian metaphysics, a 
good knowledge of the theory and code of the Chi- 
nese government, and great readiness in the use of 
the language. The natural sciences, which have 
gradually wrought their way into the higher schools 
of Europe and America, and which have done so 
much to develop these countries within the past one 
hundred years, are still (with the exception of astron- 
omy) excluded from the regular curriculum of Chi- 
nese study, although be- 




CHINESE rMAOE OF BUDDHA. 



tion hi some of the special 
schools established under 
government auspice- at 
Peking, and the "Teat 
centers of foreign trad.-. 
Shanghai, Fuchow. ( Ian- 
ton, Tien-tsin. and other 
points. 

While comparatively 
few from the masses of 
the Chinese people attain 
to even the first literan 
rank, it may be truthful- 
ly said that the multi- 
tudes are able to read and 
write in a rudimentary 
way. if nothing better. 
There are very few of the 
common people — of the 
males — who cannot read 
the almanac, keep a 
written memorandum of 
accounts, and enjoy the 
popular romance, writ- 
ten lor this class of readers in the limited vocabu- 
lary of common speech and found scattered through 
the huts of the laboring classes and the boats of the 
river j>eople. The folk-lore of China is voluminous, 
and their romances of love and war are almost in- 
numerable. A large part of this stuff is the veriest 
trash, but in the worthless mass there is a little good 
wheat which manifests itself in various ways. 

The religion of the ( Ihinese is a strangely confused 
medley of Confucianism, Taouism, and Buddhism 
engrafted on the ancient monotheism, which has 
come down to them from the earliest ages. They 
have a vague notion of one " Supreme Kuler," or 
" Shang-te," of whom Confucius taught that it is 



^4- 



45 2 



THE CHINESE. 



impossible for man to know anything clearly. As 
the Creator and Supreme Ruler of all things ani- 
mate and inanimate, he is to be regarded with rever- 
ence. He has established the relations of man to 
man, and man to the material world ; and to the 
study of these relations and the duties growing out 
of them Confucius addressed himself, using all the 
light that had come down to his time from preced- 
ing sages. Had he not lent his authority to some 
of the ancient mysticisms, and hallowed many of 
the old-time superstitions, had he not inculcated 
such extreme reverence for the past, and had not 
his followers, re-inforced by the government educa- 
tional system, ordained that from generation to 
generation the whole mind of the ruling class of 
China should he spent in looking back to the thoughts 
and practices of the past and patterning after them, 
it would be difficult to commend the Confucian 
philosophy too highly. The worship of Shang-te, 
the Supreme Ruler, as observed by the emperor at 
the Altar of Heaven, at Peking, is the state relig- 
ion of China. There at stated periods he stands, 
as the sole priest and father of his people, under the 
open sky, with not an idol anywhere in the vast tem- 
ple enclosure, and burns incense and offers sacrifice 
to "Him who rules in the zenith and in the four 
quarters of heaven ; " asks forgiveness for the trans- 
gressions of rulers and people; and invokes blessings 
on the nation. Confucius has his temple in every 
city and considerable town, and honors almost di- 
vine are paid to him by order of the government ; 
which exerts its power to increase the popular rever- 
ence for his teachings. Taouisin dates back to the 
sage, Leaoutze, a contemporary of Confucius. It 
was originally a non-idolatrous rationalism and spir- 
itology, which sought to exalt men above their fleshly 
lusts and into a state of sagely wisdom by the con- 
templations of reason; very much as Buddhism, 
which was introduced from India into China 
about 600 years later, in A. D. 65, sought to pre- 
pare man by meditation, self-denial, prayers and 
deeds of humanity for absorption into the essence 



of the divine Buddha. Both of these have degenera- 
ted into systems of idolatry, superstition, and monk- 
ish indolence, mendicancy and fraud. Only a few of 
the most highly educated Confucianists, and about 
100,000 Christian converts, can be regarded as above 
subjection to these corrupting forms of religion. 

Slowly, but surely, the ferment of European civ- 
ilization is working, as may be inferred from some 
things already said and many other indications that 
might be noticed if there were space. The opera- 
tion of the Chinese foreign customs service, modeled 
after the English service, has worked a great reform 
in the collection of the revenue, and has paved the 
way for other innovations. The establishment of 
arsenals and navy-yards ; the erection of light- 
houses ; the re-organization of a portion of the 
army, which has been armed and drilled by Ameri- 
can and European tacticians ; the education of a 
large number of Chinese youth in the schools of 
Europe and America ; the establishment of schools 
of foreign learning at Peking and elsewhere ; the 
adoption of foreign-built vessels for a large part of 
their river and coast trade; the introduction of 
clocks, sewing-machines, and numerous other west- 
ern inventions ; the progress of missions directed 
against their superstitions ; the growing use of the 
public press ; the use of the marine telegraph cable, 
and the recent establishment of a line of telegraph 
of several hundred miles in length, — all denote that 
the progress of the age cannot be stayed, even by 
Chinese conservatism. 

According to the census of 1880, there are 105,465 
Chinese in the United States. They are found in 
every state and territory of the Union, North Car- 
olina and Vermont alone excepted. Early in 1882 
Congress enacted a stringent law to prohibit, during 
the next twenty years/immigration from China. The 
Chinese do not come to this country to become 
Americans, but to remain a few years, and then 
return to their native land and families. There is 
to be no disturbance of the Chinese now within the 
borders of the United States. 




raTIHl Mill III Hi •■■Ill 1 1 III! I ■■•>• 




CHAPTER LXXI. 

Abia in General, Minor Portions in Detail — Anam— Siam— Burmah— Bokhara— East Tur- 
&£$j§iSi^i kestan— Afghanistan— Beloochistan— Arabia — Africa in General and in Detail — & £Jffift^V & ^^ 

Madagascar— Algeria— Morocco — Tunis— Tripoli — Central Africa and Siberia — South 
Africa— The Dutch and the English— Zululand and the Last of the Bonapartes— St. 
Helena — Birth-places of the Great Religions of the World. 




^*^^i*"^ 



E are about to leave the Old 
World for the New, but 
before doing so it is pur- 
posed to gather into one 
sheaf the uugarnered 
wheat of the two oldest 
continents. 
Of all the continents Asia is the larg- 
est. According to Belnn and Wagner its 
area, inclusive of Islands, is 10,934,000 
square miles. The population is 794,000,- 
000. The appended table presents the 
details on this point, the names italicized 
being those of countries already con- 
sidered. 






Area in 




Names 


Sq. Mi 


Pop. 


Asiatic Russia 


6,250,000 


12,000,000 


Chinese Em... 


4.740,000 


425.000.0IX) 


Japan 


150,000 


:Ci.i««i.iiipii 


Anam ) 






Siam 


752,000 


21,000,000 


Burmah \ 






British. India. 


1,580.000 


240.000.000 



N'aint's 



Bokhara 

E. Turkestan.. 
Afghanistan... 
Beloochistan . 

Persia . 

Arabia 

Turkey 



Area in 
Sq. Mi. 



76,000 

.7.H, I 

250, 

in;. inn 

iisr, .iii ii 

1,020,000 

673,000 



Pop. 



2,500.000 

580,000 

1,000.000 

2.0(111.000 
5,000,000 

I ii ii 

10,500,000 



The Empire of Anam is also known as Cochin- 
China. It was created about eighty years ago. It 
is south of China. The government is thoroughly 
despotic. The emperor rules through mandarin 
agents. The religion is Buddhism, with a sprink- 



ling of Confucianism among the higher classes. The 
capital is Hue, at the mouth of the river of the 
same name. The export is chiefly silk. In the six- 
teenth century Roman Catholic missions were estab- 
lished in the country which have continued to flour- 
ish in spite of persecution. The present Christian 
population of the empire is about half a million. 
The Anamese language is very similar to the Chi- 
nese, and the literature is still more closelv allied to 
that of China. 

No other part of Minor Asia is so important as 
Siam, "the kingdom of the free," as the term im- 
plies. The freedom referred to is disbelief in Brah- 
manism. It occupies the middle portion of the In- 
do-Chinese peninsula. The people are ardent Bud- 
dhists. The capital is Bangkok, the " Venice of the 
East." The architecture of Siam is suggestive of 
Egypt. "' Their structures," says Leonowens, " are 
solid and endurable. The temples are beautifully 
situated amid spacious avenues of trees, and enclos- 
ed by gardens, while their tapering, pyramidal 
roofs, sculptured facades and lofty prochaidi (spires 
all painted, gilded and glazed) are made vocal with 
tiny air-h^s at all hours of the night and day, and 
resplendent beyond description in the sunlight." Of 
all the nations living almost entirely apart from the 
outside world, Siam is the only one to have a music 



(453) 



454 



MINOR ASIA AND AFRICA. 



which is truly musical, judged from the European 
or American standard. The tang-wong and tdkay 
are instruments closely resembling the piano. The 
art of painting has been carried to some degree of 
merit, but architecture is the art most perfected. 
Watt Phra Kean, or temple of the Emerald God, is 
a magnificent structure, and there are many tem- 
ples and palaces of hardly less grandeur. The relig- 
ion of the country is Buddhism. The people are 
exceptionally moral and observant of the five com- 
mandments of Buddha: thou shalt not kill, steal, 
commit adultery, lie, or get drunk — and the posi- 
tive virtues insisted upon are, reverence for parents, 
care for children, obedience, gratitude, moderation, 
fortitude, patience and resignation. The Siamese 
literature, which is quite full, is largely religious in 
tone. The people love poetry. The sacred books 
are numerous and of such a high character that a 
Christian missionary writes: " It is difficult to see 
how the human understanding unaided by revela- 
tion could soar so high, and. as it were, touch the 
very throne of God." 

The government of Siani is a duarchy, there be- 
ing two kings; but the second king is hardly more 
than a vice or lieutenant. About his court is the 
Council of Twelve, or Cabinet, and when the chief 
king dies that body may defeat the execution of his 
will as to his successor on the throne. This veto 
power is not the only restriction upon royal author- 
ity. There are laws, written and unwritten, to which 
he must conform, and which rendei the government 
in effect a constitutional monarchy. When General 
Grant visited the Siamese court in 1878, he found it 
a seat of learning and justice beyond all anticipa- 
tion. From is.")] tothepresenl t inn. the throne has 
been occupied by a patriot and statesman. First, 
Mali a Mongkut, crowned in 1851, a model gentleman 
and deep student. Astronomy was his favorite 
study. His death occurred in 1868, and the same 
night the Council. Senabawdee, confirmed Ins eldest 
son. Somdetch Chowfa Chullalon Korn. as king, and 
the younger son, Prince George Washington, second 
king. The hitter king had a family of 81 children. 
Polygamy prevails, and the wealth, social import- 
ance and rank id' a man determines the number of 
his wives. But in the royal household there can be 
only two wive- whose sins are eligible to the throne. 
Slavery existed in Siam until is"-.', when by royal 
edict the institution was abolished, or rather, its ab- 



olition began then, for the process was gradual. A 
system of compensation to masters was adopted 
which prevented any serious dissatisfaction. 

Siam is sometimes called "The Land of the White 
Elephant." Any white animal or bird is held to 
be almost sacred, as being animated by the pure soul 
in its metempsychosis. A white elephant is sup- 
posed to lie animated by a deceased king of excep- 
tional whiteness of character. The palatial stable 
of the white elephant is guarded from the evil spirits 
by a white monkey. The same veneration prevails 
in Burmah for the white elephant, or "august and 
glorious mother-descendant of kings and heroes." 

Burmah is between latitudes 19° and 27° north, 
and forms a part of what is sometimes called Kar- 
thcr India. The soil is productive and the climate 
agreeable. The mineral wealth of the country is 
great and varied, including gold, silver, copper, anti- 
mony, lead, tin. iron, coal and precious stones, such as 
rubies and sapphires. Rice, corn, cotton, tobacco, 
indigo and millet are the chief products of the coun- 
try. Elephants, tigers, the rhinoceros and the buf- 
falo are found there, the first and the last being do- 
mesticated. The people are short, robust and swarthy 
members of the Mongolian race. Buddhism is the 
prevailing religion. The ruler of Burmah is abso- 
lute in his authority, and not even the most horrible 
abuse of power by the sovereign seems to shake the 
loyalty of his subjects. 

Bokhara is the name of both a city and a country, 
the former being the capital of the latter, and the 
most important commercial city of Central Asia. 
It has long been famous as a seat of Mohammedan 
learning. It contains a hundred colleges and has 
about 10,(10(1 students in attendance. The fierce 
Tartar, Ghengis Khan, desolated the city in 1 3<30. 1 1 
was soon restored, so far as possible. The popula- 
tion is about 100,000. The country of which it is 
the capital is sometimes called Great Bucharis. Wit h 
the exception of a little gold in the sands of the 
Oxiis or Amoo river, Bokhara is destitute of miner- 
als. It is also deficient in timber. The ancient 
Bactria nearly corresponds to this country. The 
Russians exercise semi-protectoral jurisdiction over 
Bokhara. The religion of Islam prevails, and 
Christianity has no foothold whatever, except as the 
Russians have given the Greek church a little ad- 
vancement. No part of the world is more com- 
pletely isolated than Bokhara. 



5) r > 



MINOR ASIA AND AFRICA. 



455 



Turkestan (land of the Turk) is estimated to 
have an area of 1,576,402 square miles. The west- 
ern portion is now a part of Russia. It is the home 
of the ancient Scythians. East Turkestan is nat- 
urally an arid land. Agriculture requires irrigation. 
With the aid of mountain torrents tamed and ren- 
dered supplemental to the plow, the people manage to 
raise fair crops, generally. The system of govern- 
ment is exceedingly crude and despotic, the policy 
being to levy all the tax that the productions of the 
country would possibly bear. The religion of the 
inhabitants is Mohammedanism, with a few scat- 
tered traces of Buddhism, which prevailed until the 
eighth century. The Chiuese long claimed sover- 
eignty over the country. They were finally expelled 
from Kashgar, the capital, in 1865, by YakoobBey, 
who has since attracted some general attention as a 
brave mountain warrior whose exploits are important 
from their supposed bearing upon the eastern rival- 
ries of Russia and England. Formerly the com- 
merce of the country was conducted by way of 
< 'hina, but now the trade with Russia is very consid- 
erable. 

Afghanistan, or land of the Afghans, is known 
in Persia as Wilijet, "' the mother country." It is the 
bridge between India and Western Asia. It is a very 
mountainous region. The Afghans are divided into 
man) tribes, each independent of the rest, until re- 
cently. It was the middle of the eighteenth cen- 
tury when they became an organized people. The 
British have repeatedly tried to conquer the country, 
but the mountains serve as natural fortresses for the 
natives, and the English were obliged to be content 
with the establishment of a non-Russian nationality. 
It is now quite well conceded at Loudon and St. Pe- 
tersburg that the country shall remain free. The 
religion of Islam prevails. 

Beloochistan is a part of the same wild and inhos- 
pitable region as Afghanistan and Turkestan, inhab- 
ited scarcely by wandering shepherds, subject in a 
vague way to a despotic khan whose seat of empire 
is Kelat, which was stormed and taken by the En- 
glish in 1839. In the sack the khan of the period 
was slain. Industry is almost unknown. The peo- 
ple are worshipers of Allah and his prophet Mo- 
hammed. In the more favored valleys a little rice, 
tobacco, cotton, barley and indigo are produced. 

Arabia, the land of the Prophet, is a peninsula 
surrounded by water on all sides except the north, 



where it borders on Turkey. It is a very uninviting 
country, hot, dry and unproductive. By the aid of 
irrigation the people manage to coax from the soil 
meager harvests of coffee, cotton, indigo, tobacco, 
barley, sugar, and many aromatic plants. There is 
really no national government. The Arabs being 
wandering tribes, each sheik, or patriarch, is a 
petty tyrant. A few of the people dwell in villages 
and cultivate the soil, but for the most part they 
are Bedouins, or predatory and vagaboudish tribes. 
Mecca is the chief city, owing its prominence to the 
fact that it was the birthplace of Mohammed. The 
other cities of Arabia are Medina, Loheia, Mocha, 




Aden, Muscat, Yemba, and Rostok. Once the Arab 
caravans were a very important feature in interna- 
tional transportation, but they have dwindled into ut- 
ter insignificance now, and Arabia is interesting only 
from its suggestions of antiquity. Owing to its deso- 
lation and sand, the conquerors of the past shunned 
it, and the Arabs were allowed to develop in their own 
weird way, undistributed by the rise and fall of 
empires. It can boast a literature which was rich 
in poetry, at least, before the religious insanity and 
terrible earnestness of Mohammed had given birth 
to the Saracen Empire, which was rather an out- 
growth from than a development of Arabia. The 
principal exports of the country are dates, coffee, 
gum arabic, myrrh, aloes, pearls, balsams and other 
drugs. 

The least important of all the continents, Africa, 
was the first to attract our attention, including as it 
does that once splendid country, Egypt. The name 
itself was not known until after the Romans had 



Tn 



.■>/ 



JD V- 



45 6 



MINOR ASIA AND AFRICA. 



come into collision with the Carthaginians. The 
ancient designation was Libya. Africa extends 
about 4,500 miles from north to south, and contains 
an area of 11,600,000 square miles. Its population 
is a matter of wild conjecture, not far, perhaps, from 
200,000,000. 

In these estimates Madagascar is included. That 
is the chief island in the near vicinity of the con- 
tinent. It has an area of 228,500 square miles, and 
a population of 5,000,000. Some faint suggestions 
of civilization are found 
there, but that is about 
all. Very considerable 
effort has been made to 
introduce Christianity, 
and not without some 
success, especially 
anions' the higher clas- 
ses. The chief city of 
the island is Tanan- 
arive, in the interior. 
It has a population of 
25,000, and carries on a 
thriving business in 
gold and silver manu- 
factories, and in rings. 
The language, Mala- 
gasy, has been reduced 
to writing by European 
missionaries. In the 
sixteenth, seventeenth 
and eighteenth cen- 
turies the island was the 
resort of pirates who 
roved the sea in quest 
of ships laden with the treasures of Indian commerce. 

We return now to the continent of Africa. In 
remote antiquity none of the continents could com- 
pare with Africa in the scale of importance. Egypt, 
as we have seen, was the fountain-head of that 
mighty stream of civilization which has fertilized 
the world, and even Ethiopia was not to be despised. 
Carthage, the formidable rival of old Rome, and for 
a long time the queen city of commerce, was located 
on the African side of the Mediterranean sea. The 
Saracen Empire was largely African, and the Moors, 
the noblest race of the medieval age, belonged in 
part to that continent. But since their day Africa 
has been little better than a cipher, her unfortunate 




sons the drudges of white masters, and the continent 
itself contributing very little to the civilization of 
mankind. It belongs to the past, and perhaps to the 
future, but in only a very subordinate way to the 
vital present. Upon its monumental ruins the 
mind's eye reads the inscription, "Ichabod" — the 
glory has departed. 

A very lively interest is felt in the geography of 
Africa, and numerous efforts of great enterprise have 
been made during the last decade to ascertain what 

are the physical facts in 
regard to that conti- 
nent. A recent writer 
who conceals his name 
remarks : " Africa is 
no longer the terra in- 
cognita that it was in 
the days when the 
adults of this gener- 
ation thumbed their 
school geographies. 
Then the vast interior 
of that mysterious con- 
tinent was marked as 
'desert' or 'uninhab- 
ited/ but now we know 
that numerous oases 
dot the sandy wastes, 
and that the supposed 
' uninhabited regii ins ' 
teem with millions of 
Iranian beings. To the 
indefatigable labors 
and indomitable cour- 
age of such men as Liv - 
ingstone, Cameron, Stanley, Grant, Burton, Speke, 
Pinto, and other explorers ; to the zeal of the mission- 
aries, and to the ever-pushing spirit of barter, is the 
world indebted for its present store of knowledge of 
the Dark Continent. Still, Africa is, in its great inte- 
rior, comparatively unknown. There are yet vast 
regions of that continent where the foot of the white 
man has never trodden, and, on this account, is that 
country a present favored field of exploration and 
travel. There are now expeditions engaged in ex- 
ploring Africa under the direction of societies in 
Germany, Russia, France, England, Italy, Spain, and 
other States." 

In northern Africa there are four countries, each 



:£^_ 



MINOR ASIA AND AFRICA. 



45; 



possessing a very considerable civilization. Decay. 
bat not death, is stamped upon them all. They are, 
to name them in the order of their importance, 
Egypt, Algeria, Morocco, Tunis and Tripoli. They 
all skirt along the Mediterranean on one side and 
the Sahara on the other. One of them, Morocco, is 
washed by the Atlantic also. They are strongly, 
almost wholly, Mohammedan in faith. The excep- 
tions are mainly Jews. Of the once-flourishing 
Christian churches which may almost be said to 
have covered that vast region in the early period of 
the church, hardly a vestige remains. Islam swept 
them all away, and is itself secure against dislodg- 
ment, apparently. From Cairo to Fez, the Prophet \ 
and the Koran have absolute sway, and their influ- 
ence is silently extending southward. In the opin- 
ion of some eminent authorities Mohammedanism 
is sure to conquer Africa, not as in its infancy, by 
the sword, but by the natural affinity between itself 
and the colored race upon its native sand. In so 
doing it is displacing most revolting forms and 
phases of idolatry, and its progress may be viewed 
with satisfaction. 

We have no occasion here to pause over Egypt. 




A STREET IU ALUIERS. 

Algeria, the most considerable colonial possession of 
France, swarmed in the early part of this century 
with pirates, as did all that coast. To the United 
States is the world principally indebted for the sup- 
pression of Algerian piracy. The French maintain 
there an army of 60,000. 

Morocco has a population about the same as Al- 
geria. It is independent, ruled by a sultan known 
to his own subjects as " Absolute Ruler of True Be- 
lievers." The dynasty boasts descent from Moham- 



med's great son-in-law, Ali. Fez, its capital, is a 
gloomy town of about 100,000 inhabitants, having 
the air of being wholly subservient to the sultan and 
his numerous harem. In the days of Moorish glory, 
and long into its decline, Fez was a splendid city. 
but of its splendor there remain only mosques. 

Tunis has recently acquired special prominence. 
As we write, France is trying to annex it, in effect, to 
Algeria, and Tripoli .is in danger of the same fate. 
The Bey of Tunis is under treaty obligations to 
furnish the Ottoman Empire a certain number of 
troops in time of war. 

Tripoli, the easternmost part of what was once 
the Barbary States, is small in population and 
somewhat vague in area. It is little better than a 
desert, with a few oases. The country is under the 
rule of an absolute pasha. 

In passing from northern to southern Africa, on 
either side extends the most extensive desert on the 
globe, the Sahara. It consists of rocky plateaus and 
mountains separated by immense tracts of barren 
gravel. South of the Sahara, on the Atlantic coast, 
is Senegambia, noted only for its exportation of 
slaves before the traffic was abolished. Just below 
it is the small and kindred country of Sierra Leone. 
Inland, and extending indefinitely, is Soudan, a 
somewhat fertile belt, having for its principal cities, 
Kano, Kuka. Timbuctoo and Sokoto. The coast 
from the south line of Liberia southward some 
twenty degrees below the equator is called Upper 
and Lower Guinea. Still farther south lies the land 
of the Hottentots, whose pitiable degradation early 
enlisted missionary effort, (in the eastern coast 
stretches the same domain of savagery, between the 
Gulf of Aden and Port Natal, the names Zululand, 
Mozambique, Sofala, Zanguebar and Soumati stand- 
ing for parts of the same general country stretching 
through thirty degrees of latitude and contributing 
hardly anything except ivory and ostrich feathers to 
the world. The heat of the climate, except in Zu- 
luland and Sofala. forbids anv considerable civiliza- 
tion. The one spot at all civilized and occidental 
in all that vast reach of continent is Liberia, just 
north of the equator. Moravia, is its capital. That 
republic was founded in 182"3 by the American Col- 
onization Society, which hoped that it would form 
the nucleus of a general exodus of negroes from this 
country. But less than twenty thousand American 
Africans are to be found there. The colored man. 



45« 



MINOR ASIA AND AFRICA. 



even in the days of slavery, had no longings for the 
Canaan of his ancestors. The constitution of Libe- 
ria was modeled after that of the United States, 
only white men cannot vote. There are schools and 
churches fairly well sup- 
ported, and the people 
are prosperous in their 
small way. 

The extreme southern 
point of Africa, Cape 
of ("food Hope, is on 
about the 35th degree 
i if latitude, and the cli- 
mate is delightful, re- 
sembling that at Santi- 
ago and upon the pam- 
pas of the Argentine 
Republic. In that re- 
mote region are to be 
found very considerable 
settlements of Euro} le- 
ans, Dutch and English. 
The former went there 
first, but having no 
strong home government 

to protect them, fell into the hands of the English. 
These Dutch are called Boers. They are an easy- 
going people, unambitious, luxuriating in exemp- 
tion from the ex- 
acting tasks of civ- 
ilization without 
being barbarians. 
They are truly Ar- 
cadiau. They love 
liberty, are virtu- 
ous, and as indus- 
trious as their cir- 
eumstances require. 
The English find 
it no child's play 
! 1 1 suppress their 
rebellion. This 

cluster of Europe- 
an settlement 
South Africa con- 
sists of Cape Colony, Natal, Orange River Free 
State, and Transvaal. Cape Colony was origin- 
ally founded by Van Riebeck in 1650, and seemed 
as promising as English settlements in America. 





MISSIONARY RESIDENCE. 



It fell into English hands in 1795. The area of 
this colony is 348,000 square miles and the popu- 
lation 1,500,000, and of these only about 240,000 
are of European descent. Wool is the chief export. 

Natal, formerly a part 
of the Cape settlement, 
has a European popula- 
tion of 25,000, and, like 
the Cape of Good Hope 
colony, has no increase 
from without, and is 
wholly given to sheep- 
raising. Orange River 
Free States is a territory 
west of Natal, occupied 
by some •10,000 Dutch 
settlers who would not re- 
main in Natal after the 
English had taken pos- 
session. Transvaal is so 
named because it is loca- 
ted beyond the river Vaal 
which divides it from 
Orange. It was in the 
valley of this river that 
diamonds began to be found in such rich abund- 
ance in 1870. It was to secure these precious stones 
that the English organized an independent colony 

across the Vaal. It 
is thought that no 
country is richer in 
mineral resources 
than tiiis part of 
Africa, but only 
the diamonds and 
the gold have been 
mined. 

Just north of 
Natal is Zululand. 
The natives are 
fierce warriors, sav- 
ages of the most 
dangerous if not 
the lowest type. 
They arc passion- 
ately fond of war and the chase. They hate Euro- 
peans because the tendency of civilization is to lessen 
game. They have given the English a great deal of 
trouble, fighting and fleeing as the emergency might 



6 ^- 



MINOR ASIA AND AFRICA. 



459 



require. At last, however, after a great deal of ex- 
pense and loss of life, these savages have been so far 



civilized world for his unhappy mother, wliile, in an 
impersoual point of view, it was regarded as an 




CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. CAPE TOWN, AND TABLE MOUNTAINS. 



subdued as to give no serious 
In their subjugation occurred 
il death of a 
young man who 
may well be call- 
ed the last of 
the Bonapartes, 
the Prince Im- 
perial, son of 
Louis Napoleon 
and Eugenie. 
He was a very 
worthy youth, 
and in the hope 
of winning some 
military renown, 
he went to that 
distant land as 
a mere spectator, however. 
his melancholy fate excited 



trouble to the natives, 
the highly sensation- 



additional guarantee of republicanism in France. 
There is no longer any danger from the Bonapartists. 

Had the son of 




the great 
peror, and 



Ambushed and slain, 
the sympathy of the 



em- 

the 
grand nephew of 
the still greater 
emperor,return- 
ed with an hon- 
orable military 
record, he would 
have been a 
standing men- 
ace to self-gov- 
ernment hi re- 
publicanFrance. 
It was inexpres- 
siblymelancholy 
for such a brilliant childhood to fall a victim to 
Zulu barbarity, but it may justly be said that all 



-±JS 



-kU 



460 



MINOR ASIA AND AFRICA. 



upon 



unconsciously those Kaffirs immolated him 
the altar of French liberty. 

The island of St. Helena is accounted as an Afri- 
can island, although it is no less than 1,400 miles 
east of the mainland. It contains only 47 square 
miles. The nearest land is the Isle of Ascension, 
and that is 800 miles distant. This solitary and 
rocky speck in the Atlantic Ocean was rendered fa- 



the really great continents of to-day, Europe and 
America, borrowed their religion from Asia, and that 
in the birth-places of the two religions which are 
supreme in the world, neither has now any foothold. 
Dr. Hurst divides the world, religiously, thus: 
Christianity, 418,000,000; Buddhism, 400,000,000; 
Mohammedanism, 315,000,000; Brahmanism, 175,- 
000,000; Judaism, 7,000,000; all other forms of 




DEATH OF NAPOLEON. 



mous by the fact that Napoleon Bonaparte spent the 
last years of his life there, the great international 
prisoner. The otherwise unimportant island has 
the pie-eminence of being the most august jail the 
world ever knew, the cage in which the lion of the 
nineteenth century breathed his last. 

In this chapter the less important portions of 
two continents have engaged attention, and from 
the standpoint of the actual both are of trivial im- 
portance. But it is a remarkable fact, that both of 



religious belief, 174,000,000. Gautama Buddha 
attempted to reform Brahmanism, and his re- 
ligion, after a brief home success, was driven out 
of India, utterly and permanently, as was Chris- 
tianity out of Palestine. As nearly all Africa 
seems disposed to accept Islamism, so Asia, except 
India, Arabia and Persia, unites in worshiping Gau- 
tama Buddha, who might well say with Jesus Christ, 
"A prophet is not without honor save in his own 
country." 





MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS. 





CHAPTER LXXII. 

Spanish Thirst for Gold— The Discovert bt Cortez— The Aztecs and their Civilization- 
Toe Conquest op Mexico — New Spain— Mexican Independence— Civil War and " Mexi- 
canization " — Santa Anna and nis Political Fortunes — The War between Mexico and 
the United States and its Territorial Result— Disestablishment op the Church— 
Maximilian and the Monroe Doctrine— Juarez and Political Stability— Subsequent 
Presidents— The Federal System— City of Mexico— Resources op the Country and 
the Total Yield op Silver and Gold— Agriculture and Transportation— Banco 
Nacional Mexicano. 





*^HI*0£f»-Ti 



:HE historian Prescott re- 
marks of the Spaniard 
who braved the perils of 
the ocean to follow where 
Christopher Columbus had 
led that they were "afflicted 

S^^B^ffplj; with a thirst for which gold 
yj}f L was a specific remedy." 

Columbus himself wasted much 
of the time which should have 
been spent in harvesting the field 
which he had discovered in a 
fruitless search for the precious 
metals. Neither on the islands 
of the Caribbean sea where he 
first saw the new world nor on 
the Atlantic coast were to be 
found in any considerable quan- 
tities what they all sought. The gold and the silver 
lay farther west, in what was long known as New 
Spain, later as Mexico, and in the region farther 
south on the Pacific coast. 

Mexico is the southern portion of North America. 
Its area is 761,640 square miles, and its population 
about 10,000,000. It was in the year 1519 that 
Spanish avarice discovered Mexico. Hernando Cortez 



landed at what is now Vera Cruz, on the Atlantic, 
or gulf side of the country, having under his com- 
mand less than six hundred men. He had with him 
two things unknown to the natives, gunpowder and 
horses. Dr. Draper attributes the fall of aboriginal 
Mexico to the lack of horses. The country which 
is now almost overrun with them was then win dp- 
destitute of them. The invader destroyed his ships, 
to prevent retreat. But before proceeding with the 
exploits of this intrepid but detestable intruder it 
may be well to survey the country which he found 
and despoiled. 

"At the beginning of the sixteenth century." says 
Prescott, " the Aztec dominion reached across the 
continent, from the Atlantic to the Pacific." It was 
a truly magnificent empire. The government was 
a monarchy, but the monarch was elected, no one 
being eligible, however, but the brothers or nephews 
of the late king. A system of hieroglyphics re- 
sembling the Egyptian was in use, serving as a 
means of promulgating and preserving laws and 
records. According to the dubious testimony of 
Spanish historians the Aztecs sacrificed human be- 
ings to appease their gods, sometimes immolating 
ujwn the altar of worship no lees than 30,000 victims. 
Of course this must be a gross exaggeration, but the 



(461) 



,62 



MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS. 



:*- 



horrible custom no doubt prevailed. Otherwise the 
people were far advanced. Their esjiecial excellence 
was astronomy. In that science they attained re- 
markable proficiency. They had discovered the 
cause of eclipses, and the location in the heavens of 
the more important constellations. They could cal- 
culate time accurately. They were good farmers, 
succeeding remarkably well in their agriculture, 
considering the fact that they had no beasts of 
burden. 

" The Aztec character," to quote farther from 
Prescott, " was perfectly 
original and unique. It 
was made up of incon- 
gruities, apparently irre- 
concilable. It blended 
into one the marked pe- 
culiarities of different 
nations, not only of the 
same phase of civiliza- 
tion, but as far removed 
from each other as the 
extremes of barbarism 
and refinement. It may 
find a fitting parallel in 
their own wonderful cli- 
mate, capable of produc- 
ing on a few square 
leagues of surface the 
boundless varieties of 
vegetable forms which 
belong to the frozen re- 
gions of the north, the 
temperate zone of Eu- 
rope and the burning 
skies of Arabia and Hin- 
dustan." Cortez found the Aztec throne occupied by 
Montezuma II. He had succeeded his uncle, the first 
and great Montezuma, sixteen years before. The 
uncle had extended his kingdom by the conquests of 
the Mextecas and the Tlaxcalans. The capital (the 
city of Mexico) was called Tenochtitlan. The follow- 
ing description is given of it: " The city was nine 
miles in circumference and the number of its houses 
was about 60,000, and of inhabitants probably 500,- 
000. Though a few of the streets were wide and of 
great length, most of them were narrow and lined with 
mean houses. The large streets were intersected by 
numerous canals crossed by bridges. The palace, 




HERNANDO CORTEZ. 



near the center of the city, was a pile of low, irreg- 
ular stone buildings of vast extent. It was a walled 
town, well garrisoned." The wonderful strangers 
were treated with cordiality and confidence, at first. 
Montezuma allotted Cortez a palace for his occu- 
pancy. This kindness was repaid with treachery 
and cruelty. The king was seized and imprisoned, 
his life sacrificed and his capital destroyed. 

The news that Cortez had discovered the ardently 
sought land of gold and silver some way reached the 
Spaniards in Cuba and in the mother country. Oth- 
ers joined him, and with 
their aid and the aid of 
tribes hostile to the 
Aztecs, he succeeded in 
subjugating the country. 
In 1522 the invader was 
appointed governor and 
captain-general of what 
was then called New 
Spain, which position he 
held without interrup- 
tion until 1528, when he 
returned to Spam. After 
an absence of two years 
he resumed the gover- 
norship of New Spain, 
remaining ten years. In 
1540 he returned to 
Spain, dying in 1547. 
Cortez established sla- 
very, compelling the na- 
tives to till the soil and 
work the mines for their 
conquerors. They were 
somewhat skillful in 
mining, and it was only that feature of the countrj 
which interested the Sjianiards. 

From the time of Cortez until independence was 
achieved, about three centuries, there were sixty- 
four viceroys, or governors. During that period 
the present Mexican people may be said to have 
come into existence, for the native is neither Indian 
nor Spanish, but a mixture of both. For a long 
time, however, the foreign element was an alien 
clement. Mexico was looked upon by the mother 
country during all the colonial period, as a good 
place to accumulate a fortune, but a poor place to 
enjoy it. 



MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS. 



463 




The native population had its aristocracy. The 

Aztec noble- 



called C'a- 
ciques.Thej 

were never 
in any sort 
of personal 
servitude, 
but as a 
class they 
were depriv- 
ed of the op- 
portunities 

MEXICAN CACIQtTB. which of 

right belonged to them. The Creoles were also de- 
prived of political privileges. The government was 
administered, and the army officered, by men sent 
over from Spain for that purpose. 

The first formidable resistance to the home gov- 
ernment occurred in 1810, under a priest named 
Hidalgo. It was soon suppressed and the leader shct. 
Ten years later a native of Mexico, Don Augustin 
Iturbide, came forward as the leader of a movement 
for independence. The declaration of independence 
was issued February 24, 1881. The country was 
ripe for it. In the autumn the colonial govern ment 
was forced to surrender unconditionally. The viceroy 
vacated the capital. In the following May the army 
declared Iturbide emperor. Spain was in no condi- 
tion to assert its claim to sovereignty. 

But the end was only the beginning. The struggle 
for independence over, civil war began. In Decem- 
ber next, Santa Anna, who was destined to be the 
most prominent man in Mexican affairs for more 
than thirty years, led a republican movement by 
proclaiming the republic of Vera Cruz. The coun- 
try seemed to lie on the eve of a protracted civil 
war. It was averted, temporarily, by the abdication, 
in March, of Iturbide. He was exiled and a provis- 
ional government established. A condition border- 
ing on anarchy prevailed until October 4, 1824, when 
a constitution, framed in imitation of the consti- 
tution of the United States, was adopted. Under 
that organic law the republic consisted of nineteen 
states and five territories. The first president was 
Victoria. Iturbide returned and attempted to re- 
claim the throne. He was defeated, captured and 
shot. 




Affairs moved on tolerably smoothly until 1888. 
when a presidential election gave rise to another civil 
war, which resulted in the success of the insurgents. 
In the year following, Spain so far bestirred itself as 
to attempt to regain control of the country, but the 
army sent over for that purpose was defeated in a 
few months, disbanded and sent to Cuba. That was 
the end of Spanish intervention in Mexico 

One insurrection followed another in quick suc- 
cession for quite a long series of years until a new 
world was added to the English vocabulary, Mexi- 
canization becoming a synonym for elections which 
lead to anarchy. In 1833 Santa 
Anna came to the fore as presi- 
dent. He ruled for two years, dur- 
ing which time a new constitution 
was adopted under which the au- 
thority of the central government 
was greatly increased. In the | 
meanwhile that portion of Mexico j 
north of the Rio Grande river re- , 
volted and declared itself inde- 
pendent, taking the name of 
Texas. Without anticipating what properly comes 
under the head of Texas, it may be said tbe success 
of that secession had the effect to bring on a relapse 
rnto anarchy. The president whom Santa Anna 
had driven into exile, Bustamante, returned and be- 
came president. That was in 183T. Before the year 
expired Santa Anna returned and was able to regain 
much of the reality of power. In 1839 he became 
the recognized president. In July of the same year 
General Bravo deposed him and usurped the reins 
of government. His rule continued just one week. 

Out of the confusion which followed arose a dic- 
tatorial triumvirate, Santa Anna, Bravo and Canal- 
izo, being the three rulers* A new constitution was 
adopted in 1843, under which Santa Anna became 
president again. Before the year closed he was de- 
posed and Canal'izo put in his place, but in Decem- 
ber following still another man, General Herrera, 
was elevated to the presidency. A year later and 
General Paredes succeeded him in the same revolu- 
tionary way. 

In the meanwhile the United States, without just 
cause, had provoked war with Mexico. That war 
brought Santa Anna back from exile to be the leading; 
general. The great republic found it an easy task to 
overrun and override the little republic. In every 



•i: 



58 



.* s 



£h 



4 6 4 



MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS. 



engagement the United States was victorious. In 
1848 a treaty of peace was negotiated, by virtue of 
which an immense area of country was taken from 
Mexico and added to the United States, including 
California. New Mexico. Nevada, and in general the 
region known as the great mineral belt of this re- 
public. A territory which had never been of much 
value to Mexico soon developed such a wealth of 
gold and silver as to be positively revolutionary to 
the monetary system of the entire world. 



contract, and the union of church and state abolished. 
When the United States became involved in civil 
war the three European powers, France, Spain and 
England, conceived that the time had come to foist 
upon Mexico a foreign-born emperor. Louis Napo- 
leon was the prime mover in the plot. Enormous 
claims against the Mexican government were pre- 
sented. A Spanish force under General Prim occu- 
pied Vera Cruz, soon reinforced by English and 
French troops. It was arranged that those claims 




ENTRY OF THE FRENCH TROOPS INTO THE CITY OF MEXICO. 



Santa Anna was now in disgrace and once more 
compelled to leave the country. Again revolutions 
followed each other in quick succession. At last, in 
1861, Benito Juarez, gained possession of the govern- 
ment, and succeeded in holding it long enough to 
effect many radical reforms, and when he finally re- 
tired from public life the country had acquired 
political stability. The power of the priesthood had 
been the especial curse of Mexico. Under Juarez, 
who was a full-blooded Aztec, the property of the 
church, nearly one-half of the real estate of the re- 
public, was confiscated. Monasticism was abolished, 
also ecclesiastical courts. Marriage was made a civil 



should be paid out of the customs revenue, and En- 
gland and Spain withdrew. But the French forces 
remained. The church party co-operated with the 
French, and the native government was powerless. 
The United States protested, but was in no condi- 
tion to enforce its protest. An hereditary monarchy 
was declared established July 10, 1863. The crown 
was tendered to the Archduke of Austria, Maximil- 
ian. With much pomp and circumstance he ac- 
cepted, departing with his wife, "poor Carlotta," for 
his empire, having first received the blessing of the 
Pope and the farewell good wishes of the sovereigns 
of France, and also of Belgium. His formal en- 



Sfv* 



V 



MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS. 



4 6c 



try into the city of Mexico occurred June 12, 18G4. 
Having no child, he adopted as his heir the son of 
the Emperor Iturbide. French bayonets propped the 
throne, and he seemed to be master oi the situation. 
But when the United States settled its own trouble 
it turned its attention to Mexico, demanding the 
withdrawal of the foreign troops. The moral sup- 
port of this government was of the greatest service 
to Juarez and the Mexican patriots. The French 



American continent. The bullet that terminated 
the life of Maximilian and rendered his poor wife a 
widow, established that part of the " Monroe doc- 
trine " which means the non-intervention oi foreign 
governments in American affairs. I he lesson was 
severe, but the result was well worth the cost. 

Mexico was substantially harmonious under the 
restored rule of Juarez. He held the reins of gov- 
ernment until his death in 1872, having been re- 




government was given distinctly to understand that 
it must cease its intervention or prepare for war 
with the United States. This protest had the de- 
sired effect. Louis Napoleon sent an envoy to Max- 
imilian urging him to abdicate. He refused to do 
so. The French troops were withdrawn, the last 
detachment leaving Mexican soil early in 1867. 

Maximilian had fatally mistaken his strength. 
Wholesale desertions followed, and in a few months 
he was a prisoner. A court-martial tried him, and 
very justly condemned him to be shot. On the 19th 
of June, 1867, he and his two generals, Miramon 
and Mejia, were executed. Thus ingloriouslv ended 
the great test case of European intervention on the 



elected in 1871. His successor was Chief Justice 
Lerdo de Tejada, who was succeeded by General 
Diaz. December 1, 1880, General Gonzales was in- 
augurated President, and Diaz again in 1884. 

As now constituted, Mexico consists of twenty- 
seven states and one territory, the latter being Lower 
California. The city of Mexico, like the city of 
"Washington, belong in a district which is under 
the exclusive jmisdiction of the general government. 
The Mexican District of Columbia is called the Fed- 
eral District of Mexico. 

There are several cities in Mexico of some impor- 
tance, but the onlv reanv large one is the capital. 
That has a population of 250,000. Tradition has it 



— - — bV 



•* 



£_ 



4 66 



MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS. 



that it was founded about the middle of the four- 
teenth century. Cortez destroyed the old city, and 
laid out the new town with wide streets and on a 
magnificent scale. It chief structure is a cathedral 
which is thought to have cost not less than $2,500,- 
000. The academy of San Carlos is remarkable as 
containing the most valuable collection of paintings 
in America. 

Mexico is rich in undeveloped resources. Even 
the mines have yielded but a very small per cent, 
of their capacity. The eighteenth century witnessed 
the most prolific yield of those mines. The long 
period of civil disquietude operated very unfavorably 
upon the mining interest. There are, however, 
eleven mints in the country which coin annually 
about $20,000,000, mostly silver. The total pro- 
duction of the Mexican mines up to 1S75 is esti- 
mated at $4,300,000,000 ; the total coinage to that 
date had been $3,003,000,008. About 95 per cent, 
of all this was silver. 

The agricultural resources of the country are very 
great, but owing to the indolence of the people, and 
the difficulties of transportation, very little is raised 
for export. At the end of 1881 the total number of 
miles of railway open to traffic was 1,070, the 
"National Mexican" being the principal line. It ex- 
tends from Vera Cruz to the City of Mexico. Other 
lines are in process of construction. In the year 
1882 direct communication by rail between the 
United States and Mexico was fully inaugurated, 



auguring a revolution in the commercial relations 
of the two countries. At the present time there is 
no paper money used in Mexico, except a little 
United States money on the border. In January, 
1882, a charter was granted for the " Banco Nacional 
Mexicano," with a minimum capital of $3,000,000 
and a maximum capital of $20,000,000, with au- 
thority to .establish branches and issue $3 of paper 
money for every $1 of coin in the treasury. 

This chapter cannot be closed better than by giv- 
ing, in a condensed form, Prescott's description of 
the great Cokocalli, or temple of Mexico, completed 
in 14S0, the most remarkable building ever erected 
in America. It was " a solid pyramidal structure of 
earth and pebbles, coated externally with white hewn 
stones. It was square, its sides facing the cardinal 
points, and was divided into five stories, each of 
winch receded so as to be smaller than that below it. 
The ascent was by a flight of 114 steps on the out- 
side, so contrived that to reach the top it was neces- 
sary to pass four times around the whole edifice. 
The base of the temple is supposed to have been 300 
feet square. The summit was a broad area covered 
with flat stones. On it were two towers or sanc- 
tuaries, and before each was an altar on which a 
fire was kept continually burning." Near this tem- 
ple was garrisoned a guard of 10,000 soldiers. It 
may well be doubted if the present Mexicans could 
present any equally high evidence of civilization, in 
any department of human effort. 





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< SOUTH AMERICA. 



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CHAPTER LXXIII 

The South American Continent, as a Whole— Patagonia and the Pitagonians— The Ar- 
gentine Republic— The Paradise of Cattle and Indolence— Uruguay— Paraguay, Its 
History and Melancholy Fate — From the Jesuits to Lopez — Brazil, the Only Empire 
in America— The Amazon, Rio de Janeiro, Diamond-Beds and Coffee Raising — Portugal 
and the Portuguese Dynasty in Brazil — National Independence without Conflict- 
Guiana, English, French and Dutch— Venezuela — Bolivar, the Liberator — The Work 
Accomplished by Bolivar— The United States of Colombia— Peru— Pizarro and the 
Incas — Mountains and Mines — Guano-Beds and Railroads — Bolivia— Chili and the 
Chilians— The Leadino Nation of South America— The History and Condition of Chili 
— TnE Late War Between Chili, Its Cause and Probable Result. 




f- 2 — 



:HUS far in the history of 
the world the ouly conti- 
nental portion of America 
really known to Columbus 
has contributed very little 
to the benefit of mankind, 
and is still a land of great 
possibilities, rather than 
actual achievement. Until a com- 
paratively recent period the entire 
continent of South America, so far 
as it was inhabited by civilized 
man, was under the colonial yoke, 
and that not of liberal and progres- 
r *> sive England, but of narrow and 
rejffessive Spain and Portugal. Al- 
most at the same time that Mexico 
became independent the colonies of 
Spain farther south broke their chains, and Portu- 
gal's one dependency, Brazil, changed from a colony 
to an empire. Columbus lauded at the mouth of the 
Orinoco river, Venezuela, in 1498, taking possession 
of the continent in the name of his august sover- 
eigns, Ferdinand and Isabella. That was the shadow 





cast before by a dominion which continued for 
about three hundred and thirty years. 

South America extends from the isthmus of Pan- 
ama to Cape Horn, a distance of about 4,800 miles. 
Its area is about 7,000,000 square miles, or 1,500,000 
square miles less than North America. 

The most notable general feature of the continent 
is the mountain range known as the Andes, which 
lies along the Pacific coast in almost a straight line 
for over 4,000 miles. It is not wide, but high and 
precipitate. In altitude it is unrivaled, except by 
the Himalayas. The highest peak of the Andes is 
the Sorata, 24,800, feet ; of the Himalayas, Everest, 
29,000 feet. The Andes has no less than thirty 
active volcanoes, the highest being the Sahama in 
Peru. This vast mountain range is rich in precious 
minerals. On the east side of it flows the largest 
river in the world, the Amazon. Its capacious 
mouth, 95 miles wide, is at the very equator. For 
over two thousand miles the Amazon is navigable. 

The equatorial portion of the continent is not so 
warm, by any means, as the same latitude in the old 
worlds, thanks to the snow-capped Andes, the trade 
winds and other causes. The condor is the most 



(467) 



*, k- 



468 



SOUTH AMERICA. 



l& 



remarkable of the animate products of the coun- 
try, whether bird or beast. That solitary dweller 
in the least accessible portions of the Andes is the 
largest bird in the world. Its body is from three to 
three and a half feet long. In some portions of the 
continent a great variety of small monkeys abound. 
The other peculiarities of the continent will appear 
in connection with the several countries. 

The southern apex, Patagonia, is very nearly 
worthless. The wild beasts and wilder men roam 
over its barren rocks and frost-bound hills unmo- 
lested by white men. It 
was first visited in 1520 by 
Magellan, wh'o named it 
Patagonia (Big-feet). The 
inhabitants are large and 
fierce. So far as now known, 
that portion of the conti- 
nent is incapable of being 
made useful. The same is 
true of a group of islands, 
in that vicinity, the Archi- 
pelago of Terra del Fuego. 

North of Patagonia, and 
adjoining it on the east side 
of the Andes, lies the Ar- 
gentine Republic, of which 
Buenos Ayres, at the mouth 

the Bio de la Plata river, 
is the capital. The wealth 
of that country consists of 
wool and hides. The meat 
is hardly marketable at all, 
so plenty is it. The skins of the cattle and the 
clothing of the sheep can be exported to advan- 
tage, and are the main source of revenue. The 
annual export of wool averages over 200,000,000 
pounds. The number of hides exported annually 
is about 3,000,090. The exportation of horse hides 
is also very considerable, although sensibly dimin- 
ishing. Herds 01 horses, thousands in number, 
roam wild over the pampas, yet horses were unknown 
there until introduced from Europe in 1536 by Men- 
doza. Fourteen years later goats and sheep were 
introduced, and seven years later cattle. Where na- 
ture was best prepared for these most useful animals 
they were not known until what might be called 
human accident occurred (for no special pains were 
taken in South America or any where else by 




the Spaniards to introduce European animals). 
The La Plata was discovered in 1516 by Juan 
Diaz de Salis. The climate is delightful, and to 
those who seek ease the country is inviting. At the 
present time it seems to be quite attractive to the 
Italians. The republic is a federal union of fourteen 
states. Some claim to authority over Patagonia is 
asserted by the Argentine government. The Argen- 
tine population is about 2,000,000, including the 
40,000 in Patagonia. 

A part of the La Plata country forms a distinct 
republic, called Uruguay. 
This small nation has an 
area of 63,300 square miles, 
and a population of about 
500,000. It is indistinguish- 
able, except in a political 
way, from the Argentine 
Republic. The first settle- 
ment was made there, and 
in Paraguay which is far- 
ther inland, in 1622, by 
Spanish Jesuits. When 
Spain and Portugal be- 
came distinct nations, after 
their brief union, there was 
a sharp rivalry for the 
possession of both Para 
guay and Uruguay, lying 
as they do between the old 
Spanish colony and state of 
Buenos Ayres and Brazil 
which was settled by emi- 
grants from Portugal. In 1828 Brazil recognized 
Uruguay as an independent republic ; since then it 
has continued to vegetate without serious molestation. 
Paraguay is a nominal republic, but in point of 
fact it is under the mild dominion of the great 
(geographically speaking) empire north of it. It 
was first discovered by Sebas- 
tian Cabot, the brave naviga- 
tor, who accomjianied his fa- 
ther, John Cabot, to Canada in 
the first fleet ever sent to the 
new world by England. It , 
was in the year 1526 that Ca- 
bot, searching for a passage 
across the continent, sailed up iebastian caeot. 
the broad La Plata, as far as the confluence of the 




->\ 



SOUTH AMERICA. 



469 



Paraguay ami Parana rivers. He was in the em- 
ploy <>f Spain at the time. In 1536 the country 
was settled, and early acquired very considerable 
prominence. The Spaniards freely intermarried 
with the natives, called Payaguas. The Jesuits 
flocked thither as early as 1010 and acquired 
almost absolute sovereignty over the natives. In 
1767 they were expelled from there as from all the 
Spanish colonies. They had erected splendid 
churches and lofty mansions which attest their van- 



Antonio Lopez finally succeeded to the dictatorship, 
holding it until 1862, under the title of President. 
At his death, his more illustrious son, Francisco 
Solano Lopez, succeeded him. lie set up as pro- 
tector of the " equilibrium " of tiie La Plata region. 
He soon inaugurated war with Brazil, the Argentine 
Republic and Uruguay. For live years (1865-1870) 
the war was waged. The country was nearly depopu- 
lated before Lopez was tilled and peace restored. 
Proceeding farther nortn, still on the east side of 




ished dominion. In 1811 the foreign yoke was 
thrown off, and for twenty-nine years the country 
was strangely and completely isolated. During that 
period it was ruled by that unique character, Jose 
Gaspar Rodriguez Francia. Speaking of his rule, 
Hon. C. A. Washhurne, Lite diplomatic representa- 
tive of tire United States at Paraguay, says, " The 
country being accessible only by way of the river, 
he stopped all ingress and egress, allowing during 
all this time only some half a dozen foreigners to 
leave the country and none to enter it. The ship- 
ping then in the river stayed there, rotted, and fell 
to pieces." At the death of Francia the country was 
without even the form of a government. Carlos 



the Andes, we come to the one American monarchy, 
the Empire of Brazil. It occupies nearly one-half 
of the entire continent, extending from latitude 4° 
23' north, to latitude 4° 44' south. Its area is 
3,242,000 square miles. The country lias some gold, 
but its especial wealth of a mineral nature consists 
of diamonds, found in river beds. But the sugar 
and coffee productions of the empire are of more 
value each year than all the mining products of a 
period of eighty ye-.irs. The population is about 
10,000,000. not including the shifting, vagabcuidish 
aboriginal population, estimated at about 1.000.000. 
Brazil is the onlv part of America now where slav- 
er}' has a legal existence, and it is being gradually 






_* » 



£♦■ 



47° 



SOUTH AMERICA. 



extinguished there. Brazil was discovered in 1500 
by Pincon, a companion of Columbus. It was ear- 
ly selected by the Portuguese as their favorite resort 
in America. In 1808 the king of Portugal, John VI., 
took refuge from the French in Brazil, accompa- 
nied by his court. He remained there until 1820, to 
the great benefit of the country. When Napoleon 
fell, he took the title of King of Portugal, Algarve 
and Brazil. A national congress was assembled at 
Rio de Janeiro in 1823, when Dom Pedro, son of 
John VI., was elected " Perpetual Protector." The 
country was 
declared inde- 
pendent, and 
Portugal ac- 
quiesced with- 
out a mur- 
mur." Consti- 
tutional Em- 
peror " was 
soon after 
adopted. In 
1831 Dom 
Pedro I. ab- 
dicated in fa- 
vor of his son 
Dom Pedro 
II., the pres- 
ent emperor. 
Father, son, 
and grandson 
deserve high 
credit for pa- 
triotism and good ability, without brilliancy or great 
force of character. The empire is divided into nu- 
merous provinces for administrative purposes. In 
nothing excepting its mighty river, the Amazon, its 
diamond-beds and the extent of its area, is Brazil at 
all above the dead level of uninteresting mediocrity. 
The chief cities of Brazil are Rio de Janeiro, the 
capital and metropolis, and the largest city of South 
America, population nearly 300,000 ; Bahia, or San 
Salvador, population, 180,000 ; Pernambuco, popu- 
lation, 90,000 ; Maranhao, population, 40,000. 

There are two geographical terms so nearly alike 
as to be confusing, Guinea, a common name of a 
large tract of country on the western coast of Africa, 
and Guiana, a large territory of the northeastern part 
of South America, between the Amazon andtheOri- 




"i*AMiV3ft>$.'£^ 



THE CITY OF CARACAS. 



noco. The latter country is subject to several powers, 
Great Britain, France, Holland, Brazil and Venezu- 
ela. It is a tropical wilderness, valuable only for its 
few large sugar plantations and its forests from 
which are shipped various kinds of high-priced lum- 
ber. French Guiana has a population of 27,035, 
and an area of 121,413 square miles. In the 
early days of American discovery it was supposed 
that that region was rich in gold, but the supposed 
precious metals were only mica and quartzose rock. 
North and west of Guiana stretches Venezuela, 

of which Ca- 
racas, on the 
seaboard, is 
the capital. It 
has a popula- 
tion of some- 
thing less 
than 2,000,- 
000 and an 
area of 403,- 
261 square 
miles. Coffee 
is its chief 
article of ex- 
port, but cot- 
ton, cacao, 
sugar, tobac- 
co and indigo 
are also im- 
portant pro- 
ductions for 
exportation. 
The republic consists of twenty states and one ter- 
ritory. The president is in effect almost dictator. 
Diamonds, gold, silver, tin, zinc, quicksilver and 
copper are believed to abound, but the mineral 
wealth has never been very much developed. The 
capital, Caracas, has a population of about fifty 
thousand souls, and is a somewhat thrifty seaport. 
Its chief honor is, however, that it can boast being 
the birthplace of the Great Liberator of South 
America, Simon Bolivar, whose sen-ices may well be 
narrated in this connection. 

The Liberator was born July 25, 1783. He in- 
herited immense wealth from his father. His edu- 
cation was completed at Madrid. In 1810 he joined 
the patriot army. In three years he rose to emi- 
nence as a soldier and entered Caracas in triumph. 



-4" 



SOUTH AMERICA. 



47I 



But his achievements were not in the interest of that 
particular part of the continent. All Spanish 
America rebelled at about the same time, and the 
South American colonies formed one power, much 
as the thirteen colonies which afterwards became 
the United States, did. The period of struggle, re- 
sulting in independence for all continental Spanish 
America, extended from 1810 to 1825. li Spain 
had been free to concentrate its energies, wasted 
though they were, upon any one colony, as now upon 
Cuba, the uprising might have been suppressed ; but 
there was either actual rebellion or the mutterings 
of the coming storm all along the line from Pata- 
gonia to the United States, and from ocean to 
ocean. This simultaneousness was not the re- 
sult of preconcerted action, to any considerable 
extent, but rath- 
er a notable il- 
lustration of the 
familiar truth 
that "like causes 
produce like ef- 
fects." The heel 
of oppression 
had become in- 
tolerable. The 
great island of 
Cuba alone es- 
caped the con- 
tagion of liberty and missed its great opportunity 
by waiting until it had become almost alone in its 
colonial dependency. 

General Bolivar was made first president of Co- 
lombia in 1819. A few years later he led an army 
of liberation into Peru, and its independence was 
also achieved. The portion of country between the 
present Peru and Chili, extending much farther east 
than either of them, was created a distinct republic, 
named, in honor of the Great Liberator, Bolivia. 
That was in 1825. 

During those fifteen years Bolivar made many 
enemies, and was accused of trying to consolidate 
Soutli America into a kingdom, himself to be the 
founder of a dynasty of his own. He may not have 
been as free from personal ambition as our own 
Washington, but he had a very different people to 
deal with, and only one of the many republics (Chili) 
has thus far shown capacity for self government. 
In 1830 General Bolivar died, not having the high 




VIEW OF CARTHAGENA. 



satisfaction of seeing the South American problem 
solved. In him Venezuela furnished the liberator 
of several states, but not the founder upon a solid 
basis of free institutions. 

It may here be added that the South American 
republics have been rent and torn frecpiently with 
civil wars and wars between each other, and as a 
whole they have cast discredit upon the principle of 
self-goverumeut. But the condition of those coun- 
tries has been materially improved during the period 
of independence, notwithstanding all hindrances. 

We return now to the detailed consideration of 
the nations of South America. 

The United States of Colombia, formerly New 
Granada, is the extreme northwestern portion of the 
continent. It has an area of 357,179 square miles 

and a popula- 
tion of nearly 
three millions. 
The first Span- 
ish colony was 
established there 
in 1510. The 
Cauca valley is 
believed to be 
very rich in min- 
erals and ca- 
pacity for tropi- 
cal production ; 
but it is so malarious as to be a dangerous place 
for any but natives to live. Some attempts have 
been made to open up the valley and develop its 
resources by Yankee enterprise, but without suc- 
cess Bogota, the capital, is an inland city, pleas- 
antly situated on the San Francisco river. Ow- 
ing to its high altitude, it enjoys a delightful 
climate. It is an old city, dating back to 1537. 
Its population is about 40,000. A few miles below 
the city is the great cataract of Teqnendama, with a 
perpendicular fall of 600 feet. The United States 
of Colombia has about the same sea-water frontage 
on the Pacific Ocean as on the Caribbean sea. Car- 
thagena is its principal seaport. Its principal com- 
munication witli the world is by way of the Pacific 
and across the Isthmus of Panama, to the southeast 
end of which it extends. 

Directly south of Colombia, between it and 
Peru, lies the republic of Ecuador, so called be- 
cause it is beneath the equator. Its extent is from 



*7f. 



59 



;«r 



•V <a_ 






47 2 



SOUTH AMERICA. 



1° 35' north to 5° 50' south. From east to west it 
extends about 800 miles. The estimated area is 
250,000 square miles. It might well be called the 
home of the voleanos, for it has no less than sixteen 
in good working order. The famous truncated cone, 
Cotopaxi, towering to the height of 1S,S75 feet, and 
the still loftier Chimborazo (21,424 feet high) are 
the chief natural curiosities of the country. Earth- 
quakes are common and often very severe. It is 
supposed that its capital, Quito, was once the capi- 



tion a trifle over 2,500,000. It is estimated that 57 
per cent, of the inhabitants are Indians, and 23 per 
cent. Creoles, or " Chalos." In 187G the capital, 
Lima, had a pojjulation of 100,05G It is six miles 
inland from the seaport town of Callao. Politically, 
the republic is divided into seventeen departments and 
has a constitution modeled after that of the United 
States, or, rather, such was the case previous to the 
late disastrous war with Chili, since which time the 
government has been in a chaotic condition, with 




ANCIENT PERUVIAN TEMPLE OF THE SUN. 



tal of a nourishing Indian empire. The present 
population is exceptionally uninteresting and the 
country is peculiarly destitute of attractions. 

We are now arrived, in our circuit around the 
continent, at Peru, the country having the most in- 
terest in history of any in South America. It is 
the only one, in fact, which may be said to fill any 
considerable space in history, while its most pros- 
perous neighbor, Chili, alone seems to be on the 
highway to an important future. 

Peru lies between latitudes 30° 20' and 22° 20' 
south and longtitudes 67° and 81° 26' west. The 
area is about 503,000 square miles and the popula- 



an uncertain future. Nature has divided it into 
three parts. Between the ocean and the Andes lies 
a narrow strip of fairly level land, varying in width 
from 60 to 20 miles. This region is called the coast. 
Excejit in the near vicinity of rivers and rivulets 
the coast is a barren waste. Rains are unknown in 
that region. There are two parallel ranges of the 
Andes, and between them extends the best part of 
the country. That second division is called the 
Sierra. It is a series of valleys, somewhat broken 
with mountain spurs, but in the main very fertile. 
The average width of the Sierra is 100 miles. It is 
described as " a region diversified with tropical val- 



~7\-< 



aC 



SOUTH AMERICA. 



473 



>k 



leys ami vast elevated plateaus." Nine-tenths of the 
cultivated area and four-fifths of the population are 
to he found in the Sierra. Beyond the second moun- 
tain range lies the Montana, very little known. The 
Indians of that region have never been seriously 
disturbed, and they are more barbaric than those of 
the Sierra ever were. 

The fame of Peru early reached the Spaniards. 



tared and plundered a city. The invaders built a 
town which they called San Miguel. That was the 
beginning of a conquest hardly if any less impor- 
tant than the subjugation of Mexico by Cortez. 

Peru, Ecuador and Bolivia then formed one na- 
tion, ruled by the Inca dynasty, with Cuzco as its 
capital. That remarkable city is 11,380 feet above 
the level of the sea. The Incas claimed descent 




VIEW OP LIMA. 



They were told of a land in the southwest where gold 
was as plenty as iron. In 1512 Balboa, governor- 
general of the Darien colony, tried to find it. He 
met with no success. Twelve years later an adven- 
turous Spaniard, who had I icen a swineherd in youth 
and was destitute of intelligence or character, Fran- 
cisco Pizarro, made a voyage along the Peruvian 
coast. Nothing seemed to be accomplished. But 
in 1531 he made a second voyage, under commission 
as governor and captain-general, to conquer and rule 
whatever country he could find. He sailed south 
from Panama fourteen days, when he landed, cap- 



from the sun, which they worshiped as the god of 
the world. Many architectural ruins, including 
temples and palaces, attest a high degree of attain- 
ments in the art of building. 

Pizarro was received as a friend by the Inca Ata- 
huallpa. In return for this kindness the gracious 
sovereign was taken prisoner by the swineherd. He 
bought his liberty by an enormous ransom of gold 
to the amount of over seventeen millions of dollars, 
and even then he was not liberated. On the con- 
trary, he was burned alive. His half-brother was 
placed upon the throne. Pizarro established his seat 



"71 



^r^ 



474 



SOUTH AMERICA. 



at Lima, which he founded in 1535. That low and 
brutal wretch treated the natives with unspeakable 
barbarity until the year 1541 when he was assassin- 
ated. The King of Spain had dubbed him Marquis. 
He married the Inca's daughter. His descendants 
are among the more aristocratic of the present Pe- 
ruvian grandees. 

Pizarro reduced the natives to slavery and made 
them work assiduously iu the mines. His successor 
Vaca de Castra, introduced some administrative re- 
forms. It was not many years before African slavery 
was introduced as a substitute for Indian slavery. 
The latter was abolished in 1856. 

Peru had an uneventful career for nearly three 
centuries, during which time it contributed immense 
quantities of gold and silver to the world's stock. The 
mines are still very rich and profitable. But upon the 
shore and on neighboring islaudsof the Pacific is found 
an article of commerce which is the chief source of 
Peruvian wealth, the excrement of birds, called gu- 
ano. Speaking on this point, a recent writer says : 
" The guano-beds constitute government monopo- 
lies of sufficient value to have paid for the construc- 
tion of 1,000 miles of railways which traverse the 
Andes in a zigzag way, connecting the Sierra with 
the seaboard." There are many millions of tons of 
guano. The Incas protected the birds and the Pe- 
ruvian farmers then, even more than now, used this 
best of all fertilizers to enrich the soil. The coun- 
try has over 2,000 miles of railway, costing about 
$180,000,000. Their construction was a great tri- 
umph of financial management and engineering 
skill. For the former, Mr. Meiggs deserves the cred- 
it ; for the latter, the highest praise belongs to an- 
other American, Mr. Thorndike. 

We have now reached a point at which Chili and 
Bolivia sustain such relations to Peru that it is best 
to trace their respective lines of development until 
they converge toward a point common to the three. 

The southern boundary of Peru extends very 
nearly to the northern extremity of Chili, but not 
quite. Bolivia separates them, having a seaport, 
Cabija, which, however, is cut off from the rest of 
the republic by the desert of Atacama. In the days 
of the Incas that desert was a favorite burial place, 
the saltness of the soil preserving the body from de- 
cay. The area of Atacama is 70,181 and the popu- 
lation about 5,000. The entire republic of Bolivia 
has an area of 535,000 square miles and a popula- 



tion of 2,000,000. In the days of Spanish rule the 
chief part of the country was called either Upper 
Peru or Charcas, having very little if any in- 
dividuality. In 1767 it was cut off from Peru 
and made a part of the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres. 
It is intermediate between the two, and peculiarly 
isolated from the rest of the world, hedged in on 
the east and south by Brazil and the Argentine Re- 
public, on the west and south by Peru and Chili ; its 
only seaboard having the Andes between it and any 
habitable territory. Bolivia is a mountainous coun- 
try, comprising as it does the Cordilleras at their 
greatest altitude. From that range two chains 
break off, the western, containing many volcanoes 
and Mount Sajaiua, 22,760 feet high ; and the east- 
ern, to which belong Mounts Illampu and Illimano. 

Lying as it does between southern latitudes 12° and 
24°, Bolivia is tropical in climate, except as the 
mountains tower into the regions of frost, and pos- 
sesses every range of climate and productions. The 
interior of the country is productive, but its greatest 
wealth is mineral. All through the Bolivian Cor- 
dilleras silver is found in large quantities, and gold 
also, both placer and quartz. A railroad is in pro- 
cess of construction along the banks of the Madeira 
river for about 150 miles. That river empties into 
the Amazon and is navigable, except as its rapids, 
which extend for about 150 miles, impede it. With 
that obstacle overcome, Bolivia might develop into 
a great and rich country. The capital is the forti- 
fied town of Oruro. Formerly it was La Paz. In 
theory the government is a republic on the most 
approved American plan, with a president elected 
for four years ; practically the rulers are military 
dictators, and civil wars have been almost a con- 
stant quantity. From 1820 to 1839 Grand-Mar- 
shal Santa Cruz ruled Bolivia. Insurrections, assas- 
sinations, banishments and anarchy succeeded each 
other, the last being the deposition of President 
Campero, who had been elected in June, 1880. He 
was deposed for failure to resist successfully the su- 
perior power of Chili. 

From a mere glance at the map of South Amer- 
ica one would infer that Chili was the least import- 
ant part of the continent, being a narrow strip of 
land between the Pacific Ocean and the Andes. Of 
all the South American states on the Pacific coast 
it alone has no territory east of the great mountain 
range. As a matter of fact, however, it stands first 



-« e 



SOUTH AMERICA. 



475 



lu 



iu actual importance. It is about 1,200 miles long, 
and in width varies from 90 to 130 miles. The 
average height of the Chilian Andes is 14,000 feet 
above the level of the sea. The highest peak is the 
porphyritic Nevado of Aconcagua, 22,423 feet high. 
There are several active volcanoes in this republic, 
Antuco being the chief. The total area of the 
country is 132,606 square miles, the population a 
little more than two millions. It has two large towns, 
Santiago, the capital, and Valparaiso, the port. The 
former is in the interior and has a population of 
130,000 ; the latter is midway, nearly, as between 
northern and southern boundaries, and has a popu- 
lation of about 100,000. 

The northern half of Chili is nearly worthless f or 
agriculture, and even the mineral wealth cannot be 
developed to very good advantage. But the land 
has rest, comparatively speaking, from civil strife. 
Says an English writer, "The Chilians have made 
the best of their advantages, instead of squandering 
nature's prodigal gifts in strife and indolence. Rail- 
roads and telegraphs have been introduced, and a 
thrifty foreign commerce established. Chili is pro- 
verbial for its steady progress in all industrial en- 
terprises, for the absence of political perturbation, 
and for its punctuality in meeting its financial en- 
gagements. Its securities rank among the foremost 
on the Loudon Stock Exchange, being usually held 
for investment ; it builds its own railways and its 
own telegraphs without much foreign help; and the 
money it borrows for such purposes is secured by 
national and private bonds." 

Historically speaking, this portion of the Empire 
of the Incas began to have a separate existence in 
1535, when a Spanish expedition under Diego Al- 
magro pushed southward from Peru as far as Copi- 
apo into the territory of the Purumancians. The 
natives drove back the intruders. Five years later, 
Pedro de Valdivia repeated the experiment. He 
established a permanent settlement, calling the city 
he founded Santiago, in honor of the patron saint 
of Spain. After securing his position there he 
pushed southward to encounter the Araucanians, a 
tribe never yet subdued, and who continue to occupy 
a strip of Chilian territory 190 miles in length. The 
city of Concepcion was founded by Valdivia in the 
Araucanian country, but in 1559 it was destroyed 
and Valdivia put to death. For over a century the 
Spaniards and the Araucanians were at war. The 



peace of 1665 acknowledged the independence of the 
native tribe south of Bobio. Again, from 1723 to 
1773, the Chilians were at war with their aboriginal 
neighbors. 

Chili was one of the first colonies to rebel against 
Spain. The movement for independence began in 
1810. The first step was to depose the Governor- 
General, Carrasco, and vest the political authority 
in a Junta, corresponding to the Continental Con- 
gress. The Junta placed General Carrera iu su- 
preme authority. But he was unequal to the 
demands of the case. He was not destined to be 
the George Washington of his country. Before 1813 
closed, Spain had re-established its authority. It 
might have retained it perhaps, but harsh and op- 
pressive measures followed, provoking a renewal of 
rebellion in 1816. Speaking of the struggle thus 
renewed, a Chilian historian says, " The patriots 
now raised an army in the neighboring province of 
La Plata, and made General San Martin its com- 
mander. He marched into Chili and won an im- 
portant victory over the royalist forces at Chacabu- 
co, on the 12th of February, 1817. A provisional 
government was set up by the patriots, and Don 
Bernardo O'Higgins was placed at its head as su- 
preme dictator. The Spaniards now rallied and 
defeated the Chilians with heavy loss at Chauchar- 
ayda; but were themselves utterly routed by the 
patriots at Chileuos on the 5th of April, 1818. Not 
more than 500 Spaniards escaped from the field. 
This victory entirely destroyed the Spanish power 
in Chili, Peru and Buenos Ayres, and secured the 
independence of those states. The Spaniards re- 
treated to the port of Valdivia, which they held until 
1820, when they surrendered to the Chilian forces." 
During the next three years General O'Higgins was 
virtual dictator, but he lost his popularity and had 
to retire. 

A stable government, a genuine republic, was not 
adopted until 1828. Affairs moved on smoothly, 
the country steadily growing in prosperity and en- 
joying the substance and not the mere shadow of 
republicanism, undisturbed by any serious difficul- 
ties, apart from some Indian warfare, until 1864, 
when war broke out between Spain and Peru. An 
alliance was formed between Peru, Chili and Bo- 
livia, in accordance with which the three republics 
made common cause against the mother country, 
justly looked upon as a common enemy. This alii- 



Q ^ 



476 



SOUTH AMERICA. 



4. 



ance was not formal and recognized until 1867. 
Before that time Chili liad shown such strong sym- 
pathy with Peru that her coast was blockaded by 
the Spanish fleet. That blockade led to the cap- 
ture of the Spanish steamer " Covadonga" by the 
Chilian steamer, " Esmeralda," and later, to the 
bombardment of Valparaiso by the Spanish Ad- 
miral Nunez. That was a very impolitic thing to 
do, for the actual loss fell upon foreign residents 
mainly, and thus secured the ill-will of other na- 
tions. The United States offered to mediate be- 
tween the allies and Spain. The offer was accepted, 
and in April, 1871, a treaty providing for a cessa- 
tion of hostilities was signed at Washington. That 
may well be cdled the last struggle of Spain to re- 
cover its foothold in America. 

In 1879 hostilities began between Chili and the 
allied republics of Bolivia and Peru, growing out 
of rival territorial claims and claims to Guano-beds, 
and mineral deposits. Chili insisted that having 
done more than either of the others to repel the 
enemy, she was entitled to generous treatment. When 
the war came she had an army of 22,000 and a navy 
of ten small steamers and two powerful iron-clads. 
With these land and naval forces she was an over- 
match for the other two nations combined. The war 
was conducted with great spirit and intrepidity. In 
the spring of 1881 Callao and Lima were taken, and 
the Chilians were absolute masters of the situation. 

The final settlement of the questions in dis- 
pute and of the relations of those countries to each 
other still remains to be accomplished. The national 
debts of Peru and Bolivia (especially the former) 
cannot be ignored. Peru was virtually mortgaged 
to non-resident capitalists before the last war, and 
Chili will not be allowed to sacrifice those interests, 
more especially the guano interests of foreign claim- 
ants. It is a curious and appropriate fact that the 
present question of supreme importance in the pub- 
lic affairs of all South America relates to the excre- 
ment of sea-fowls. 



In the fall of 1881 the Secretary of State, Mr. 
Blaine, with the approval of President Arthur, sent 
two envoys-extraordinary to Peru and Chili for the 
purpose of facilitating negotiations of amity and 
protecting Peru from the apprehended unjust de- 
mands of her victorious sister republic. Soon after, 
Mr. Blaine was superseded by Mr. Fielinghuyseu 
who early made material changes in the instructions 
issued to the chief envoy, Mr. Trescott. It is not 
absolutely certain what negotiations have been en- 
tered into, but it is supposed to be morally certain 
that the following terms will be exacted and en- 
forced : 

First — The absolute annexation of Tarapaca and 
a large strip of territory immediately north of it. 
These include all the nitrates and the great bulk of 
the guano. Second— Chili holds and occupies the 
district of Arica and Tacna, nominally for ten 
years, to be then released to Peru on payment of 
$20,000,000, which they leave her no more power to 
pay than if it were $20,000,000,000. Arica and 
Tacna may therefore be considered permanently an- 
nexed. Third — The Lobis Islands to be seized and 
held by Chili so long as there is any guano on them. 

Referring to this ultimatum, and the sagacious 
provision of the Chilians to protect the British in- 
terest in Peru, Mr. Blaine declares that the United 
States has lost a great opportunity to advance its 
own commercial interest while enforcing the princi- 
ple of the Monroe doctrine. His words on this point 
are, ''By commercial interests I mean the entire inter- 
change of commodities, the supplying of manufac- 
tured articles and raw material, the concentration 
in our commercial cities of a share of that which 
will now go wholly to London and Liverpool. The 
trade of the west coast of South America, from 
this time forward, will be as much in the hands of 
Great Britain as the trade of British India." Evi- 
dently that portion of the world is in a condition 
of extreme incertitude both as to domestic and for- 
eign relations. 




>*? 




H- 



1 CENTRAL AMERICA, 





ISLES OF THE SEA. 



w> 



AND THE 





CHAPTER LXXIV. 



Central America in General— Early Settlement— Political Divisions— Gautemala, the 
Republics of Honduras and San Salvador— Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and British Hon- 
duras— Panama— The West Indies in General— The Bahamas— The Antilles— Cuba and 
Porto Rico— Cuba-i History— Havana— Hayti ; Spanish and French Occupation of it— 

TOUSSAINT AND NAPOLEON — SOULOUQUE— SaN DOMINGO — JAMAICA — THE LESSER ANTILLES — 

The Barbadoes — The Gulf-Stream — The Bermudas — The Azores — The Sandwich Islands 
— The Fiji Islands — Samoan Isles. 



±f.C^\±. 



MM 



JfeJ^j 






■a 



~v T tf - 




' HERE is one unbroken 
stretch of land from Behr- 
ings Straits to the Straits 
of Magellan, from Cape 
Prince of Wales to Cape 
Horn, to the hindrance of 
commerce ; but from the 
southern extremity of 
North America to the northern ex- 
tremity of South America, is a dis- 
tance of about 800 miles. The link 
that binds the two continents to- 
gether, or, to put it in a more practi- 
cal way, the barrier that divides the 
Atlantic coast from the Pacific, is 
that narrow ridge of land called 
Central America, and which ex- 
tends from the southern boundary 
of Mexico to the southern bound- 
ary of Panama. The width of Central America 
varies from 20 to 400 miles. 

The eastern shore of Central America was first 
visited by Christopher Columbus in 1502, or rather 
discovered, for he merely passed along it. The natives 
and his crew were agreed in opposition to landing. 
Twenty-one years later Cortez sent Pedro Alvarado 






to explore and conquer the west coast. He was 
absent two years. Almost incredible, yet hardly 
too extravagant, stories were told by the Aztecs 
and other natives of the abundance of gold and 
silver in that region, and the splendor of the civ- 
ilization existing there. Relics dug from the ruins of 
Central America in our own day attest the essential 
correctness of the representations made. Gold and 
silver are found in many localities, and some mines 
are in operation, but the climate is so hot and the 
air is so fetid, the government so insecure and the 
people so indolent, that no considerable amount of 
mining is done. The only industry of any account, 
apart from transportation, is lumbering. The dense 
forests contain mahogany, logwood, lignum-vitae, 
pimento, sarsaparilla, vanilla, black balsam, and 
other trees valuable for bark, timber or gum. There 
are said to be not less than ninety-seven varieties of 
jioisonous trees in that region fatal to animal life, 
but they are valuable for drugs. The sparce 
population consists, it is estimated, of one- 
twelfth whites, four-twelfths mixed races, and seven- 
twelfths Indians. The country is mountainous, and 
the mountains volcanic. There are several lakes, 
Nicaraugua being the chief. Its outlet, the San Juan, 
is the only considerable river of Central America. 



7F 



(477) 



;r 



A 



478 



CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE ISLES OF THE SEA. 



l& 



Political]} - there are five Central American repub- 
lics and one European dependency, British Hondu- 
ras. These republics are: Guatemala, Honduras, 
San Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica. In 1823 
the Spanish yoke was thrown off. The division of 
the countiy into districts and states having no 
unity occurred about ten years later. 

The present constitution of Gautemala was 
adopted in 1859. Santiago de Guatemala is the 



principal seaport is La Libertad, distant fifteen 
miles from the capital. The Indians of that state 
are more industrious than those of any other part 
of Central America. Indigo is their chief article 
of export. 

Nicaragua has a population estimated at 350,000. 
Their chief occupation is cattle raising. The capital, 
Managua, is built on the slope of an active volcano. 
The old capital, Leon, ten miles from the Pacific 






i 




VIEW OP PANAMA. 



capital. It has a population of 45,000. Guatemala 
de Cabelleros, once the capital, had a population 
of 60,000, but earthquake and fire nearly de- 
stroyed it in 1773, and it now has only about one- 
third of that population. The republic of Honduras 
is almost wholly peopled by Indians. Its capital is 
the little town of Comayagua, on the Pacific coast. 
San Salvador has for its capital the city of the same 
name, founded by Pedro Alvarado in 1528, or rather, 
it did have, until repeated earthquakes and vol- 
canic eruptions compelled a change of site. The 
city of San Salvador was visited by destructive 
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions in 1873. The 



coast, was surrounded by five active volcanos. Costa 
Rica is supposed to have a population of little less 
than 200,000 souls. The Spanish portion of the 
population clusters about the capital, San Jose, 
which has a population of 26,000. Costa Rica is 
trying to connect the Atlantic and Pacific oceans by 
a railroad running from Alajuela to Limon, a dis- 
tance of 114 miles. That portion of the line from 
Alajuela to Cartago (42 miles) was finished early in 
1873. Oidy a very little more work was done until 
1879, when construction was resumed. Like all the 
rest of Central America, Costa Rica abounds in vol- 
canoes. 



A 



CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE ISLES OF THE SEA. 



479 




British Honduras has a population of about 25,- 
000, and is hardly more than a naval station, kept 
up for the convenience of the British Empire and 
to strengthen Great Britain's supremacy on the high 
seas of the world. 

Panama is, politically speaking, a part of South 
America, one of the states of the United States of 
Colombia being the Isthmus of Panama (formerly 
Darien); but in reality it is part of the connecting 
link between the two continents. It has an area of 
29,756 square miles 
and a jjopulation 
of 175,000 souls. It 
varies in width 
from 30 to 70 miles. 
Its chief feature is 
the Panama rail- 
road, extending 
from Aspinwall on 
the Atlantic coast' 
to the city of Pan- 
ama on the Pacific 
coast. It was built 
at tremendous cost, 
1500,000 a mile, 
and the loss of life 
from the unwhole- 
someness of the 
climate was enor- 
mous. That rail- 
road is one of the 
great triumphs of 
modern enterprise. 
Citizens of the 

United States projected and accomplished the work. 
Great numbers of Chinamen were employed in the 
construction. The property has always been a very 
profitable investment. It was recently purchased by 
the company organized by M. de Lessejis to construct 
a ship canal across the Isthmus of Panama, one of 
the most gigantic and important undertakings of 
the nineteenth century. The country is rocky and 
mountainous on the Atlantic or Caribbean side, and 
swampy on the Pacific side. The soil is all too 
productive. Its yield of tropical plants is so very 
luxurious that the decay incident thereto poisons the 
atmosphere. The town of Panama has a popula- 
tion of about 10,000, Aspinwall of 4,000. The 
Panama railroad was completed in 1S55. With the 




Panama ship canal completed (and it is a moral 
certainty that it will be) engineering skill and enter- 
prise will have supplied to the commerce of the 
world the shortest passage to the Indies, which Co- 
lumbus sought, the search for which opened to Eu- 
rope a new world. 

The West Indies is the general designation of 
the archipelago which breaks the watery monotony 
of the Caribbean sea, which is that portion of the 
Atlantic Ocean extending from the southern ex- 
tremity of the pe- 
ninsula of Florida 
to the northern 
coast of Venezuela. 
It consists of four 
groups of islands, 
the Bahama Isl- 
ands, the Greater 
Antilles, the Virgin 
Islands, and the 
Lesser Antilles. 

The Bahamas 
have, all told, only 
about 40,000 in- 
habitants, and a 
total area variously 
estimated at from 
3,000 to 5,000 
square miles. This 
group consists of 
12 islands, 661 
keys, 2,387 reefs 
and cliffs, 
3,060 islets. 



COLUMBUS DISCOVERING SAX SALVADOR. 



and 
The 

larger islands include the Grand Bahama, San Sal- 
vador and New Providence. The latter contains 
Nassau, the capital. San Salvador is supposed to 
be the first land discovered by Columbus. Waling's 
Island lays some claim to that distinction. The ab- 
origines were early exterminated by the Spaniards. 
The English possession of the Bahamas dates from 
1029. These islands furnish for export canella, 
arrowroot, sponges, salt, conch-shells, eleutherabark, 
and pineapples. The soil and climate are especially 
adapted to raising pineapple plants. 

The term Antilles is often applied to all the West 
Indies except the Bahamas. The Greater Antilles 
comprise the four large islands, Cuba, Hayti, Ja- 
maica and Porto Eico. 



6o 



_-. © 



4S0 



CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE ISLES OF THE SEA. 



Cuba and Porto Rico are the remaining American 
possessions of Spain of any considerable import- 
ance. The latter island has an area of 3,530 square 
miles and a population of about 000,000, one-half 
white, one-third Creole, and the rest negroes. The 
island produces a great deal of sugar, some coffee, 
tobacco, cotton and cattle. It has a little mineral 
wealth, gold, copper, iron, lead, coal and rock-salt. 
Its capital is also called Porto Rico Cuba has an area 
of 43,220 square miles. It entire annual production 
is estimated in value at $126,000,000, mostly sugar 
and tobacco. The Cuban census of 1877 gave the 
population as follows : whites, 704,164 ; free negroes, 
3,444,050; 
slaves, 227,- 
902 ; Chi- 
nese, 58,400. 
Columbus 
gave to Cu- 
ba the name 
of Juana ; 
the original 
name, how- 
ever, finally 
prevailed. 
The first 
Spanish col- 
ony was es- 
tablished in 
1511. The 
Captain- 

General who ruled the colony in its infancy. 
Hernando, was a monster of cruel rapacity. By 
1553 the native population had been nearly 
exterminated by their inhuman taskmasters, who 
then resorted to the African slave trade to sup- 
ply the labor market with slaves. In 1524 the French 
destroyed Havana, and again twenty years later, but 
they gained no substantial advantage thereby. In 
1024 the Dutch took it. Later in the same century 
piratical marauders, flying no national flag, seriously 
ravaged the coast. In 1702 the English took Ha- 
vana, restoring it, however, the next year in exchange 
for Florida. Spain has always shown a desper- 
ate resolution to maintain possession of Cuba. The 
United States, prior to the abolition of slavery, cov- 
eted it, offering Spain at one time 8100,000,000 for it. 
That was in 1848. Six years later an attempt was 
made to intimidate the government at Madrid. 




A SUGAI 



Three American ministers-plentipotentiary, Messrs. 
Buchanan, Mason and Soule, met and went through 
the solemn farce of issuing the Ostend manifesto, 
claiming for the United States the right to take 
possession of the island if Spain persisted in re- 
fusing to sell it. This game of bluff failing, the 
project of annexation was abandoned. 

For a long time prior to the abolition of the Af- 
rican slave trade (1845), Cuba was the center of an 
immense traffic in fresh supplies of negroes from the 
continent of Africa. The South American colonies 
largely depended upon Cuba for servants, until their 
independence and emancipation, and a great 

•many were 
clandestine- 
ly brought 
to the Uni- 
ted States 
by way of 
Cuba. Sev- 
eral insur- 
rections oc- 
curred that 
were crush- 
ed out with 
great cruel- 

ty- 

The most 
resolute ef- 
fort to ob- 
tain inde- 

]<endence was begun in 1808. The leader of the 
movement was Manuel Carlos Cespedes, afterwards 
elected President of the "Republic," or abortive gov- 
ernment set up by the insurgents. The war was 
maintained for several years, seriously interfering 
with the prosperity of the island and resulting in 
failure. 

Havana is not only the chief city of the West 
Indies, as well as the cajiital of Cuba, but it is one of 
the best known centers of commerce in the world. It 
lias a most excellent harbor, and a population of 
over 200,000 souls. Of the city, a recent traveler 
says, " The most prominent among the public 
buildings are the opera house, one of the largest in 
the world ; the cathedral, built in 1724 and contain- 
ing the ashes of Christopher Columbus, transferred 
hither from St. Domingo in 1795 ; the palace of the 
Governor-General, with apartments for the different 



TATE, CUBA. 



<s •>_ 



CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE ISLES OF THE SEA. 



481 



government officers. None of the buildings, how- 
ever, are very remarkable ; but with respect to its 
public parks and promenades, Havana perhaps sur- 
passes all other cities in the world, the Flaza de Ar- 
mas, the Alameda de Paula, the Parque de Isabel 
and the Pasco de Tacon being the more prominent." 

Hayti is second only to Cuba, from which it is 
separated by the Windward Passage. It measures, 
from east to west, 405 miles, and its greatest width 
is 165 miles, comprising an area of 28,000 square 
miles, inclusive of a few contiguous islets. The soil 
is very rich and productive. Coffee, sugar and to- 
bacco are raised in large quantities. The islaud is 
divided into two 
states, only the 
western portion 
being known, po- 
litically, as Hayti. 
The eastern part 
is San Domingo. 

The latter is 
Spanish, so far as 
concerns its Euro- 
pean elements, the 
former French. 
Hayti was the 
second American 
place visited by 
Columbus. It has 
the distinction of 
being the part of the New World first settled by w bite 
men, receiving the ajsprojiriate name of Hispaniola. 
The mines of the island were poor as compared with 
those subsequently found in Mexico and Peru, but 
rich as compared with any at that time known to the 
Spaniards, and they were very eager in their develop- 
ment. The native population, estimated at 2,000,- 
000, was enslaved and soon literally used up and 
worn out by excessive labor. Like all the West In- 
dia aborigines they were unaccustomed to hard 
woik and soon succumbed beneath the lash of cruel 
taskmasters. Negro slavery was introduced in 
Hayti in 1523. Pedro, son of Christopher Colum- 
bus, was viceroy at the time, and it was on his prop- 
e ty that the first consignment of African slaves 
was set at work. By 1711 the aborigines had 
dwii.dled to about 20.000. There are said to be a 
few of their descendants still surviving in the mount- 
ains of the island. 




The discoveries of Mexico and Peru were almost 
ruinous to Hispaniola. The population shrank to 
utter insignificance. But in 1630 a new era dawned 
upon the island. A French settlement was formed 
in the northern part of it and flourished rapidly. 
There was considerable trouble between the two 
nationalities, but in 1697 by the treaty of Ryswick 
Spain ceded the western part of the island to 
France. The French proceeded to develop the agri- 
cultural wealth of the country, sugar, coffee and 
other tropical productions. Some idea of the growth 
of San Domingo may be formed from the fact that 
in the year 1790, 1,400 vessels and 30,000 men were 

employed in the 
commerce be- 
tween France and 
St. Domique, as 
it is sometimes 
given. 

The French rev- 
olution spread in 
its ideas to Hayti 
and had a some- 
what unique out- 
growth. The 
wealth of the 
country was not 
confined to the 
white people, but 
all political rights 
were. Besides the semi-French population and the 
slaves there had grown up a third class, the Mulat- 
toes, possessing frequently extensive plantations. 
They demanded the extension to themselves of the 
principles of universal brotherhood. Civil war re- 
sulted. The Spaniards of the east side of the island 
took advantage of the disturbed state of things to 
make encroachments, and so did English adventur- 
ers. The slaves rose in insurrection, and the con- 
dition of affairs was simply desperate. In 1791 the 
demands of the Mulattoes were complied with, and 
two years later the slaves were emancipated. Com- 
missioners from France decided that no other course 
could be taken. 

This Haytian complication brought into promi- 
nence that very remarkable man, Toussaint L' Ou- 
verture, an African of unmixed blood. He was born 
in the island in 1743. His father was a native of 
Africa, the son of a chief. Toussaint was favored 



J]s- 



:rv^ 



:£* 



482 



CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE ISLES OF THE SEA. 






with a kind master who taught him to read and 
write. In the servile insurrection of 1791 and the 
massacre attending it he was passive, except to pro- 
tect his master and his family ; hut a few years later 
he appears in the negro army, first as a surgeon and 
then as a general. In 1795 he rendered eminent ser- 
vice as a soldier. When the French government 
granted liberty to the slaves he threw his influence 
in favor of France as against Spain and England. 
He took the lead in expelling both the Spanish and 

the English 

intruders. He 
showed a won- 
derful genius 
for war, also 
for civil af- 
fairs. The Mu- 
lattoes, the 
freedmen, the 
French and the 
other foreign- 
ers came to 
recognize him 
as the supreme 
authority in 
every thing. 
In 1800 he 
took possession 
of the entire 
island in the 
name of the 
French Direc- 
tory. He was 
madepresident 
for life. The 
whole island was at peace and prosperous under him. 
But Napoleon, then consul of France, proposed to re- 
store the old state of affairs, including the re-estab- 
lishment of slavery. He sent Leclerc with 66 vessels 
of war and 30,000 soldiers to carry out this purpose. 
They arrived on the island early in 1802. Toussaint 
issued a proclamation declaring loyalty to France but 
death to the invaders. Leclerc in turn denounced him 
as an outlaw. The forces of the island were utterly 
inadequate to the resistance. Toussaint retired to 
the mountains, but was induced to surrender on the 
promise of personal immunity and the continued 
freedom of the negroes. That pledge was shame- 
fully broken. He was carried to France in irons 




BAY OF SAMANA. 



and died a prisoner in the castle of Joux, the vic- 
tim of treachery and cruelty, including starvation. 
The treatment of this great man was one of the 
foulest blots upon the name of Napoleon, and a su- 
preme calamity to Hayti. It seemed to be on the 
highway to a large prosperity, but with Toussaint's 
fall it withered and shriveled. 

Notwithstanding the fate of L'Ouverture, the 
French had to abandon the idea of re-enslaving the 
negro. In all the world's history no act of emanci- 
pation, once 
effective, has 
been practical- 
ly and perma- 
uentlyrecalled. 
Failing in this, 
the army left 
the island in 
1804, and San 
Domingo de- 
clared itself a 
free and inde- 
pendentrepub- 
lic. The first 
president, Des- 
salines, who 
had proved a 
worthy suc- 
cessor to Tous- 
saint in the 
field, was ut- 
terly unfitted 
for the trust 
reposed in him. 
He attempted 
to make himself emperor of all Hayti. Two years 
later he was assassinated, but not until after the 
island had been drenched in blood and the indus- 
tries terribly crippled. With his death the eastern 
part of the island returned to Spanish rule. An- 
archy prevailed until 1822, when Boyer united the 
entire island under one government. 

For twenty years he remained in power. At 
the expiration of that period he was banished 
and the island once more divided. It remained so 
until 1849, when Soulouque, a freedmau who had 
acquired some prominence in the civil wars which had 
desolated the island, and had been elected president 
of Hayti in 1847, declared himself emperor of the 



*fc 



CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE ISLES OF THE SEA. 



483 



entire island. His pretentions were successfully re- 
sisted by the San Domingans under the lead of 
Santana, who from 1844 to 1861 was at the head of 
public affairs in San Domingo, much of the time as 
president. In 1855 Santana put an effectual termi- 
nation by overwhelming superiority in the field, to 
the pretensions of the Haytian rival. Santana died 
in 1864 ; Soulouque in 1867. Between them what lit- 
tle prosperity the island had previously enjoyed was 
destroyed. A land which, a century ago, contributed 
largely to the wealth of the world is now a mere 
cipher. The only redeeming feature, or consola- 
tion, is that the bulk of the people are now crudely 
happy, while under the old regime they were excru- 
ciatingly miserable. 

During his first presidential term General Grant 
was very desirous of annexing San Domingo to the 
United States. He exerted all his influence to se- 
cure its annexation. Everything was arranged, and 
it was only necessary for the senate of the United 
States to concur. But that concurrence could not 
be secured. Senator Charles Sumner was as warmly 
opposed to it as the president was in favor of it. The 
controversy involved the two great men in personal 
unpleasantness. Mr. Sumner carried his point, but 
in punishment therefor the friends of the admistra- 
tion deposed him from the chairmanship of the 
Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs, a position 
which he had long filled with pre-eminent ability. 
An attempt to annex the small West Indian island 
of St. Thomas was also defeated. The sentiment 
of the United States was and is averse to the ac- 
quisition of any outlying southern territory. 

Jamaica, with an area of 4,473 square miles and 
a population of 500,000, is one of the Antilles and 
a colonial possession of Great Britain. It produces 
in large quantities sugar and coffee. Much of the 
former is distilled into rum before exportation. This 
island was visited by Columbus and settled by the 
Spaniards in 1509. The English captured it in 1655. 
For a century and a half it was managed as one 
vast plantation, the supply of slaves being kept up 
by importations from Africa. The slave trade was 
abolished in 1807, and slavery itself in 1833. The 
amount of sugar and coffee raised was very greatly 
reduced by emancipation. It is governed by a cap- 
tain-general appointed by the crown. The capital 
is Kingston. 

The Lesser Antilles are divided into two groups, 



the AVindward or South Carribee Islands, and the 
Leeward or North Carribee Islands. The former are 
Barbadoes, Granada, the Grenadines, Martinique, St. 
Lucia, St. Vincent, Trinidad and Tobago. They are 
all British possessions, except Martinique, which be- 
longs to France. The Leeward Islands are Anguilla, 
Antigua, Barbuda, Deseada, Dominica, Gaudaloupe, 
Marie Galante, Montserrat Nevis, Saba, St. Barthol- 
omew, St. Christopher, St. Eustacius, St. Martin, 
Santa Cruz, and a group of still smaller islands 
called the Virgin Islands. All told, they are trivial 
in importance. Their ownership is divided between 
England, France, Sweden, Denmark, Holland and 
Sjiain, the possessions of the latter, outside of Cuba 
and Porto Rico, being utterly insignificant. The 
Danish islands are St. Thomas, St. John and St. 
Croix. These small islands are almost worthless, 
except as they may be useful as coaling stations a ail 
for other naval purposes. 

The most eastern of these islands are the Barba- 
does. That term was often used, in colonial times, as 
applying to all the British possessions in the West 
Indies. Slavery was abolished within the British 
possessions about the same time that the Spanish 
states became independent and freed their slaves. 
At one time New England traded extensively in 
slaves, rum and molasses with the British portion 
of those tropical islands, especially the two latter 
articles. Since the restrictions of trade were re- 
moved the principal commercial intercourse of this 
country and the world generally with those innu- 
merable islands is carried on with Cuba at its business 
and political capital, Havana, and the chief article 
of trade is the cigar. Many parts of the tropical 
world produce sugar, coffee, and even tobacco, but 
the flavor of the Cuban tobacco-leaf is peculiar, 
and preferred to that of any other. 

In Central America and the West Indies there 
are only two seasons of the year, instead of four, 
wet and dry. During the cooler months it rains a 
great deal, but when the sun is more vertical rain 
hardly ever falls ; an earthquake or a hurricane is 
more to be expected than a thunderstorm. 

It may be added here that the waters of the Ca- 
ribbean sea, flowing from it by an oceau current into 
the Gulf of Mexico, find egress only through the 
narrow passage between the Bahamas and Florida, 
and constitute that incalculably important and 
mighty ocean river, the Gulf-Stream. 



7* 



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>-£. 



484 



CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE ISLES OF THE SEA. 



The Bermudas is a term suggestive of a group of 
islets having far more prominence than import- 
ance. They lie about 620 miles off Cape Hat^as, 
the nearest laud. Their number is 400, their area 
only 34 square miles and their population only about 
ten thousand. Juan Bermudez discovered them in 
1523. The temperature is always mild and the ver- 
dure perpetual. The English have some strong bat- 
teries on the largest isle of the group. The only 
thing for which the Bermudas are famous is onions, 
which are exported in large quantities. 

The Azores, situated in the North Atlantic about 
500 miles west of Portugal, are a group of islands 
which have been under Portuguese rule ever since 
1449. For nearly half a century they were the ex- 
treme western limit of the known world. Their 
area is 1149 square miles, population about 250,000. 
There are three groups, the Flores and Corvo form- 
ing one ; Terceira, St. George, Pico, Fayal and Gra- 
ciosa a second, and St. Michael and St. Mary the 
third. The chief exports are wine, brandy and 
oranges. The people are simple, superstitious and 
uninteresting. 

Leaving the Atlantic and visiting the Pacific, the 
important group is the Sandwich or Hawaiian Isl- 
ands. These islands were discovered by the Span- 
ish in the 10th century, but they were soon lost 
sight of. They may be said to have first become a 
part of the world actual when visited by that great 
English navigator, Captain Cook, in 1778, who was 
killed by the natives the following year. The 
people were indeed barbarians, but not downright 
savages. Something approaching a civilization was 
found. A system of government strongly resem- 
bling medieval feudalism prevailed, with several 
rulers of about equal dignity, each independent and 
sovereign. But in the year 1790, Kamehameha ex- 
tended his sway to all Hawaii. When he died the 
entire group formed one kingdom. In 1819 a civil 
war occurred which resulted, among other things, in 
the destruction of the idols of popular worship. 



Very soon after seven American missionaries, with 
their wives, came among them to make known to 
them the Gospel of Christ. They came at a very 
opportune time. The ground was prepared for the 
seed sown, and in an almost incredibly short time 
the Hawaiians became Christians. In 1825 the Ten 
Commandments were adopted and formally made a 
part of the code of the country. Honolulu became 
the capital. In 1829 the United States recognized 
the government of the Hawaiian Islands as a treaty 
power, and in 1843 and 1844 that goverment re- 
ceived full and general recognition as a nation. 

Captain Cook estimated the population at 400,- 
000, but by the last census it had fallen to about 
57,000. Commercial intercourse proved terribly de- 
structive to life. The people on the coast contract- 
ed diseases from contact with sailors which killed 
them off with unprecedented rapidity. Sugar rais- 
ing is the chief industry, and the greater part of 
the product is exported to San Francisco. All these 
twelve islands, of which Hawaii is the chief, are vol- 
canic. There are two active volcanoes on Hawaii — 
Kilauea and Manna Loa. 

The Fiji Islands constitute a group in the Soutli 
Pacific Ocean numbering about 209, with a popula- 
tion estimated at 200,000. The first European to 
visit them was the Dutch navigator, Tasman, in 
1643. There was no full exploration until two 
centuries later, when an American by the name of 
Wilkes visited them. There are only two islands of 
any considerable magnitude, Viti Levu and Vanua 
Levu. The people were savages of the most pro- 
nounced type, but the missionaries of the cross have 
met with great success there. At least one-half the 
population habitually attend Christian service on 
the Sabbath. 

Having now visited the more interesting Isles of 
the Sea, it is time to return to the American conti- 
nent and trace from many small beginnings to its 
present magnificence, that grandest republic of all 
the ages — the United States. 









mmm 



a V 





CHAPTER LXXV. 



The Subject in Hand— Origin of the Indian Race and the Name— Mounds and the Extinct 
Mound Builders— The Land of the Pueblos— Cliff Houses— Cave Dwellers— The 
Nations and Tribes Once on the Atlantic Coast— Testimony of Trumbull— Reserva- 
tions— The Indian Bureau— Indian Territory— Wampum— Indian Opportunities and 
Prospects— The Aboriginal Problem— Relation of the Indian to the History of the 
United States. 



ETWEEN the Republic of 
Mexico and the British de- 
pendency of Canada is situ- 
ate the most important na- 
tion on the globe, viewed 
from the standpoint of the 
actual. Its history covers a 
comparatively short period, 
but already it ranks with the 
great powers of the earth, and its 
growth is absolutely unprecedented. 
The United States can test be studied 
and understood by viewing it from a 
variety of standpoints, and first of all 
naturally from the aboriginal point of 
view. 

We use the term Indian to designate 
all the peoples and tribes found by Eu- 
ropeans on this continent, and whose 
occupancy of the soil antedates history. It was origi- 
nally a misnomer, given from the misapprehension 
that the islands in the Caribbean sea were a part of 
the country in and about the Indian Ocean of the 
far East. Misnomer though it be, Indians is the 
designation of all prehistoric Americans. 

Many wild notions have been entertained relative 
to the origin of the Indians. Some have tried to 



trace them to the " Lost Ten Tribes " of Israel, oth- 
ers to the " Shepherd Kings " who were expelled 
from Egypt some four chiliads ago. All such con- 
jectures are preposterous. As well try to trace the 
origin of tobacco or wheat. It would be quite pos- 
sible for the inhabitants of northern Asia or north- 
ern Europe, especially the former, to make their way 
from island to island to the western hemisphere, but 
in the sands of time are no footprints. Behring's 
Strait and the Aleutian Islands, if they have a se- 
cret, keej:> it well. 

The Indian found upon the Atlantic coast, from 
Labrador to Buenos Ayres, was a mere savage, 
somewhat interesting as a novelty, but to all intents 
and purposes a crude barbarian like the prehistoric 
man set forth in our third chapter. In the interior 
and the west, however, he was found to have done 
some remarkable things. There were and still are 
vast mounds which attest the presence, in a buried 
past, of a people possessing some real civilization. 
Men of science have been richly rewarded for exca- 
vating these earthworks. Regular and exact are 
they, proving capacity for calculation and execution 
above the level of barbarism. Indeed, it is evi- 
dent that the Mound-builders understood somewhat 
the principles of geometry. They may have had 
their Archimedes or Euclid. If they had only had 



(485) 



4 86 



NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 



k- 



a Cadmus to give them letters, they might have fig- 
ured among the historical peoples. There is one 
mound in the Miami valley, Ohio, laid out in the 
form of a huge snake. Knives and other implements, 
also pottery, have been found, all uncouth and 
primitive, leaving no doubt that the continent was 
once occupied by a people who " knew enough to 
know " that by softening metal with fire it could be 
made useful, and that clay could be moistened, fash- 
ioned and baked with equally 
good results. 

It is thought probable that 
the Aztecs of Mexico are de- 
scended from the Mound-build- 
ers, and that the Indian, as he 
was found roaming the forests 
by the Europeans who settled 
this country and made it a part 
of the civilized world, was him- 
self an interloper, and not really 
the aboriginal American. But 
this is matter of conjecture. We 
only know that the extent and 
magnitude of these mounds 
serve as an index -finger pointing 
to a history never to be written 
of a people who had ceased to 
inhabit the country long before 
the advent of the white man, 
or if still the same, changed sadly 
in character, and practically ex- 
tinct. 

Of the Canadian Indians, in- 
cluding the Esquimaux, enough 
has been said in previous chap- 
ters, but Indian archaeology andpresentfactsunite in 
presenting other aborigines quite as interesting and 
civilized as the Mound-builders, known as Cave- 
dwellers and Cliff -dwellers. 

The land of the Mound-builders is now under 
cultivation, peopled by a race noted for what it can 
do in the line of utility, but the land of the Cave 
and Cliff dwellers is still, for the most part, undis- 
turbed by white men. That land extends over a 
large part of Colorado, Utah, Arizona and New 
Mexico. That vast region is inconceivably rich in 
precious metals, yields a growth of very nutritious 
grasses for buffaloes, cattle and sheep. It may be 
said to be at once the treasure-house and the pasture 








of the United States. From the standpoint of pro- 
ductive value it is those two and no more. But to 
the student of the curious it is interesting as the 
home of a more remarkable people, apparently, than 
the Mound-builders. 

The architectural remains and attestations of a 
decayed civilization in the Rocky Mountains are 
pueblos, casa grandes, cave-houses and cliff-houses. 
A pueblo is sometimes inhabited, but often a desert- 
_ | ed village. The pueblo struc- 
tures are made of stone, quite 
large, sometimes two or three 
stories in height. Within, the 
building is divided into numer- 
ous apartments, as many as a 
thousand in some instances. 
South of the pueblos are found 
casa grandes, differing from the 
other class of structure in mate- 
rial, rather than size or object. 
They were made of mud, or 
(ulobe. For the most part these 
are now shapeless ruins. 

Cliff -houses are another highly 
interesting feature of the an- 
tiquities of the interior of the 
United States. A writer who 
was on the ground and wrote 
from actual observation, says in 
describing one of these cliff- 
houses, " Over six hundred feet 
from the bottom of the canon, 
in a niche in the wall, is a 
fine specimen of cliff -dwellings. 
Five hundred feet of the ascent 
to this aerial dwelling was comparatively easy, 
but a hundred feet of almost perpendicular wall 
confronted the party, up which they could never 
have climbed but for the fact that they found 
a series of steps cut in the face of the rock leading 
up to the ledge upon which the house was built. 
This ledge was teu feet wide by twenty feet in length, 
with a vertical space between it and the overhang- 
ing rock of fifteen feet. The house occupied only 
half this space, the remainder having been used as 
an esplanade, and once was inclosed by a balustrade 
resting on abutments built partly upon the sloping 
face of the precipice below. The house was but 
twelve feet high and two-storied. Though the walls 




f 

0$ 

GREAT SERPENT, ADAMS CO., OHIO. 



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f 



NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 



487 



did not reacli up to the rock above, it is uncertain 

whether it ever had any other roof. 

The ground plan showed a front room 

of six by nine feet in dimensions, in 

the rear of which were two smaller 

rooms, each measuring five by seven 

feet. The left-hand room projected 

along the cliff beyond the front room 

in the form of au L. The rock of 

the cliff served as the rear wall of the 

house. The cedar beams upon which 

the upper floor rested had nearly all 

disappeared. 

" The door opening upon the es- 
planade was but twenty by thirty 
inches in size, while a window in the 
same story was but twelve inches 
square. A window in the upper story 
which commands an extended view 
down the canon corresponds in dimen- 
sions and position with the door below. 
The lintels of the window were small, 
straight cedar sticks laid close to- 
gether, upon which the stones rested. 
Opposite this window was another and smaller 
one, opening in- 
to a semi-circu- 
lar cistern, form- 
ed by a wall in- 
closing the angle 
formed by the 
side wall of the 
house against 
the rock, and 
holding about 
two and a half 
hogsheads. The 
bottom of the 
reservoir was 
reached by de- 
scending on a 
series of cedar 
pegs about one 
foot apart, and 
leading down- 
ward from the 
window. The 
workmanship of 
the structure was 





CASA GRANDE OP THE GILA VALLEY. 



diculars were true ones and the angles carefully 
squared. The mortar used was of a 
grayish white color, very compact and 
adhesive. Some little taste was 
evinced by the occupants of this 
human swallow's-nest. The front 
rooms were plastered smoothly with a 
thin layer of firm adobe cement, col- 
ored a deep maroon, while a white 
band eight inches wide had been 
painted around the room at both floor 
and ceiling. An examination of the 
immediate vicinity revealed the ruins 
of half a dozen similar dwellings in 
the ledges of the cliffs, some of them 
occupying positions, the inaccessibility 
of which must ever be a wonder when 
considered as places of residence for 
human beings." 

The cave houses of the aboriginal 
American were substantially similar 
to the cliff houses, except this, instead 
of being constructed on a shelf of 
the cliff, they seem to have been set 
into openings in the cliffs. Caves a thousand feet 

above the level 
of the valley 
have been found 
which show evi- 
dence of long 
and populous oc- 
cupancy. Some 
cave villages 
havebeenfound. 
This class of ex- 
ploration is still 
incomplete, but 
enoughisknown 
to justify the 
conclusion that 
the older gener- 
ations of In- 
dians, no doubt 
the real progen- 
itors of those 
now there, were 
far more capa- 
ble and efficient 



of a superior order ; the perpen- I than their descendants. If not exactly " the degen- 



~~ 



61 



LkL 



488 



NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 



reate sons of noble sires," there is certainly no doubt 
about the de- 









■ ■■ *M 



MM 






generacy. 

The reader 
may desire to 
be informed 
how many In- 
dians there 
probably were 
on this conti- 
nent when it 
was first dis- 
covered. There 
is no way of 
telling, but the 
fairestcstimate 
is five millions, 
one-fifth of the 
number being 
within the bor- 
ders of the 
United States. 
Central gov- 
ernments and the civilization implied, were confined 
to Peru and Mexico, as those terms are used in his- 
tory, and not in 
the present re- 
stricted sense. 
According to 
the classifica- 
tion made by 
J. Hammond 
Trumbull and 
other eminent 
authorities on 
this subject, 
the Indians 
east of the 
Rocky Mount- 
ains were divi- 
ded into eight 
nations, orcon- 
federations of 
tribes, bound 
loosely togeth- 
er by a vague 
sense of kin- 
ship. They 



Oatawbas, lichees, Natchez, Mobilians, Dakotas or 

Sioux. The 
vast section of 
country ex- 
tending from 
Pennsylvania, 



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if 



^5^^G ir~ , rai \ 



CLIFF HOUSE IN THE CANON OF THE MANCOS 



Virginia, Dela- 
ware and New 
Jersey, through 
Southeastern 
New York, 
along the coast 
of the Atlantic 
off New En- 
gland, thence 
inland by the 
St. Lawrence 
to the lake re- 
gion, embrac- 
ing the area of 
the states of Il- 
linois, Indiana, 
and sections of 
Tennessee and Kentucky, formed the hunting- 
grounds of the Algonquins. This distinct nation 
was divided in- 







^ 






aciifc 





M&- 




Mm i MltfffiStoS 



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f 



Cave Village in the Valley of the Rio Chelley. 



to numerous 
tribes, the most 
of which were 
decidedly no- 
madic, moving 
from one sec- 
tion of their 
vast territory 
to another, as 
their fancies 
dictated or necessities demanded. Some 
of the more important of the tribes be- 
longing to the Algonquin nation were 
the Narragansetts, Pequots, Mohegans 
and Massachusetts who occupied South- 
ern New England, while further south 
of them were to be found the Shawnees, 
Delawares and Powhattans, and some 
less noteworthy branches of the nation. 
The Miamis, Foxes, Illinois, Sacs, Kick- 
apoos, Chippewas and Menominees, were 
scattered throughout the West, and in 



were the Algonquins, Huron-Iroquois, Cherokees, | the section of country bordering upon the great 



7. 



NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 



489 




BLACKHAWK 




lakes. The Moutagnais inhabited a region on 
the banks of the St. Lawrence. They were objects 
of great interest to the Jesuit priests of Quebec, who, 
with a true missionary spirit, sought 
their rude habitations in winter, 
with a view of bringing them with- 
in the pale of the church. The Al- 
gonquin nation gave birth to many 
noted warriors who left records long 
remembered by the early settlers 
of the country. Of these may be 
named Massasoit, King Philip, Powhatan, Pontiac, 
Blackhawk and Tecumseh. 

In the year lfiOO, the Algonquins were estimated 
to number nearly two hun- 
dred and fifty thousand. 

The Indians of the Uni- 
ted States are gradually be- 
ing concentrated upon res- 
ervations, and it will not be 
very many years before 
?very Indian will lie obliged 
to adopt civilization or re- 
move to and abide upon his 
reservation. Not that a red 
man is imprisoned and cannot go beyond certain 
territorial limits in his individual capacity. Not 
that at all. But simply the roving about of preda- 
tory bands cannot be allowed where white folks live. 
The office of Commissioner of Indian Affairs was 
created by congress in 1832, and is in charge of the 
bureau of Indian Affairs, a branch of the Depart- 
ment of the Interior. It Lb his duty to superin- 
tend the distribution of the appropriations which 
congress makes yearly for the Indians, who are re- 
garded as " wards of the government." There are 
numerous agencies scattered over the western coun- 
try, subject to the Indian Commissioner. During a 
part of General Grant's term, a real Indian, Captain 
Parker, held this office, but the service is, and with 
this exception always has been, altogether in the 
hands of the whites. The aim is to protect the pio- 
neers from depredations and enable the Indians them- 
selves to evade the fundamental law that "he who 
will not work shall not eat." Some of these agen- 
cies and reservations are within the limits of states, 
or territories which will become states, but it is evi- 
dent that before many years all settlements of 
Indians will be concentrated in Indian Territory. 



KDJG PHILIP. 



This fair portion of our continent, bordering on 
Texas, Kansas, Arkansas, Colorado and Missouri, 
contains an area of about 70,000 square miles. The 
policy of removing the tribes of Indians to a territory 
of their own originated in 1834. At first it was 
somewhat vague in conception and legislative defini- 
tion, but this policy has assumed precision at last, and 
now the United States stands ready to guard and 
protect " the nation," as Indian territory is popularly 
called, from intruding whites. The principal tribes 
there are Cherokees, Chicasaws, Choctaws, Creeks, 
Quapaws, Scminoles and Poncas. The entire popu- 
lation is not far from 100,000. A good deal of corn 
and wheat is annually raised, and large herds of 
cattle pastured. There are schools among them and 
newspapers. It is not believed that the population 
is decreasing. The old idea of ultimate Indian ex- 
tinction is unfounded. 

The general characteristics of the Indian are, a 
copjjer-colored skin ; straight black hair ; high 
cheek bones ; a tall, erect form ; stolidity and an 
incorrigible aversion to work. Their speech is guttu- 
ral, rasping and disagreeable. Many dialects there 
are, as a matter of course, among a people widely 
scattered, unsocial, and having nothing approaching 
a literature nearer than a few rude pictures on birch- 
bark. Some claim that there were at least ten dis- 
tinct languages spoken in this country by the prim- 
itive natives. There may have been a hundred. John 
Eliot, the one Englishman who truly and sincerely 
came to America early in the seventeenth century to 
convert the heathen, faithfully mastered the lan- 
guage of the Indians about him in Massachusetts. 
With infinite pains he translated the Bible into it, 
thinking he had done for the Indians much the 
same service that Wycliffe had done for the English. 
The dreary difficulties of his mighty task were ren- 
dered recreative by the anticipation of a redeemed 
people. But a few generations passed and nothing was 
left to attest the wisdom of his goodness. Indians 
are numerous enough, in the far West, but it has 
been a long, long time since any "noble red man" 
could read that curiosity of literature, or understand 
it if read to him, however accurate the pronunciation. 

A great deal of sentimental folly has been wasted 
upon the Indian. He had an infinitely better 
chance to become civilized than the negro had, but 
he would not become a part of the industry of the 
country. A little corn and tobacco would he raise, 



6 V 



49° 



NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 



and that is all. In the field of American pro- 
duction he was, and still persists in being, a mere 
thistle, fond of the baubles and hurtful inventions 
of civilized life, without accepting anything which 
is the just pride of progressive humanity. The skin 
of beasts, a wigwam, war paint, bow and arrow, 
tomahawk and scalping-knife are still the Indian's 
measure of improvement. In the midst of a most 
productive continent the aboriginal American is a 
constitutional pauper, supported by annuities, and 
self-excluded from participation in the events of the 
day. Originally sea-shells somewhat carved aud 
fashioned, constituted the Indian's only object of 
trade or standard of values. Wampum, as those shells 
were called, was both commerce and coin. Their 
stone hatchets, clay kettles, baskets, fish-nets, corn, 
with a few beans and squashes added, might be 
prized, but there was no traffic in them. Sometimes 
copper or pipe-stone was exchanged for wampum. 
Now that the white man feeds and clothes him, the 
Indian will barter the skins of the beasts_ of the 
chase for nothing else so readily as for alcohol. 

The Indian proper has a certain individuality, de- 
fying change which excites some admiration. He 
worships God as a Great Spirit, accepts the inevitable 
with stoical heroism, and if he does fight in ambush 
and scalp his victim, he is not ungrateful. Revenge 
is the sweetest bread an Indian ever tasted, but many 
instances could be given of kindness rendered 
at great peril to repay kindness. The Indian 
lias some sense of justice ; none at all of mercy. He 
hopes at death toenter "the happy hunting grounds" 
of the spirit land but he expects to be welcomed to 
heaven and made glad with the smiles of the blessed 
in proportion as lie was " a mighty man of valor." 
The works mete for repentance, according to the 
Indian's religion, are the scalps of enemies. 

History records numerous instances of the dis- 
placement of ow people by another. From the Red 
Sea to the British channel the march of empire was 
over the road of ruthless usurpation. The new 
comers, from the Jordan to the Thames, assumed 
that the original occupants had no rights which the 
invaders were bound to respect. It is true that in 
this country the aborigines have been crowded on 
aud off a good many reservations, and been fre- 
quently cheated by dishonest agents — sometimes 
cruelly murdered ; but the very fact of reservations, 



agents, and annuities attests the exceptional human- 
ity of the United States government. As compared 
with the record of any other people, Jew or gentile, 
ours may justly boast a century of honor. It is not 
a pioneer prejudice, but an undeniable fact, that the 
Indian is the wild partridge of humanity. The ne- 
gro did his best to acquire civilization, and despite 
the most persistent skepticism and hostility, rose to 
the dignity of American sovereignty. There was 
never a time when this country would not have 
gladly taken the Indian by the hand if he had 
shown a disposition to rise. It is " Indians untaxed " 
who are discriminated against in the suffrage clause 
of some organic laws. The United States government 
has tried to solve this Indian problem — for it must be 
admitted that with all our reservations, missions, and 
annuities, this country has failed to civilize " the 
first families " of America in a way ignoring the 
necessary steps in passing from barbarism to civili- 
zation. The attempt has been to convert the hunter 
into a farmer, without any intermediate stage. The 
shepherd, as shown in a previous chapter, is the con- 
necting link between following the chase aud follow- 
ing the plow. No civilized people ever jumped at 
one leap from hunting to agriculture. In the earlier 
days of the republic, the raising of grain and live- 
stock were inseparably blended ; but it is not so now. 
There are vast tracts of land in the far West which 
are exactly adapted to grazing, and nothing else. 
Already millions of cattle roam those plains, run- 
ning together, but none the less individualized prop- 
erty. If the owner is absent, he has a superinten- 
dent, and in either case employs "greasers" to assist 
in the general care of the stock. This life on the 
plains is half way between buffalo hunting aud grain 
raising. There is no good reason why the attempt 
should not be made to utilize the Indians as herders, 
and thus teach them the alphabet of civilization. 

Having taken this general survey of the Indian 
race, it is proposed to enter upon the history of the 
United States and follow it chronologically, from 
the earliest settlements to date. It may be added 
that between Mexico aud Canada, nothing of im- 
portance to subsequent events occurred before the 
seventeenth century. But from the time the first 
English colony was established in North America 
the Indian became of secondary and rapidly lessen- 
ing importance. 



Fls ^ 



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G OU>NIAL UNITED 




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'rir'iiiirntTii"- 



CHAPTER LXXVI 



^ 



0/T\0 




England and English America— Sir Humphrey Gilbert and Sir Walter Raleigh— Cape Cod, 
Virginia and Plymouth— Capt. John Smith and Pocahontas— Introduction of Slavery 
and English Wives— Indian Warfare— Lord Culpepper and the Royalists— Gov. Berke- 
ley and Nathaniel Bacon— Maryland and Lord Baltimore— New England and Capt. 
Smith— Landing of the Pilgrim F\thers— The Pilgrims in Holland— Gov. Carver— 
Massasoit and Canonicus— Other Massachusetts Settlements— Governors Winthrop and 
Endicott— Harvard College and the Printing Press— Connecticut and New Hampshire- 
Rhode Island and Roger Williams— Boston and Quakers— Salem and Witchcraft- 
Kino Philip's War— New England Bigotry and the Charge against Roger Williams- 
Other Notable Early New Englanders— New Netherlands and Henry Hudson— The 
Patroons— Dutch Governors— New Sweden— William Penn and Pennsylvania— The 
Caeolinas and John Locke— The Huguenots and Scotch— Georgia and Oglethorpe— 
Whitefield and Slavery— Spanish and French Settlements in the United States- 
Florida— Mississippi River and Valley— Pere Marquette and New France. 



MM 



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N a certain vague sense it 
might be said that the 
United States dates from 
1496, when Henry VII. of 
England commissioned 
John Cabot to sail to 
America and establish there 
a New England. There 
was already a New Spain, with a New 
France soon to follow. But that expe- 
dition was fruitless. For about a cen- 
tury England seemed to be singularly 
oblivious of America. The last of the 
Henrys, his son Edward and daughter 
Mary, paid no heed to the new world. 

The first Englishman to interest him- 
self, thoroughly and to some purpose, 
in America was Sir Humphrey Gilbert. 
In 15S3 Queen Elizabeth authorized him to form a 
colony on this continent. He sot sail intending to 
establish a permanent settlement for agriculture and 




fishing, especially the latter, at or near Newfound- 
land. His ideal was radically different from that of 
the Spanish adventurers who had preceded him on 
this continent. Sir Humphrey was lost at sea. But 
his melancholy fate did not discourage others from 
adopting His plan. His half brother, the illustrious 
Sir AV alter Raleigh, took up the mantle of Gilbert, 
and right royally did he wear it. His patent was 
granted in 1584. He did not accompany the expe- 
dition, but the explorers whom he sent out effected 
a landing off Pamlico Sound, finding a country far 
more inviting than either Newfoundland or New 
Spain. It was named A T irginia, in honor of the 
Virgin Queen. Two attempts were soon after made 
to found a permanent settlement, both of which 
proved unavailing. 

In 1602 Gosnold discovered and named Cajje Cod. 
The settlement there and then was soon given up. 
Others came over on exploring expeditions, and the 
English public became greatly interested in the sub- 
ject of American colonization. In 1006 James I. 



(49 ] 



492 



EARLY COLONIAL UNITED STATES. 



divided the region claimed by England into North 
and South Virginia, granting the first to the Ply- 
mouth Company, and the second to the London 
Company. Each company attempted to establish 
a colony, but only the latter was successful, and that 
success was the first permanent English settlement, 
not only in Virginia, but America. The fleet was 
under the command of Christopher Newport. It 
sailed up the stately James River in 1607, and 
founded Jamestown. 

The colony had a hard struggle, and was saved 
from ruin by Caj>tain John Smith. On one occasion 
Smith was 
captured by 
the Indians. 
The chief, 
Powhatan, 
condemned 
him to death 
but Poca- 
hontas, the 
daughter of 
the chief, 
saved him. 
At least, it 
is the story 
told, and 
long im- 
plicitly be- 
lieved. It is 
certain that 
the daugh- 




BUILDING JAMESTOWN. 



ter was an illustrious personage in the history of Vir- 
ginia. She vis- 
iteil England, 
received Chris- 
tian baptism, 
married an En- 
glishman, Rolfe, 
and became the 
founder of a 
family which 
has always been 
very proud of 
her. 

Slavery was 
introduced into 
Virginia in 1619. The English never attempted to 
enslave the natives, but they seemed to have no 




scruples about dealing in African chattels. The 
first negroes, twenty in number, were imported by a 
Dutch trading-vessel. Tiie next year the planters 
bought a cargo of English wives, one hundred in 
number, warranted to be respectable. The price 
paid was 120 pounds of tobacco each, which was the 
price of her passage. With wives and slaves the col- 
onists were quite established. 

The first serious Indian war occurred in 1622. 
The massacre was very large, and the retaliation 
still more wholesale. Hostilities were maintained 
with more or less steadiness, until 1646, when peace 

was effect- 
ed, and for 
the most 
part ever 
afterward 
maintained. 
The Lon- 
don Com- 
pany was 
dissolved in 
1624, upon 
which Vir- 
ginia be- 
came a 
province of 
the crown. 
It so re- 
mained un- 
til the year 
1673, when 

Charles II. ceded it for the period of thirty-one years 
to Lord Culpepper and the Earl of Arlington, name3 
conspicuous in the geography 
of the present Virginia. But 
the colony received its great- 
est impetus when the civil war 
in England culminated in the 
defeat of the royalists. Vir- 
ginia was settled by adherents 
to the Established Church of 
England, and many royalists' 
fled thither when the Com- 
monwealth was established. 
When Charles II. regained the 
crown (1660) the population of Virginia was 30,000, 
and several flourishing towns had been established, 
including Richmond and Williamsburg. The 




POCAHONTAS. 



;ft 



-? \f 



EARLY COLONIAL UNITED STATES. 



493 



first governor appointed by Charles II. was Gov- 
ernor Berkeley. He had been in Virginia before, 
and the colonists hated him. They had good rea- 
30ii Im- their hatred. He was a detestable tyrant 
and opposed to everything progressive. He discour- 
aged education, prohibited the introduction of the 
printing-press, and tried to conduct the colony as a 
great tobacco plantation, and nothing else, on sub- 
stantially the same plan as we have seen that the 
Dutch have always managed Java. The leader of 
the opposition to Berkeley was Nathaniel Bacon, the 
first great patriot of English descent on American 
soil. He put down an Indian uprising and curbed 
the arrogance of Berkeley. " Bacon's rebellion " oc- 
curred about two 
centuries ago, and 
was a presage of 
the Revolution- 
ary War of one 
hundred years 
later. 

The Virginia 
Colony can now 
be left to itself 
until it came to 
form a part of the 
colonial confed- 
eration, as the be- 
ginnings of the 
Union might be 
called. It was not until the French and Indian 
"War, which began in 175-4 that this colony had any 
further experience worthy of note. Year after year 
it continued to raise tobacco for exportation, and 
acquire wealth in the business. Gradually a new 
nationality was growing up beneath the genial sun 
and the free air of young Virginia, as subsequent 
events served to prove. 

Maryland was carved out of Virginia during the 
reign of Charles I. In 1629 that sovereign granted 
the state of Maryland substantially to George Cal- 
vert, Lord Baltimore. His lordship was a papist, 
and designed the establishment of an asylum for 
persecuted Romanists. So far was he from being a 
papist of the Spanish type, however, that the colony 
which he established was the most tolerant of any 
in the new world. He called the country Mary- 
land in honor of the Virgin Mary. The chief city 
bears his own name. His colony became a refuge 



for Episcopalians from New England, for dissenters 
from Virginia, and other 
victims of persecution. 
So many Protestants 
were there at one time 
in Maryland, and so un- 
grateful were they, that 
they actually expelled 
all Roman Catholics 
from the colonial legis- 
lature. In 1G91 the pro- 
prietary charter was re- 
voked and remained in 
suspense until 1715, when 




CECIL, SECOND LORD BALTIMORE. 



the 




Cal verts regain- 
ed their vested 
rights. They con- 
tinued to govern 
the colony until 
the Revolution- 
ary War. 

The name New 
England was giv- 
en to the region 
around Cape Cod 
by Captain John 
Smith, who tried 
assiduously in 
1614 to plant 
there an English 
colony. He was a 
man of broad views, great foresight, and a keen eye 
to business. 

The first permanent settlement m New England 
dates from the landing of the Pilgrim Fathers on 
Plymouth Rock, December 21, 1620. 

James I. was then King of England. That nar- 
row and bigoted sovereign was determined to make 
all his subjects conform to the Established or Epis- 
copal Church. The non-conformists were subject to 
persecution. To enjoy their religion, a great many 
of them crossed over to Holland, where the -widest 
latitude was allowed. But that did not suit them. 
The free and easy Dutch ways were shocking to 
them. What in the Low Country was thought to 
be liberty merely, the Puritans looked upon as li- 
cense, irreligious and immoral. Those who felt that 
way the deepest returned to their former home, 
(Plymouth, England) and prepared to sail for 
the new world. By that time the Virginians had 



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494 



EARLY COLONIAL UNITED STATES. 





















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EMBARKATION OF THE PILGRIMS. 



begun to prosper, and were well known to have 
found a pleasant land. The Pilgrims took their fam- 
ilies with 
them, sail- 
ing in the 
now fa- 
mous ship, 
the May- 
flower, in 
September. 
It was near- 
ly a three 
months'voy- 
age, and the 
weather en- 
cou nte red 
was more 
frigid than 
anything to 
which they 
had ever 
been accus- 
tomed, and utterly unlike the mild climate they had 
expected to find. 

These Pilgrims had no 
really valid charter, but be- 
fore landing they formed 
themselves into a body politic, 
or miniature state, electing 
John Carver first governor 
of the Plymouth Colony. 
That first whiter was terrible. 
One-half the little company 
died, including the governor. 
But in the spring, when the 
Mayflower returned to En- 
gland, none of the Pilgrims 
went with her. 

The Pilgrims were wel- 
comed by the Indians. The 
latter knew something of the 
fishermen who had visited the 
North Atlantic coast in quest 
of fish, and felt friendly. A 
powerful chief, Massasoit, 
negotiated a treaty of peace 
with the new-comers which 
continued uninterruptedly for a long period. 




The 



chief of the Narragansetts, Canonicus, was disposed 



*fc 



to make trouble, but changed his mind. Governor 
Bradford, who succeeded Carver, understood how to 

deal with 
the natives. 
Plymouth 
Colony re- 
mained dis- 
tinct until 
1692, when 
it became 
merged with 
the settle- 
ments about 
Boston in 
the Colo- 
ny of Mas- 
sachusetts 
Bay. Of 
those other 
settlements 
one was 
Salem, es- 
tablished in 1629, with John Endicott as Governor. 
That colony consisted of two 
hundred Pilgrims. In 1630 
John Winfchrop brought over 
a colony of 1,000, many of 
whom were highly educated 
and wealthy. They greatly 
improved the general charac- 
ter of the settlement, \Vin- 
throp remaining the leading 
man of all the region until 
his death, a period of twenty 
years. 

In 1636 Harvard College 
was founded. It was the first 
institution of the kind in this 
country. William and Mary's 
College, Virginia, was not 
much later. The first presi- 
dent of Harvard set up in 
his own house the first print- 
ing-press of the continent 
north of Mexico the year fol- 
lowing. 
Gradually the Puritans ex- 
tended their settlements to the Connecticut Valley 
and Long Island Sound. Connecticut was thus 



EARLY COLONIAL UNITED STATES. 



495 



Vl <3 



settled, as were New Hampshire and Maine, so far 
as they were settled at all, as continuations of 
Massachusetts. Vermont had no development until 
long after. Connecticut early acquired a reputation 
for being more puritanical than Massachusetts. 
Its " blue laws " have long been held- up to ridicule, 
but there was no good ground for invidious com- 
parison. 

New Hampshire can point with pride to Dartmouth 
College and Connecticut to Yale College, as evidence 
of the high character of their early settlers. The 
story of the Charter Oak is one of which the state 
of Connecticut may well be proud. Charles II. at- 
tempted to deprive the puritan colonies of their 
charter, but the one granted to Connecticut was con- 
cealed in an oak-tree, where it remained until it was 
safe to bring it to light. The Charter Oak stood 
until 1856. Its memorable use was in 1687. 

In early colonial days the only peculiar part of 
New England was Khode Island, or Providence, 
founded by Koger Williams, 
a clergyman who was ban- 
ished from Plymouth for his 
liberal views, especially for 
his opposition to persecution 
and the union of church and 
state. He founded Provi- 
dence in 1636. Newport was 
|p started by a few men of simi- 
lar views as himself in 1038. 
It was a long time before 
the other New England col- 
onies fraternized with " the plantations on Narragan- 
sett Bay." 

The settlers about Boston were particularly bigoted. 
In 1656 the first Friends or Quakers arrived at Bos- 
ton. They were persecuted shamefully. They were 
ordered to leave. Some were whipped in public ; 
some imprisoned ; four hanged on Boston Common, 
and two little girls ordered sold as slaves in the Bar- 
badoes, an order no sea captain could be found to 
carry out. Boston has almost as much to be ashamed 
of as Salem. One hanged a few Quakers, the other 
burnt several witches. The account of Salem witch- 
craft finds place in connection with witchcraft in 
general. 

The first Indiau, as appears from a previous chap- 
ter, to realize the conflict between the aborigines and 
the pale faces about them, was Philip, son of Mas- 



62 




ROGER WILLIAMS. 



sasoit, cliief of the Pokanokets. In 1674 he rallied 
the savages for a war of extermination. For four 
years King Philip's war was waged. The Narragau- 
setts were in the alliance ; many of the whites were 
massacred. Peace was restored in 1678, after two 
thousand Indians had been killed, including Philip 
himself. The saintly John Eliot saw the work he 
had prosecuted for thirty years undone, and all hope 
of incorporating the Indians of New England into 
the body of civilized society destroyed. Philip's only 
son was sold into slavery in Bermuda, and the Indi- 
ans of the region rendered helplessly weak. That 
war rid New England forever of what had been the 
especial peril and fear of the whites for half a cen- 
tury. What the good Eliot had hoped to do by the 
Gospel of Christ was superseded and rendered nu- 
gatory by gunpowder. King Philip's war determined 
the Indian policy of the United States, notwithstand- 
ing the pacific and just policy of Koger Williams in 
Khode Island, William Penn at Philadelphia and 
the intermediate policy of other settlements. 

During the ten years immediately succeeding the 
arrival of Winthrop at Boston not less than 20,000 
Puritans became pilgrims to America. The Boston 
settlement was somewhat less rigidly puritanical 
than the Separatists of Plymouth. It is a curious 
fact that Roger Williams was banished from Massa- 
chusetts Bay partly for advanced ideas and partly for 
his bigotry. The sentence of the court rested on 
these four indictments : first, teaching that the title 
of the Massachusetts Company from the king to its 
lands was not valid, but that the Indians were the 
true owners ; second, that it was not lawful to call 
a wicked person to swear or to pray, as being the 
acts of God's worship; third, that it was wrong to 
listen to any of the ministers of the Parish Assem- 
blies of England ; fourth, that the civil power had 
no authority over the opinions [religious] of men. 
For the first and last he is revered, while the first part 
of the second and all the third are generally ignored. 
His memory is also revered for his great service in 
1637, in saving the New England settlements from 
a general Indian war. Owing to his influence the 
Narragansetts and the Mohegans did not join the 
Pecptots in raiding the whites. The result was that 
the latter tribe was exterminated without much 
trouble. A few other illustrious names belong to 
early colonial New England. Miles Standish, the 
first soldier, John Alden, the friend whom he sent 



49 6 



EARLY COLONIAL UNITED STATES. 



to court the maiden whom both loved, and who 
finally said. "Why don't you speak for yourself, 
John,?"are the three characters having romantic in- 
terest. Cotton Mather was a powerful minister of the 
gospel. Salem witchcraft has always been a reproach 
tu his otherwise fair name. Speaking of this point, 
Poole says : " While witchcraft raged in Europe thirty 
thousand victims perished in the British Islands, 
seventy-five thousand in France, one hundred thou- 
sand in Germany, and corresponding numbers in 
Italy, Spain, Switzerland, Sweden." He puts the 
number of executions in New 
England at thirty-two, all 
told. Mrs. Anne Hutchinson 
was the " strong-minded " 
woman in the colonies. She 
had the honor of being asso- 
ciated with Williams, Wil- 
liam Coddington, John 
Clarke, William Aspinwall, 
and some others, in the pur- 
chase iif Rhode Island, for 
which they paid the aborigi- 
nes ''forty fathoms of white 
beads." In 1042 she removed 
with her family to Xew Neth- 
erlands, where she was the 
victim of an Indian massacre. 
One child escaped the toma- 
hawk. She was a second 
cousin of the poet Dryden. 
Thomas Hooker, long the 
leading minister of Con- 
necticut, as John Cotton and 
Cotton Mather were of Massachusetts, was a man of 
great intellectual strength. 
He belonged to a family al- 
ready illustrious in ministeri- 
al annals, and which is still 
nobly represented in the 
pulpit. 

The Connecticut Puritans 
early came into contact with 
the Dutch. In 1G09 Henry- 
Hudson, an English sailor 
who had already made two voyages to America, was 
sent by the Dutch East India Company in quest of 
a passage across the continent, in the hope of a short 
cut to the Orient. In his search he sailed into New 





HENRY HUDSON. 



York harbor, never before visited by white men, and 
sailed up the river now bearing his name as far as 
the jiresent site of Albanj', when he was obliged to 
abandon his enterprise and turn back. His report 
of the beauties of the country suggested the idea of 
a Dutch settlement in America. In 1613 a trading- 
post was established at New York, which was first 
called New Amsterdam. The next year another was 
established at Fort Orange, or Albany. 

The settlement of New York for purposes of 
cultivation dates from 1623, when the Dutch West 
India Company established 
colonists on the shores of the 
Hudson river, on a plan 
widely different from that of 
any of the English colonies. 
There was never any religious 
persecution, nor was religion 
considered hi any way, appar- 
ently. The early settlers of 
New York may be called 
"Christian pagans." But the 
most remarkable feature of 
New Netherlands, as the 
region was called, was the 
patroon system. Any man 
bringing fifty- persons with 
him was allowed a tract of 
land with sixteen miles of 
river frontage and a depth as 
great as "the situation of the 
occupiers would permit." The 
patroon was allowed almost 
absolute control within his 
own domain. New England had its small farms and 
farmers, Virginia and Maryland their spacious plan- 
tations, tilled by slave labor, and New Netherlands 
its lordly estates, cultivated by tenants. The latter 
system was not adapted to a country of boundless 
landed resources, still, it has uot wholly disappeared 
from New York yet. Two centuries and a half 
have rolled by and the " patroon " may be found oc- 
casionally. The Wadsworth estate in the Genesee 
valley is the largest still left. Those upon the Hud- 
son and the Mohawk have nearly all disappeared. 
" The Patroon War," or rebellion of the tenants of 
the Van Rensselaer estate, which occurred some two 
generations ago, virtually removed the system from 
the eastern part of the state. 



EARLY COLONIAL UNITED STATES. 



495 




PETER STUTVE8ANT. 



The first Dutch governor was Wouter Van Twil- 
ler, a singularly stupid man ; the second, William 
Kieft, a busy little despot, and the third and last 
was the stalwart Peter Stuyvesant, a man of ex- 
traordinary will power. 
Many of the people 
were English. Abso- 
lute religious liberty 
drew to the banks of the 
Hudson a great variety 
of people. In 1664 the 
English fleet entered 
the harbor,passiug Hell- 
igate and without seri- 
ous opposition taking 
possession of the coun- 
try. Henceforth new 
names were adopted, 
New York being substituted for New Netherlands and 
New Amsterdam, and Albany for Fort Orauge. The 
people took kindly to the change, for the mass of 
the colonists were restless under the patroon system 
as originally adopted, with its denial of all political 
rights to the common people. This fact, rather 
than any lack of courage on the part of Stuyvesant, 
paralyzed the arm of that stout-hearted last of the 
Dutch governors. 

A little south of New York was the Swedish col- 
ony projected by Gustavus Adolphus, but not es- 
tablished until 1638. New Sweden comprised the 
territory from Cape Henlopen to Trenton Falls. 
The present state of Delaware and parts of New 
Jersey and Pennsylvania belonged to the Swedes by 
right of purchase from the Indians and of act- 
ual occupancy. After an existence of seventeen 
years New Sweden was annexed to New Netherlands, 
almost without a struggle, the annexation including 
all except that portion of it in or near Philadelphia, 
which William Penn purchased of the Swedes. The 
Dutch regained possession of New York after nine 
years, retaining it for fifteen months only ; but 
Sweden made no attempt to maintain control of its 
colony, and the colonists themselves seemed quite 
indifferent to political changes. 

It was not until 1683 that William Penn estab- 
lished his Quaker colony in the new world. This 
illustrious Friend was the friend of Charles II. of 
England, and the king owed his father, Admiral 
Penn, a large sum of money. In discharge of that 




WILLIAM PENN. 



debt His Majesty gave the son a charter to a large 
tract of land west of the Delaware river, and vested 
in him full regal powers. 

Penn established a "free colony for the good and 
oppressed of all nations," 
more particularly his co- 
religionists. The city of 
Philadelphia was the start- 
ing-point of the settlement. 
Among those who availed 
themselves of the privileges ( 
of Pennsylvania, was a' 
ci impany of Germans, who, 
like the English Quakers, 
were non-residents, very 
simple in their tastes, demure in manner, and pure 
in morals. Many of their descendants have main- 
tained their national speech and old-time peculiari- 
ties almost unchanged for two centuries. Pennsyl- 
vania was never disgraced by an Indian war, by re- 
ligious persecution, or any form of fanaticism. The 
nearest approach to it was a trial for witchcraft 
which resulted in acquittal. Penn was born in Lon- 
don in 1644, educated at Oxford, and early converted 
to Quakerism. He never resided long in the colony 
which he founded. His last years were spent in 
poverty and distress. He died in 1718. 

The C'arolinas came into view in 1630 when 
Charles I. made a grant of ''The Province of Car- 
olina " to Sir Robert Heath. But only a very little 
was done in that part of the new world, beyond 
some lumbering in the pineries, until a movement 
was made at the head of which stands the illustrious 
name of John Locke. The greatest of English 
philosophers, Lord Bacon, had been a shareholder 
in a company gotten up to make money out of Vir- 
ginia, but his brother philosopher was actuated by 
no mercenary motive. Locke and his associates un- 
dertook to establish an ideal state in America. He 
and Lord Shaftesbury drew up a grand model of an 
aristocratic Utopia. The " Model " was utterly un- 
suited to the purposes of the pioneers, but the settle- 
ment grew and prospered. The Locke Grant was 
issued in 1663. The first permanent colony was 
planted in North Carolina. The first within the 
limits of South Carolina dates from 1670. Before 
that time French and Spanish representatives had 
tried to gain a foothold on that coast. Much blood 
had been shed, and all to no advantage, for the 



££*■ 



49« 



EARLY COLONIAL UNITED STATES. 



country was neither French nor Spanish. But after 
the English had fairly taken undisputed possession 
many French Huguenots flocked thither from the 
persecutions of France. Between the years 168G 
and 1G88 no less than 300,000 Huguenots fled from 
their native land, a few of them seeking asylum in 
Carolina. From Scotland also came many victims 
of persecution, Covenanters who were subject to most 
cruel treatment at home. The Carolinas were not 
so much established by Englishmen as by French- 
men and Scotchmen. Many of the latter settled 
in New Jersey, where Elizabethtown was founded 
in 1670. 

In a general way it deserves to be added, that the 
seeds of the United States were sown by persecution, 
and that even where persecution was not the first 
cause. 

The latest distinct settlement in America to grow 
into a separate state was effected at Savannah in 
1733, under the auspices of the philanthropic Gov- 
ernor Oglethorpe, 
the father of Geor- 
gia. This amiable 
man excluded rum 
and slaves, both be- 
ing at that time 
common to all 
American colonies. 
His influence was 
counteracted, so far 
as slavery was con- 
cerned, by that 
James edward oGLETiioKPE. eminent evangelist, 
George Whitefield. Oglethorpe's primal idea was to 
establish an asylum for insolvent debtors. In effect 
it proved mainly a resort for the malcontents of the 
Carolinas and Virginia. It grew rapidly, and early 
became an important colony. It was named in 
honor of George II. of England. 

We have now spoken of the colonies which devel- 
oped ultimately into the thirteen colonies and states, 
each in its infancy. It may be well in this connec- 
tion to refer to the other early settlements within 
the present limits of the United States, but which 
had no part or lot in achieving for these once widely 
severed settlements national unity. 

The earliest of these was Florida. Ponca de Leon 
landed on the north side of the gulf-stream, opposite 
the Bahamas, on Easter-day of 1512, naming the 





country Posciim Florida. He was in search of the 
fabled fountain of youth. No practical results fol- 
lowed, de Leon receiving a wound in an encounter 
with the natives which proved fatal to him in Cuba. 
But in 1539 Fernando de 
Soto, a Spanish nobleman 
who had teen with Cortez in 
Mexico and Pizarro in Peru, 
amassing a large fortune, was 
commissioned to take posses- 
sion of Florida. He fitted 
out a large fleet. He had 000 
men with him and a goodly 
supply of domestic animals, 
including bloodhounds. In 
May of the next year he landed. For three years 
lie and his men wandered about in search of ?old. 
He was the first to discover the Mississippi Eiver. 
He finally perished in the wilderness. In 1505 Pedro 
Menendez. another Spaniard, landed in Florida. He 
had 3,000 men with him. They founded the city of 
St. Augustine, which now has the honor of being 
the oldest European town in the United States. 

Three years before, a French settlement had been 
effected at Port Royal, South Carolina. Admiral 
Coligny, the great Huguenot statesman, was the real 
father of the settlement. Carolina, it may be ob- 
served, was named in honor of Charles of France, not 
of England. This colony and the one at Florida were 
far enough from each other, one would suppose, to 
prevent clashing. But unfortunately a second French 
settlement had been effected on the St. John's River 
in Florida, which served as a connecting link of hos- 
tility. The Spaniards were intense papists, the 
French hardly less bigoted Huguenots. They fell to 
cutting each other's throats. All the French at 
Fort Caroline on the St. John's were massacred by 
Menendez, " not as Frenchmen, but as heretics." he 
set up as his defense. Not long after a Frenchman 
of great wealth, Dominique de Gourgues, fitted up a 
fleet for revenge, and terrible was his success. Such 
of the Spaniards as escaped in battle he hanged, in- 
scribing over their heads, " Not as Spaniards, but 
as traitors, robbers and murderers." Such was the 
tragic fate of " New France" and "New Spain" on 
the Atlantic seaboard within the present limits of 
the United States, for the French colony farther 
north was destroyed in counter-revenge. 

During the period of colonial infancy under con- 



-* 



_^ 



EARLY COLONIAL UNITED STATES. 



499 



sideration the French made some progress in the 
interior of the country by way of the St. Lawrence 
and the lakes. In 1673 Pe re Marquette, a Jesuit 
of the hetter type, who had already spent several 
years as a missionary in Canada, set out with Louis, 
Joliet and others, to explore the sources of the St. 
Lawrence. They reached the Mississippi in June of 
the same year, going by way of Green Bay, Fox 
river and the Wisconsin river. They descended the 
Mississippi as far, at least, as Kaskaskia, Illinois, and 
returned by way of the Illinois river. Joliet re- 
turned to Quebec, but the good Father Marquette 
remained in the wilderness, dying. two years later on 
the east shore of Lake Michigan while engaged in 
mission work. 

Gradually, and undisturbed by English, Spanish 
or Indian hostility, the French established settle- 
ments on the prairie along the river-banks. Some 
interesting relics and records attest very considera- 
ble prosperity in those days ; but later they fell into 
decay, and in the permanent settlement of that por- 
tion of the United States north of what was once 
Louisiana, the region purchased of France during 
the sovereignty of Napoleon, those French settle- 
ments exerted hardly a perceptible influence. In a 
word, they belong to the historical, in distinction 
from the actual, in the new world. 

Louisiana received its name from LaSalle, the 
illustrious French explorer. The term was designed 
to embrace all the valley of the Mississippi. The 
French built great expectations upon the develop- 
ment of that valley, and of fur trade with the In- 
dians of the interior. Mobile was established in 
1?0"3, New Orleans fifteen vears later, and all seemed 
prosperous, when suddenly the Mississippi bubble of 
the visionary Law burst, whelming France in bank- 
ruptcy, and preparing the way for English triumph 
over her great continental rival in the possessions 
of the North American continent. 

This chapter cannot be closed more appositely 



than by quoting Mr. Francis Parkman's very dis- 
criminating comparison between the colonial aims 
and purpose of New England and New France. 
" The growth of New England," he says " was a re- 
sult of the aggregate efforts of a busy multitude, 
each in his narrow circle toiling for himself, to 
gather competence or wealth. The expansion of 
New France was the achievement of a gigantic am- 
bition striving to grasp a continent. It was a vain 
attempt. Long and valiantly her chiefs upheld 
their cause, leading to battle a vassal popula- 
tion, warlike as themselves. Borne down from 
numbers from without, wasted by corruption from 
within, New France fell at last ; and out of 
her fall grew revolutions whose influence, to this 
hour, is felt throughout every nation of the 
civilized world. 

" The French dominion is a memory of the past ; 
and when we evoke its departed shades, they rise 
upon us from their graves in strange romantic guise. 
Again their ghostly camp-fires seem to burn, and 
the fitful light is cast around on lord and vassal and 
black-robed priest, mingled with wild forms of sav- 
age warriors, knit in close fellowship on the same 
stern errand. A boundless vision grows upon us ; 
an untamed continent ; vast wastes of forest ver- 
dure ; mountains silent in primeval sleep; river, 
lake, and glimmering pool ; wilderness oceans min- 
gling with the sky. Such was the domain which 
France conquered for civilization. Plumed helmets 
gleamed in the shade of its forests, priestly vest- 
ments in its dens and fastnesses of ancient barbar- 
ivn. Men steeped in antique learning, pale with the 
close breath of the cloister, here spent the noon and 
evening of their lives, ruled savage hordes with a 
mild, parental sway, and stood sereue before the 
direst shapes of death. Men of courtly nurture, 
heirs to the polish of a far-reaching ancestry, here, 
with their dauntless hardihood, put to shame the 
boldest sons of toil." 



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COLONIAL GROWTH 



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AND OUTGROWTH. 



V 




CHAPTER LXXVII. 

First Step Toward Union—" Board of Trade and Plantations '"—Intercolonial Wars— 
The Floridans and the Georgians — Wars Between French and English Colonists— A 
Century op Blood— Lieutenant-Colonel George Washington and Dr. Franklin— Rela- 
tive Possessions of France, Spain and England in North America— Capture of Quebec 
—New France and Old England — Colonial Debts and Money— Indirect Results of 
the French War — Stamp Act — Boston and North Carolina — Smuggling and the Gaspee — 
Boston Tea Party — Port Bill — First Continental Congress and Patrick Henry — Minute 
Men and Paul Reveke's Ride— Battle of Lexington— Continental Army Organized- 
Ethan Allen and the Green Mountain Boys— Battle of Bunker Hill — The Canadian 
Expedition— Evacuation of Boston— Charleston Harbor and Moultrie — Declaration of 
Independence — Eminent Men of the Period — Benjamin Franklin again. 




>«-- §**#— -a 




ilUM 



I 






N 169(3 the English govern- 

ernmeiit created a " Board 

of Trade and Plantations " 

for the administration of 

colonial affairs. This Board 

recommended a closer 

union between the colonies. 

Previous to that time the 

Puritan colonies had developed very 

considerable fellowship, and there had 

been established a little communication 

between New York, Boston and the in- 

2Ski& tervening towns accessible by water. 

William Penn drew up the plan of a 

close union which was not carried out 

until long after. 

The English policy was to restrict col- 
onial trade to commerce with the moth- 
er country alone. That " mercantile system " was 
embodied in the Navigation Act, and similar stat- 
utes of Parliament. By every means posssible the 
home government attempted to render the Ameri- 
can colonies entirely subservient to the wealth of 
the mother country. It was not until about the 




beginning of the eighteenth century that England 
realized the importance of America, and set about 
making it tributary in right good earnest. The 
policy which culminated in war for independence 
may be said to date from the creation of the " Board 
of Trade and Plantations." 

But the great agency in making the colonists ac- 
quainted with each other and binding them together 
by a bond of common sympathy, was intercolonial 
war, growing out of French and English rivalries in 
the new world. The Georgians had a conflict with 
the Floridans which resulted favorably to the for- 
mer without requiring any help from more northern 
colonies, but when the British lion met the French 
unicorn in the wilderness, victory was not so easy. 

There were four distinct wars between the French 
and English colonists, culminating in what is known 
as " The old French and Indian War," beginning in 
1754 and continuing until 1703. The other three 
were, King William's War, 1(^9-97 ; Queen Anne's 
War, 1702-13 ; King George's War, 1744-48. Treat- 
ies of peace were signed or formal declarations of 
hostility proclaimed by the home governments ac- 
cording to the general situation in Europe, without 



(500) 



•k 



COLONIAL GROWTH AND OUTGROWTH. 



5 QI 



much regard to the real state of affairs in Amer- 
ica. For a century there was hardly any actual 
cessation of hostilities for any considerable length 
of time. It was only after France had lost Canada, 
and England the United States, that permanent 
peace was secured. From that time on, the conti- 
nent was delivered from wars which were both 
intercolonial and international. The melancholy 
fate of Acadia, a part of Canadian history already 
narrated, belongs to that series of wars. 

By the middle of the eighteenth century French 
and English pioneer enterprise began to touch and 
clash in the 
Ohio valley. 
In 1753 Gov- 
ernor Dinwid- 
die of Virginia, 
sent George 
Washington, 
then only 31 
years of age, 
to Venango to 
know his rea- 
sons for invad- 
ing the Brit- 
ish dominions. 
The reply was 
that the whole 
country west 
of theAllegha- 
nies belonged 
to France by 
right of discovery. The next year the young 
Virginian, then a lieutenant-colonel of colonial 
militia, established a fort at the forks of the 
Ohio river. A South Carolina company came to his 
assistance. The two commanders quarreled over the 
leadership. The discussion was soon ended -by a 
successful attack by the French, who acquired pos- 
session of the entire Ohio valley. The colonists were 
alarmed, for everywhere the French secured Indian 
alliance. 

In 1755 Gen. Braddock, in command of the Brit- 
ish and Colonial forces on the frontier, undertook 
to capture Fort DuQuesne, the key to the Ohio val- 
ley. They were attacked in the woods by the In- 
dians. '"The British could only fire in platoons," 
says Thalheimer, " hitting rocks and trees much 
oftener than Indians, while the colonists, springing 



behind trees, took aim with effect."' Braddock was 
mortally wounded. The retreat of his regulars was 
covered by the colonists with such gallantry that it 
gave their commander, Washington, a reputation 
throughout the colonies for coolness, bravery and 
skill. It is probable that to Braddock's defeat is 
this country and the world indebted for the public 
services of George Washington. 

The success of the French over the English in the 

Ohio wilderness stimulated a movement for a closer 

union. All the colonies north of the Potomac sent 

delegates to a convention held at Albany. Benjamin 

1 Franklin was 




THE EXILE OF THE ACADIANS. 



a delegate. He 
presented a 
plan of union 
which the con- 
vention accept- 
ed. But the 
English Board 
of Trade, al- 
though it had 
at first been in 
favor of union, 
prudently veto- 
ed the Frank 
linplan. Many 
of the colonists 
were pleased 
with the veto, 
apprehensive of 
losing colonial 
individuality in a union of the colonies. The French 
war was early transferred from the remote valley of 
the Ohio to the east, especially to northern New 
York. At this period eighty per cent, of North 
America belonged to France, sixteen per cent, to 
Spain, and four per cent, to England. 

The great event of the culminating war between 
the French and the English in the new world was 
the capture of Quebec in 1759. That stronghold 
was defended by the brave Montcalm and assailed 
by the gallant General Wolfe. Gaining access to 
"the Plains of Abraham " by a secret path and in 
the night, Wolfe led a charge at daybreak. The 
armies were about equal in number. Both generals 
were mortally wounded. A noble monument has 
been erected to mark the equal heroism of the two 
commanders. 



IFT 



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iu 



;o2 



COLONIAL GROWTH AND OUTGROWTH. 



The next year, 1760, Montreal was captured, as 
well as Quebec held, and iu 
1763 by the terms of the 
peace of Paris, France sur- 
rendered to England all the 




GENERAL WuLFE. 

country north of the 
St. Lawrence and east 
of the Mississippi ; one 
of the most important 
cessions of all history. 
It was. in effect, the a- 
bandomnent by France 
of a colonial policy. It 
was the beginning of 
the total end of " New 
France" What En- 
gland did not secure 
was to fall, ultimately, 
to the United States. 

The colonies found 
themselves heavily in 
debt when the last 
French war was ended, 
namely, $16,000,000. 
Of this amount the 
home government re- 
imbursed the colonies 
to the extent of $5,000,- 
000. The first colonial 
money, or medium of 
exchange, was corn, 
furs, tobacco, or the 
like. Virginia early 
drew from England in 
exchange f < >r tobacco 
money enough for all 
practical purposes. The first mint was established m 
1652 by Massachusetts, and the first coin was " the 
pine-tree shilling." Paper money was first used in 
Massachusetts, its introduction dating from 1690. 
Dollars and cents belong to the period of inde- 
pendence. 

Speaking of the relations of the French war to 




SCALING THE HEIGHTS OF ABRAHAM 



the colonies, a historical writer says, " The signifi- 
cance of the war was in its being a preparation for 
the impending struggle of the revolution. It was 
a training-school for the generals and soldiers of the 
colonies. It showed them war as conducted by the 

best captains of Eu- 
rope. Washington, Put- 
nam, Gates, Montgom- 
ery, Stark, Arnold, 
Morgan, and others, 
who acted in the revo- 
lution, here learned the 
tactics of war. It also 
taught the colonies the 
idea of consolidation, 
and that ' in union there 
is strength.'" It did 
more than that. It se- 
cured for the colonies, 
when they came to 
strike for liberty, the 
sympathy of France, 
which proved to be a 
matter of incalculable 
importance. 

The French war was 
a part, although a very 
small part, of the Seven- 
Years War in Europe. 
That war involved the 
great powers in heavy 
debts, and besides sus- 
taining their own bur- 
dens, the colonies were 
ultimately required to 
contribute as never be- 
fore to the English Ex- 
chequer. About this 
time (1760) George III. 
came to the throne. 
From the first he was 
unfriendly to the Amer- 
ican colonies. Iu 1705 was enacted the famous 
Stamp Act in accordance with which all legal docu- 
ments had to bear a stamp, costing from three- 
pence to six pounds sterling, according to their 
importance. Even newspapers had to be stamped. 
The act called out intense hostility. The next 
year it was repealed, but only to give place to a 



>r*r 



COLONIAL GROWTH AND OUTGROWTH. 



5°3 



substitute in the way of a tax on tea, glass, paper 
and other necessary imports. 
British soldiers were quarter- 
ed on the people. Boston 
was foremost in resisting the 
encroachments of the home 
government, but the brave 
North Carolinians were not 
much behind the patriots of 
Boston. It was to escape- 
British tyranny that many 
a stamp. of the people of North Caro- 

lina moved west, establishing what is now the state 
of Ten- 
nessee 




form, for the actual cost of tea was less in America, 
under this tax, than it was in England. The cargoes 
brought to New York and Philadelphia were sent 
back, but the British troops at Boston prevented 
this from being done there. Hereupon a great meet- 
ing for protestation was held at Faneuil Hall (well 
called the cradle of American liberty-), after which 
a party of men in disguise boarded the ships in the 
harbor and threw all the tea overboard. That fa- 
mous " tea-party" created great excitement. Other 
colonies were delighted, and the English were enraged. 
Parliament passed the " Boston Port Bill" by which 
the port of Boston was closed. This act of petty 

spite on 




1772. But 
every part 
of the 
C ount ry 

had its 
grievance, 
negativ e 
and posi- 
tive. The 
restriction 
upontrade 
and man- 
ufactures 
was quite 
as injuri- 
ous as di- 
rect taxa- 
tion. Even 

Pitt, the advocate in parliament of political justice, 
declared, "If I could have my way, there would not 
be so much as a hob-nail made in the colonies." 
The iron of Pennsylvania and 
the timber of the South and 
of Maine could not be used at 
all. Smuggling developed into 
a respectable line of business, 
especially in Rhode Island. 
The British sent the schooner 
Gaspee to Xarragansett Bay 
to lay iii wait for smugglers. 
Citizens of Providence set fire 
to her, and all the people approved the act. 

In 17T3 all taxes were removed, except that on tea, 
three-pence a pound, and this was only a matter of 



63 



PATRICK HEN T RY BEFORE THE VIRGINIA ASSEMBLY. 




.-^ 



TVILL1AM PITT. 



the part 
of a great 
nation ex- 
cited the 
wrath of 
all the col- 
onies, and 
went far 
to develop 
a feeling 
of com- 
mon inter- 
est. The 
sentiment 
of [ atriot- 
i8in found 
expression 
in the or- 
ganization 

of the "' Sons of Liberty " throughout the colonies. 
It was to this society, very largely, that was due the 
convocation of a deliberative and representative 
body to consult over the grave situation. That 
body met at Philadelphia, the most central 
of all the cities at that time, in September, 1774. 
It proved to be something more than a convention, 
nothing less than the beginning of a series of con- 
vocations which were regular and of supreme impor- 
tance. It is known as the First Continental Con- 
gress. It consisted of fifty-three members. It was 
opened with an eloquent address by the supreme 
orator of Virginia and of the entire country. Pat- 
rick Henry. The next year he was elected governor 
of Virginia, and ever after remained a provincial 
statesman, in practical work ; but his advocacy of 



SfT 



J^ 



5°4 



COLONIAL GROWTH AND OUTGROWTH. 



the rights of the colonies and denunciations of op- 
pression entitle him to the profound gratitude of 
the nation. He was born in 1736 and died in 1799. 
The deliberations of the first congress were charac- 
terized by prudence. There was no defiance, no 
menace. A respectf ul petition was drawn up expres- 
sive of unswerving loyalty to the king, but earnestly 
protesting against quartering armies upon the colo- 
nies against their consent. A resolution was also 
adopted to the effect that no commercial intercourse 



immortalized at Bunker Hill, learned what was to 
be done, he sent Paul Revere to rouse the surrounding 
towns and call out the minute men. His ride has 
been rendered illustrious by Longfellow's thrilling 
poem on the subject. Iu an incredibly short time 
thirty thousand brave men were on their way in 
hot haste to " Boston town," musket in hand. 

The battle of Lexington was the first engagement 
of the Revolutionary War. It was fought earlv in 
the spring of 1 775. General Gage sent 800 men to 



/(^ 



li 



Pi'), 



^Jl i t^^t/t^y 




should be held with England until a change of pol- 
icy towards the colonies. From a British point of 
"view that resolution was almost a declaration of 
war. 

About this time the people formed themselves 
into military companies, sworn to serve in the de- 
fense of their rights at a moment's notice, hence 
" minute men." There had been some premonitory 
symptoms of war in the way of collisions and blood- 
shed in the streets of Boston and New York, also 
in North Carolina; but nothing approaching the 
dignity of a battle. Actual hostilities were inaugu- 
rated by the British at Boston. They cannonaded 
the city. General Gage was in command of the 
English forces. As soon as Dr. Warren, afterwards 



destroy some military supplies at Concord. They 
accomplished their object without very serious oppo- 
sition, but on their return they were met by " the 
embattled farmers," who had gathered to give them 
a warm greeting. The British were routed in that 
first encounter, the battle of Lexington. Thirty -one 
towns were represented in that conflict. That 
" brush," for it was hardly more, served to sharply 
outline and distinctly presage the conflict which 
was to close with the surrender of Cornwallis at 
Yorktown. The war which began in the spring of 
1775 was destined to end in the fall of 1781. Most 
appropriately, what began in Massachusetts closed in 
Virginia. 

The second Continental Congress met at Phila- 



COLONIAL GROWTH AND OUTGROWTH. 



505 



delphia about one month after the battle of Lexing- 
ton. Loyalty to King George was still professed. 
Our revolutionary fathers were slow to break abso- 
lutely with the mother country. There were a great 
many colonists who would have been shocked at the 
idea theu who soon embraced it. George Washing- 
ton was of this number. Those who never ceased 
to be in favor of British rule in the colonies were 
called Tories ; the patriots, Whigs. A " Continental 
army" was organized by Congress for seven months, 
and Washington was elected commander-in-chief. It 
was about this time that he wr *e that he " abhorred 
the idea of independence," an idea already boldly 
advocated by the Adamses, Samuel and John, 
and by some others. 

After Lexington, the 
first movement was 
in the direction of se- 
curing Canada. On 
the west shore of Lake 
Champlain stood two 
strong forts, designed 
for use in the old 
French and Indian 
war. Without waiting 
for orders or assist- 
ance, Ethan Allen 
and Seth Warner, who 
lived in the sparsely 
settled region between 
that lake and the Con- 
necticut river, rallied 
a few fellow " Green 
Mountain Boys " and 
crossed Champlain, surprised the garrisons and 
took the forts without firing a shot. Immense sup- 
plies of war material were found there and captured. 
It was a brilliant sortie, and justly entitled Vermont 
to immediate recognition as a distinct colony, but 
New York and New Hampshire both claimed juris- 
diction over the region. Allen soon afterward made 
an attempt on Montreal, was captured, and disap- 
peared from the annals of the war. After his re- 
lease he returned to Vermont, where he died in 1T89, 
fifty years of age. His companion, Warner, re- 
mained in the service throughout the war, but was 
never again prominent. 

The battle of Bunker Hill was fought June 17th of 
the same year. It was a victory for the British, yet 





PLAN OF BUNKER I1ILL BATTLE. 



it afforded the colonists great satisfaction. The 

Americans were obliged 

to surrender because their 

powder gave out. They 

had shown, however, that, 

as General Gage wrote in 

his report, " The rebels are 

not the despicable rabble 

too many have supposed 

them to be." General 

Warren fell in that battle. 

Throughout the country 

there was unbounded ad- general warren. 

miration for the desperate heroism with which the 

British were repulsed 
until the ammunition 
was spent. Washing- 
ton, then on his way 
to Boston, was greatly 
encouraged. 

Washington arrived 
at Boston and took 
actual command, July 
3d. In the preceding 
May the bold patriots 
of ^North Carolina had 
met in Charlotte, 
Mecklenburg coun- 
ty, and adopted the 
" Mecklenburg Reso- 
lutions," which were 
similar in tone to the 
Declaration of Inde- 
pendence which came 

more than a jear later. But even with Bunker Hill, 

Ticonderoga, Crown Point 

and Lexington behind them, 

the colonists were not quite 

ready for the avowal of 

separation. They wished to 

secure the co-ojjeration of 

Canada, and unite all British 

America in the struggle. To 

this policy everything was 

directed. General Montgom- 
ery proceeded by way of Lake Champlain to capture 

St. John's and Montreal, while Benedict Arnold 

reached Quebec by another route and demanded its 

surrender. He was soon joined by Montgomery, 



MONUMENT. 




GENERAL MONTGOMERY. 



V 



5° 6 



COLONIAL GROWTH AND OUTGROWTH. 




GENERAL MOULTHIE. 



the latter taking the command. An assault was 
made. The gallant commander lost his life, Ar- 
nold was severely wounded, and the whole of the 
expedition defeated forever. The battle of Quebec 
was fought on the last day of 1775. In a short 
time the British recaptured Montreal and St. John's, 
thus settling, at the outset, the northern boundary 
of the United States, and binding Canada with colo- 
nial handcuffs which are now worn as bracelets. 

With the winter of 1775-76 begins Washington's 
great career. His first aim was to compel the Brit- 
ish to evacuate Boston. 
Works were erected at 
Dorchester Heights which 
forced General Howe, who 
had superseded General 
Gage, to evacuate. With 
Vover a thousand Tories and 
his own army, he sailed for 
Halifax, which served as a 
rendezvous for the British 
■luring the war. Henceforth to the end the prob- 
lem for Washington was to so conduct a defensive 
warfare as to tire out the enemy and prevent, so far 
as possible, the loss of life 
and the destruction of prop- 
erty. It was the Fabian pol- 
icy upon a continental scale. 
What the next movement 
would be, no one could tell. 
Washington feared an at- 
tack upon New York. It was 
a very important point, al- 
though smaller then than 
Boston. But the British fleet steered farther south 
when it sailed away from Halifax, appearing in 
Charleston harbor in June. General Charles Lee, 
who was in command of the southern department, 
thought it hopeless to defend the citv, but Colonel 
Moultrie resolved to try it, erecting a rude fort on 
Sullivan's Island. From that point he canonaded 
the fleet before it could bombard the citv. The 
enemy was obliged to abandon the assault. General 
Clinton, who was at the head of the expedition, then 
set his sails for New York. The fort on that island 
has ever since borne the name of Moultrie. 

The next event of interest was the Declaration 
of Independence. After some hesitation and with 
great deliberation Congress decided to throw off all 




GENEBAL LEE. 




JOHN HAX?tx K. 

State legislatures ana 



disguise and boldly announce independence. A 
committee for that purpose was appointed, consist- 
ing of Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin 
Franklin, Robert Livingston and Roger Sherman. 
The declaration was submitted by Jefferson, who is 
supposed to have written it. His was certainly "the 
pen of a ready writer." The members signed it, 
John Hancock, the Presi- 
dent, leading off with his 
bold sign manual. The 
country was fairly electrified 
by the declaration. It in- 
spired the patriotism of all 
sections, and for the time 
obliterated provincial preju- 
dices and converted thirteen 
colonies into states. Hence- 
forth there was no recogni- 
tion of colonial obligations, 
governors were elected and the mechanism of local 
self-government set up at once, and substantially as 
now. There was no nation then, only the embry- 
onic elements of one, but the states, like Minerva, 
sprang forth fully armed. It is a curious fact that 
the great art which originated and was completed on 
a broadly national scale had the effect to create 
states long before it bore fruit in the creation of a 
nation, in a well-defined political sense of the term. 

We have in this chapter followed the course of 
British rule and American growth and outgrowth to 
the point where the colonies emerge into states and 
the corner-stone of the nation was laid. There are 
a few great names and events which belong to that 
period distinctively, and to which specific attention 
should be called before proceeding further. 

The captain-general of Massachusetts when the 
Revolutionary War began was Artemas Ward. He 
sustained much the same relation to that war that 
General Scott did to the civil war of a century later. 
He was elected major-general, but never served after 
General Washington assumed command. William 
Preseott was the American commander at Bunker 
Hill (or Breed's Hill, as that battle should have been 
called). Later he fought in the ranks. He was 
a brave and able man. The glories of Bunker 
Hill, however, enshrined the name of Joseph War- 
ren. He was a physician. Congress elected him a 
major-general, but he was mortally wounded in de- 
fending the illustrious hill, and died while fighting in 



" 



"V 



COLONIAL GROWTH AND OUTGROWTH. 



5°; 



the ranks. "The Sword of Bunker Hill " was a mus- 
ket. James Otis was the first defender of the right of 
separation and the duty of union between the colo- 
nies. He was stricken down just before the 
war began. He was not quite fifty years of age at 
that time. Samuel Adams, a second cousin of John, 
was hardly less useful in those preliminary days than 
Otis. He was a man of great wisdom and high cour- 
age. What he grandly began his younger cousin 



an author and a discoverer. Born in Boston in 170G, 
he survived until 1790. He was a printer by trade. 
His career as a man began in Philadelphia, where in 
1730 he married and started the Pennsylvania Gazette 
newspaper. He may be called the father of the press, 
insurance, science and invention in America. His 
experiments in electricity and discovery of the 
principle on which his great invention, the lightning- 
rod, rests, made him famous at home and abroad. 




DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 



worthily maintained to the end. The Adams family 

is the most illustrious 
in the political annals 
of America. But the 
supreme name of the 
period was Benjamin 
Franklin. He lived, it 
is true, to render im- 
portant service to his 
country at the French 
court after the declar- 
ation had been issued, 
a and in framing the eon- 
james otis. stitution, but his best 

lavs were colonial. He early organized the postal 
system of the country. Franklin was a philosopher, 




England and France delighted to honor him. He 
was given the title of LL. D., F. R. S., and otherwise 
recognized. As a writer his chief aim was to incul- 
cate good habits, especially frugality. His " Poor 
Richard's Almanac," published annually from 1733 
to 1757, made him familiarly known in this country 
and largely in England to a class of people not ca- 
pable of following his scientific treatises. He Idled 
many positions of trust, the last being a member of 
the convention which drafted the Constitution of 
the United States. He was then over eighty years 
of age. In him were united simplicity, dignity, pru- 
dence, perseverance and philanthropy. To him, 
more than to any one else, unless it be Thomas Jef- 
ferson, is this nation indebted for the complete sep- 
aration of church and state. When he died the 






-V12 



.£- 



508 



COLONIAL GROWTH AND OUTGROWTH. 



whole nation mourned. Washington was indeed the 
father of his country, but Franklin is no less deserv- 
ing of deathless honor and gratitude. It was 
not without good reason that the learned men of 
France, a century ago, 



were accustomed to speak 
of the United States as 
" Franklin's Republic." 

During the period thus 
far traversed, this coun- 
try was almost wholly 
agricultural. Its com- 
merce was very consid- 
erable, but clandestine. 
Under the restraints of 
colonial suppression, law- 
ful cum- 
in e r c e 

1. was con- 

^ fined en- 

/KST tirely to 
" -~ ri v K uglisli 

BRITISH FLAG. bottoms, 

and only the British 
flag allowed in American 
waters. The pioneers of 
American shipping were 
smugglers, and the mer- 
chant princes of the day 
were largely engaged in contraband trade. Ship- 
building, however, was tolerated, and throve greatly, 
until the home government interfered, and checked 





BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. 



it. Ordinary manufactures were few and insignifi- 
cant. For a century and a half the English in 
America were under colonial restraints, and succeed- 
ed only in laying the foundations of a great future. 
Speaking of the Amer- 
ican peojjle in this stage 
of development, a recent 
historiau well observes, 
" These people, whose 
ancestors had been driven 
into exile by the exac- 
tiuns of European gov- 
ernments and the bigot- 
ry of ecclesiastical power, 
had become the rightful 
proprietors of the New 
World. They had fairly 
won it from savage man 
and savage nature. They 
had subdued it and built 
states within it. They 
owned it by the claims 
of actual possession ; by 
toil and trial ; by the or- 
deal of suffering; by 
peril, privation, and 
hardship ; by the bap- 
tism uf sorrow and the 
shedding ef blood." The 
time had now fully come for the announcement 
ami establishment of the principles of Uniun and 
Independence. 



.pSi» 



mi-r 



4* 



mrk^ 








CHAPTER LXXVIII 




Hessians— Battle op Long Island and the Disaster Resulting— The Spring op 1777— 
Marquis de La Fayette— Battle op Brandywine— The War in the North— Valley 
Forge— Congressional Action— Distinguished Foreigners in the American Army— 1778— 
1779—1780— Mutiny and Finance in 1781— Arnold and New London— Lord Cornwallis 
and Yorktown— Peace— The War Debt and the Union— The Constitution— The Great 
Crisis and its Leading Features— From July 4, 1776, to March 4, 1789. 




s-*— |3c»e#-^H 



jL disguise was now thrown 
off, all hesitation at an end. 
Henceforth to the end of the 
conflict it was treason in 
America to sympathize with 
Great Britain and in En- 
gland to sympathize with the 
rebellious colonies. The 
British government freely spent money 
in hiring mercenary troops from petty 
German states (known in our history 
as Hessians) and in securing Indian 
allies. The number of Hessians were 
seventeen thousand, many of whom de- 
serted and became American citizens. 
The only remaining military opera- 
tions of that second year of the war were in New 
York and New Jersey. Eight days after the Decla- 
ration of Independance Lord Howe sailed into New 
York Bay. His brot her. General Howe, was already 
on Staten Island with a force of 50,000 men. The 
Howes thought they were masters of the situation. 
They offered pardon to all rebels who returned to 
allegiance. They mistook public sentiment. On 
the 27th of August the battle of Long Island 
was fought, General Clinton at the head of the 



under Gener- 




GENERAL CLINTON. 

rendered necessary 



British forces. The Americans 
als Sullivan and Sterling, 
were routed. The dead on 
our side were several hundred, 
the prisoners nearly one thou- 
sand. The latter were sent 
on board of " prison ships," as 
Ethan Allen had been before 
them. During the war no less 
than 11,000 Americans perish- 
ed on these floating bastiles. 

The disaster of Long Island 
the retreat of Washington. 
He crossed East Eiver and es- 
tablished his headquarters on 
Harlem Heights first. Howe 
took possession of New York 
City. A great conflagration 
consumed about five hundred 
houses. The battle of White 
Plains followed, October 28, 
in which Washington was de- 
feated, but not routed. He retired in good order to 
North Castle. He now began to be apprehensive 
for the safety of Philadelphia. He crossed to New 
Jersey, intending to defend the city which was in 




GENERAL SULLIVAN 



V \T 



(509) 



.AS 



liL 



5 IQ 



INDEPENDENCE AND UNION. 



effect the national capital. But he was too late. It 
was taken by the British, November 16, and with 
it 2,600 prisoners in arms. Congress was obliged to 
take hasty leave for Baltimore. "These are times 
that try men's souls," wrote the brilliant patriot, 
Thomas Paine. Cornwallis had followed Wash- 
ington who crossed the Delaware, taking care, how- 
ever, to destroy the boats behind him. On Christmas 
night he 
took by sur- 
prise and 
captured a 
th o u s an d 
Hessians at 
Trenton. A 
week later, 
it being evi- 
dent that 
Cornwallis 
intended to 
fall on the 
Continent- 
als, Wash- 
ington, lint 
waiting for 
the attack, 
marched at 
once upon 
Princeton 
where there 
was some- 
thing over 
r hree regi- 
Jients of 
the enemy. 

At day- 
break, Jan- 
uary 3, 1777, he full upon the town, and in 
twenty minutes he had routed and dispersed the 
British with a loss on that side of 200 killed and 
wounded and 230 prisoners. The American loss 
was slight. The moral effect of tins victory was very 
great. It revived the hopes of the country and led 
to a series of operations which resulted in driving 
the enemy out of the '• the Jerseys." About this 
time, however, both armies went into winter quar- 
ters, the British at New Brunswick, the Americans 
at Morristown. 

Thus far Washington would seem to have been a 




RETREAT OF THE AMERICANS FROM I.ON'C) ISLAND. 



failure, yet Congress had no thought of displacing 
him. On the contrary, he had grown in their good 
opinion. That winter he was clothed with supreme 
authority in all military matters, invested with 
almost dictatorial powers. The winter was employed 
in recruiting his thinned ranks. By spring he had 
an army of ten thousand men. There was consid- 
erable skirmishing during the winter and spring, 

Washington 
oh taining 
some advan- 
tage, but 
the mam ar- 
mies did not 
resume op- 
erations un- 
til June, 
1777. Even 
then the two 
armies were 
slow upcom- 
ing togeth- 
er. The Brit- 
ish General, 
Burgoyne, 
was moving 
southward 
from Can- 
ada, re-tak- 
ing Crown 
Point and 
Ticondero- 
ga. Wash- 
ington was 
perplexed to 
find out if 
Howe in- 
tended to co-operate with Burgoyne and sweep all 
before them from New York har- 
bor to St. John's, or to swing 
around and fall upon Philadel- 
phia. He had to be on the alert 
to meet either emergency. July 
23, Howe left General Clinton hi 
command at New York, and 
with eighteen thousand soldiers 
sailed for the Delaware. Wash- 
ington made all haste with his 
main army to succor Philadelphia. 




GENERAL LA FAYETTE. 



The condition 



^7? 



»£, 



INDEPENDENCE AND UNION. 



5" 



of the country was critical in the extreme. Just 
then came the Marquis de La Fayette. This young 
French nobleman, of whom we heard in connection 
with the subsequent French Revolution, met Wash- 
ington July 31. He had been made a Major-General 
by Congress a few days before. The reinforcements 



the enemy at Germantown, but suffered defeat. 
Soon after, Howe made Philadelphia the winter 
quarters of his whole arm)', Washington going into 
camp fourteen miles distant, at White Marsh. 

Turning now to the northern army, we find Gen- 
eral St. Glair obliged to abandon the strongholds on 




WASHINGTON CROSSING THE DELAWARE. 



he brought were of incalculable importance 
for the first time, the Com- 
mander-in-chief was ready for 
a pitched battle. It came 
September 11, and is known 
as the Battle of the Brandy- 
wine. It was fought several 
miles above Wilmington, Dela- 
ware. It was a hard-fought 
battle. La Fayette was" wound- 
ed. The Americans were 
obliged to fall back toward 
Philadelphia. Congress, which 
had returned from Baltimore, 
now made haste to seek a safe 
retreat, going first to Lancaster and then to York. 
In October Washington attacked the detachment of 




HATT1JK AT THE BKANDYWINE, 



the west shore of Champlain. The main body of 
his army retreated toward F< irt 
Edward, New York. A de- 
tachment crossed the lake un- 
der Colonel Seth Warner. An 
engagement occurred at Hub- 
bardton, Vermont, July 7, 
1777, which resulted in the 
defeat of the Americans. 
About that time Whitehall, 
then Skenesborough, was very 
nearly destroyed by the British, 
who were having everything 
their own way. But August 16 
there was fought and won by 
the patriots the battle of Bennington, the second 
and last battle of the war on Vermont soil. Colonels 



64 



^ s 



5 12 



INDEPENDENCE AND UNION. 



IL. 




John Stark and Seth Warner rallied there a brave 
force of Yankees, and defeated 
a detachment of the British 
army. About that time the 
enemy suffered defeat in the 
Mohawk valley, General Ar- 
§|| nold being at the head of the 
American forces. The English 
'general, Burgoyne, fixed his 
camp near Saratoga, and Gen- 

flUKUL ST. CLAIR. ^j (j^ of the Alnericans 

established his camp not far from that of the 
enemy. Two indecisive engagements followed, when 
Burgoyne, despairing of reinforcements and short 
of provisions, surrendered. That was a most en- 
couraging turn in the tide of fortune. That may be 
called the first really great victory of the war. 
While the operations in the 
North were thus brilliant, Wash- 
ington's movements farther 
south were clouded with gloom. 
December 11 he took up per- 
manent winter quarters at Valley 
Forge. That was a winter of 
horrible suffering. From White 
Marsh to Valley Forge was nine- 
teen miles, and the march was 
stained with the blood of bleeding feet. The army 
was almost naked and actually hungry. The hero- 
ism which sustained them was a match for the hero- 
ism which had triumphed at Saratoga. 

It was in 1777 that Congress adopted the national 
flag as we now have it, thirteen stripes of red 
and white, and thirteen stars on a blue background, 
the former representing the 
states and the latter the 
union. It also framed and 
submitted to the several states 
the Articles of Confederation, 
which were not fully adopted, 
however, until 1783. 

The spring of 1778 opened 
with revived hope. France 
became the avowed ally of 
the United States, thanks in 
part to the diplomacy of Dr. Franklin and in part 
to the French hostility to England. The recog- 
nition of American independence by the govern- 
ment at Paris was all-important. The surrender of 




GENERAL BtJRGOYNB. 




BARON S'l'EUBEU. 




BARON DE KALB. 



Burgoyne served as a powerful aid in securing that 
recognition. Other Europeans 
besides La Fayette came to our 
assistance. Baron Steuben, a 
Prussian of thorough military 
training, became Inspector- 
General. He did much in the 
way of disciplining the raw 
recruits and volunteer officers 
of our army. Another Ger- 
man, Baron De Kalb, render- 
ed excellent service. Two gallant Poles, Count Pu- 
laski, who died in our cause, and Thaddeus Koscius- 
ko, who survived to lead his own country in unavail- 
ing efforts at national restoration, also came to our 
aid in the dark hour of our sorest need. 

When General Clinton left Philadelphia to join 
Howe in New York, Wash- 
ington dogged his retreating 
steps. At Monmouth an en- 
gagement occurred. At first 
the British were successful, 
but General Washington 
going to the front in person, 
saved the day and turned de- 
feat into victory. 

That summer a band of 
Tories and Indians from Western New York de- 
scended upon the peaceful inhabitants of the lovely 
Wyoming 
valley in 
Pennsyl- 
vania, as 
also Cher- 
ry Valley, 

in New battle at honmouth. 

York, committing every outrage. The massacre was 
avenged the following year by 
General Sullivan. Howe's fleet 
was held in check by the 
French fleet under D'Estaing. 
On the whole, the British went 
into winter quarters in New 
York and the Americans at 
Middlebrook, with the war no 
nearer its close, apparently, 
than it was when the first gun C0UNT d'estauto. 
was fired. For the patriots, 1779 was a gloomy year. 
The two fleets, French and English, sailed south- 




COUNT BULASKL 




■a H ....« < r ' 



MONMOUTH 



. / ( AMERICANS 





4 



*T 



lL 



INDEPENDENCE AND UNION. 



5*3 




GENERAL PICKENS. 



ward, the former to attack British possessions in the 
Caribbean sea, and the lat- 
ter to defend them. The 
war, so far as concerned 
this country, was mostly in 
the South that year, Georgia 
and the Carolinas. Tories 
were numerous, and the pa- 
triotic militia had to bear 
the brunt of the war with- 
out dependence upon the 
forces of the regular army. General Pickens and 
General Marion rendered most excellent service. 
It was in fu- 
tile endeavor 
to regain Sa- 
vannah that 
Count Pu- 
laski lost his 
gallant life. 
The British 
Parliament 
showed great 
deter mi na- 
tion to curb 
the rebellious 
colonies, and 
the French, 
on the other 
hand, showed signs of weakening. In 1 TSO the Brit- 
ish were still successful at the South. Charleston 
fell, and with it Lincoln and his three thousand 
men. The battle of Camden was fought between 
the English under Cornwallis, 
and the Americans under 
Gates, the hero of Saratoga. 
Cornwallis won a complete 
victory. In that battle fell 
Baron De Kalb. 

In the North, Benedict Ar- 
nold forfeited his hitherto 
honorable name by basely 
selling himself to the enemy. 
His betrayal of his country came very near proving 
fatal. His treasonable design was to surrender the 
stronghold of West Point to the British. The de- 
tails of the infamous business were arranged in an 
interview between Major Andre, of Clinton's staff, 
and Benedict Arnold, then in command at West 



Point. While returning from the interview Andre 
was taken prisoner on sus- 
picion of being a spy, and 
papers setting forth the plot 
were found on his person. 
He was tried,, convicted and 
hanged. Arnold made go 
his escape, only to live de- 
spised and miserable, his name 
a synonym for treachery. The 
year 1781 opened with a mu- 
tiny at Morristown. The 
sufferings of the soldiers had 





WEST POINT. 




GENERAL LINCOLN. 



GENERAL GATES. 

become unendurable. 
Fifteen hun- 
dred of the 
Pennsylvani- 
ans threaten- 
ed to march 
on Philadel- 
phia and "in- 
terview" Con- 
gress at the 
point of the 
bayonet. 

They were 
only prevent- 
ed from so 
doing by Con- 
gress meeting 
them with provision for their more pressing imme- 
diate wants. For this mutiny bickerings in Con- 
gress were more at fault than the soldiers them- 
selves, but the chief cause, it must be conceded, 
was the almost utter pros- 
tration of the public means 
of support. Every device 
for raising revenue had 
been exhausted and the 
treasury was empty. Robert 
Morris, one of the mer- 
chant princes of Philadel- 
phia, rendered the great-' 
est service in raising funds 
for Congress to employ in 
the prosecution of the war. 

The year which opened so inauspieiously proved 
to be the last one of the war. La Fayette's influ- 
ence secured the co-operation of a second French 
fleet. That fleet had 7,000 men on board, under the 




"5p 



»\ 



\h- 



At 



5H 



INDEPENDENCE AND UNION. 




command of Count Rochambeau. In South Car- 
olina General Greene was 
in command, and won 
the victor}' of Cowpens. 
The enemy no longer 
assumed the aggressive. 
The battle of Guilford 
| Court-House, North Car- 
olina, was one of the 



ROBERT MORRIS. 

most severe of the war, but 
it was a victory for neither 
side. That battle was 
fought in March, Cow- 
pens in January. The 
patriot army of the South 
was under the command 
of General Nathaniel 
Greene, of Rhode Island. 
one of the bravest and 
most strategic of Ameri- 
can soldiers. He was one 
of the few generals of the 
revolution who thoroughly 
understood the science of 
war, and he was self- 
taught. ( Jeneral Gi-eeue 
was born in 1742. After 
the war he engaged in cot- 
ton raising in Georgia. 
He died on his plantation 
in 1786. 

The British general at 
Cowpens was Bannastre Tarleton ; at Guilford. 
Cornwallis himself was in com- 
mand. The last battle of the 
war in the Carolinas was fought 
at Eutaw Springs on the 8th of 
September. The Continentals 
were repulsed. During the 
summer Cornwallis committed 
depredations in Virginia, now 
for the first time during the 
count de rochambeau. war become the field of actual 
operations. La Fayette was in command of the 
Virginia district. Washington planned a blow for 






the recovery of New York, where Clinton still held 
possession, but finding that 
the French fleet would soon 
enter the Chesapeake, he 
changed his plan, still keep- 
ing up the appearance of 
preparations for New York 
In the meanwhile, Cornwallis 
was fortifying himself at 

COLONEL TARLETON. 

Yorktown. When Clinton 
discovered the design of 
Washington, he attempted 
to divert him from his 
purpose by sending the 
traitor Arnold against 
New Loudon. Connecti- 
cut. The town was burnt, 
its fort, Griswold, taken 
and its gallant defenders 
ruthlessly massacred after 
they had surrendered. The 
fall of Fort Griswold and 
New London closed opera- 
tions at the North. The 
last move upon the chess- 
board was about to be 
made in Virginia. 

The French fleet, under 
Count De Grasse, block- 
aded the York and James 
rivers, while the French 
and American forces on 
the land completed the in- 
vestiture of Yorktown. 
Hemmed in on every side, 
Cornwallis could not escape, and on the 9th of 
October connonading com- 
menced. The British held out 
until the 19th day of the 
month, when Cornwallis sur- 
rendered to Washington his 
sword and his army, about 
10,000 men. 
On both sides it was felt that 
the end had come. Neither 
army had any heart for fur- ^ m cornwallis. 
ther bloodshed. Both may be said to have rested on 
their arms for the negotiation of terms of peace. In 




-rMa 



*C 



INDEPENDENCE AND UNION. 



5*5 




November of the next year a provisional treaty was 
signed. The cessation of hos- 
tilities was formally announced 
in April, 1783. On the third day 
of the following September the 
final treaty was signed at Paris, 
nearly two years after the war 
had virtually closed. In these 
days of electricity and steam 
count de grasse. everything would have been ar- 
ranged in two months. 

It was in December, 1775, that the Continental 
Congress passed a bill creating a navy, with Ezekiel 
Hopkins in command of it. Thirteen vessels were 
authorized. They were built, 
but were of no service. All 
were captured by the British or 
destroyed, to keep them out of 
British hands. But American 
waters swarmed with privateers. 
Hundreds of British ships 
were captured. The Raphael 
Senimes of the Revolutionary 
War was Paul Jones, who with 
his Bon Homme Richard, car- 
rying forty guns, captured the 
British Serapis, carrying forty- 
four guns. The engagement 
occurred off the coast of Scot- 
land in the fall of 1779. 

The ratification of the ar- 
ticles of confederation was completed the same year 
that Cornwallis surrendered. But even then the 
states did not form a nation, and it was a very grave 
question whether the Union would be dissolved or 

perpetuated. In the very 
act of disbanding the army 
tills issue was raised, in a 
practical, if somewhat in- 
direct, way. The order for 
its disbandment was given 
by Congress after the rat- 
ification of the final treaty, 
and three weeks before the 
British evacuated New 
York. Washington took 
leave of his comrades in a 
very appropriate address on the 33d of December, 
resigned his commission and retired to his planta- 




SIEGE OF YORKTOWN. 




JOHN PAWL JONES. 



tiou at Mount Vernon. All that was easy enough, 
but what must be done to pay the arrearages of the 
soldiers and defray the war debt ? Congress had no 
power to levy the necessary taxes, and the experi- 
ment of an irredeemable paper money had teen cur- 
ried so far that the Continental currency was worth- 
less. The individual states were asked to meet the 
demand. This was found to be a very unsatisfactory 
reliance. 

The inadequacy of the confederation to the de- 
mands of the country led to the holding of a conven- 
tion called, theoretically, to amend the existing ar- 
ticles of confederation, but practically, as it proved, 
for the framing of a radically different organic law, 
the constitution under which 
these United States became 
Ike United States. George 
Washington presided over that 
pre-eminently important de- 
liberative body. It met at 
Philadelphia, and completed 
its work September 17, 1787. 
In several states there was con- 
siderable opposition to its rati- 
fication, but it was adopted 
and went into operation March 
4, 1789, without having re- 
ceived the indorsement of 
North Carolina or Rhode 
Island. 

From July 4, 1776, to March 
4, 1 789, was the period during which the founda- 
tions of the great republic were laid. During all 
that time the statesmanship of the country was 
severely tested, and the triumphs of peace were 
greater than those of war. Other armies have fought 
as bravely, but no land was ever blessed with such a 
truly sublime array of great statesmen appearing 
upon the stage of action at the same period. At its 
head stood the venerable Franklin with the august 
Washington at his side, while the youthful Hamil- 
ton and Madison not only helped as leaders to frame 
the Constitution, but by their pens in its advocacy to 
secure its adoption. In all the history of mankind 
can be found no crisis more critical and important 
than the one through which the United States 
passed in developing from thirteen colonies into ;i 
Confederation, and then into a Union solemnly 
declared to be perpetual. 



v I ■= — 



T 1 




ATIONS, like individuals, 
have their infancy, child- 
hood, youth, majority and 
senility. We have now 
reached the adolescent pe- 
riod of American history, 
and are to trace in this 
chapter the progress of the United 
States in its teens, from March 4, 
1789, to March 4, 1817. 

Washington was elected 
the first President of the United 
States, practically without opposi- 
tion, to take the office March 4, 1789, 
the day appointed for the Constitu- 
tion to go into effect. John Adams 
was elected Vice-President. Each 
was re-elected four years later with- 
out serious opposition. 

Although the inauguration of Washington should 
have occurred on the 4th of March, it was not 
until April 30 that a quorum of the first Congress 
under the Constitution had convened at New York, 
the temporary capital, and it was on the latter date 
that the oath of office was administed. 

One of the first things to be done by Congress was 
to select a permanent capital. It was decided to 



avoid all the cities, and even all the states, by a novel 
plan. A tract ten miles square on the Potomac 
river, partly in Virginia and partly in Maryland, was 
selected. It was ceded to the United States so far 
as concerned jurisdiction, and became known as the 
District of Columbia. The selection of the site was 
virtually left to President Washington, in whose 
honor the capital itself was named. To allow suit- 
able buildings to be erected, Congress fixed the cap- 
ital at Philadelphia for ten years. 

During Washington's administration occurred an 
extensive Indian war between the Ohio and Wabash 
rivers. The tribes in that region were somewhat 
given to agriculture, but they were still savages and 
bitterly hostile to the westward expansion of 
the area of civilization. 
Generals Harrison and St. 
Clair were defeated by the 
Indians, but General Wayne 
finally won a complete victo- 
ry. In 1795 a treaty was 
made which quieted the In- 
dian title to the Ohio valley. 
About the same time occur-/ 
red the Whisky Insurrection 
in the Monongahela valley, GENEEAL WAYNE - 
Western Pennsylvania. The distillation of whisky 




■A*- 



(5l6) 



-sfv 



THE YOUNG REPUBLIC. 



5*: 



was a prominent industry in that section, and the tax 
levied upon it during the administration of W ash- 
ington was 




The so-called 



strenuous- 
ly resisted. 
The milita- 
ry was call- 
ed out and 
the insur- 
gents yield- 
ed. Wash- 
ington ex- 
hibited re- 
markable 
firmness 
and wis- 
dom also in 
preventing 
the French 
ministerin- 
volviugthis 
country in 

the interminable wars of Europe, 
" Monroe Doctrine " should 
be Known as " Washington's 
policy." The fact that James 
Monroe was minister to 
France at the time connected 
his name with the doctrine. 
The facts are these : When 
France, the great national 
friend of America, was in- 
volved in war with other 
European powers, incident to 
the French Revolution, there 
was a very strong feeling in 
this country in favor of help- 
ing: her. There was much 
to be said in support of the 
policy. But it was decided 
that then and always this 
republic would stand aloof 
from complication in the 
wars of other nations. No 
foreign power must meddle 
with our affairs, nor will we 
interfere with theirs. The 
wisdom of this policy was not apparent to all at the 
time. On the contrary, it occasioned intense party 




feeling. The Federalists, as the party of Washing- 
ton, Adams, Hamilton and Jay was called, were 

bitterly de- 
nounced by 
the Repub- 
lican party 
of Jeffer- 
son, Burr 
and Madi- 
son. But 
the sober 
second- 
thought of 
the people 
approvedit. 
The Feder- 
alists sacri- 
ficed the 
political 
advantages 
of their po- 
sition by 
the passage of alien and sedition laws, the former to 
restrict personal liberty, the 
latter to restrain the liber- 
ties of the press. The first 
great problem, however, was 
financial. Governeur Morris 
and Alexander Hamilton 
were the great financiers of 
their day. It was assumed 
that the Continental money, 
the greenbacks of the Revo- 
lution, could never be re- 
deemed. That was an act of 
repudiation unjustifiable, but 
not inexplicable. The ties 
of the Union were so frail 
that it was feared that to 
levy the tax necessary to the 
redemption of the paper 
money would snap them 
asunder. All other debts ci in- 
fracted by the Continental 
Congress were faithfully 
paid, also all state debts con- 
tracted in support of the war. 
The great measure of Hamilton was the creation 
of a national bank ; not of a system of banks, such as 



*5=^ 



l^ 



518 



THE YOUNG REPUBLIC. 



the country now has, Imt one stupendous institution, 
modeled after the Bank of England. The United 
States Bank was located at Philadelphia. The 
Bank of England went into operation in 1695, the 
United States Bank was chartered in 1 791, its char- 
ter to hold for twenty years. It was not renewed at 
its expiration, but was in 1810, to go into effect 
January 1, 1817, this renewal occasioning but very 
little controversy compared with the subsequent 
Jacksonian agitation of the subject. 

The first census was taken in 1790. It was found 
that the population of the nation was 3,939,214. 
Of these 700,000 were slaves. The census is taken 
every ten years. It was during Washington's ad- 
ministration that John Jay negotiated a second 
treaty with England, under which some tilings left 
indefinite by the treaty of Paris were settled, but 
others were still left open, destined to be settled at the 
cannon's mouth. It was also during his administra- 
tion that Vermont. Kentucky and Tennessee were 
added to the Union, and the Northwest territory or- 
ganized under an ordinance forbidding the exten- 
sion of slavery north of the Ohio River. 

The administration of John Adams can hardly 
be said to have had any individuality. His four 
years were a continuation of Washington's eight- 
The Federalists averted war with England by what 
seemed to the Republicans ingratitude and mean- 
ness to France. Jefferson and Burr were the lead- 
ers of the latter party, as Adams and Hamilton 
were of the former. George Washington strongly 
leaned toward Federalism, but he never stooped to 
be a party leader. 

In 1800 the people decided in favor of a change. 
The Federalists had been in power all the twelve 
years of constitutional gov- 
ernment, and now the other 
side had a chance. Jefferson 
was elected President and 
Burr vice-President. Jeffer- 
son was re-elected in 1804 
by an overwhelming major- 
ity. Hitherto the government 
had been aristocratic, but 
Jefferson was perfectly sim- 
ple and unostentatious in his 
habits. He was a man of the 
people. The duel between Burr and Hamilton, the 
rival leaders in New York, was the culmination of 




^^^^ 



AARON BFRR. 



the party animosity of the time. Burr challenged 
his rival, and according to the code of honor then 
recognized, Hamilton could not do otherwise than 
accept. The result was fatal to the life of Hamilton 
and the reputation of Burr. Public indignation 
was aroused much as it was by the assassination 
of President Garfield by Guiteau. 

The most notable feature of Jefferson's adminis- 
tration was the Louisiana Purchase. When this 
nation came into national existence Spain and France 
were in possession of Florida and Louisiana, the 
latter including the region between the Mississippi 
River and the Rocky Mountains. The acquisition 
of all that area was secured by diplomacy and pur- 
ehase. To the French in their war with England 
New Orleans and the Gulf of Mexico were a source 
of weakness, and the emperor made the sale as a 
stroke of military policy in 1803. It may be added 
that the direct purchase money paid by the United 
States for territorial acquisitions foots up as follows : 
Florida, #5,000,000 ; Louisiana, 115,000,000 : Cali- 
fornia and other possessions from Mexico, $18,500,- 
000; total, $38,500,000. 

The English claimed the right to search Ameri- 
can vessels, and impress into her service in time of 
war British subjects found on board. In retaliation 
the French claimed the same right. Our govern- 
ment protested, and at last declared war against 
England in support of the protest. That war was 
not actually begun until June, 1812, near the close 
of Madison's first term as President, but it had been 
imminent, almost certain, ever since the Republicans 
came into power upon the overthrow of the Feder- 
alists. When it finally came, the Federalists bitterly 
resisted it. It never ceased to be somewhat of a 
division line between the parties, although it is a 
well-established political fact 
that no party can afford to 
antagonize a war after it has 
once been declared, and if it 
does, even to a limited extent, 
the remit will be fatal to it. 
The Federal party was utterly 
destroyed by the war of 1812. 

General Dearborn of Mas- 
sachusetts was the first com- 
mander-in-chief in that war, GENERA1 dearborn. 
under the President, who, by virtue of his office, held 
that position. No President ever took the field in 







;rt 



THE YOUNG REPUBLIC. 



519 



person. Dearborn's policy was to take Canada, but 
now, as in the Revolutionary War, that plan failed. 
In the war of independence the colonies had no navy 
of any consequence of their own, but in the second 
British war the navy took a conspicuous part. A great 
many English vessels were captured. The important 
naval battle was fought on Lake Eric, and the victory 
wonby the gallant young Commodore Perry, who sent 
to General Harrison the memorable report, "We have 
met the enemy and they are ours." Commodore Law- 
rence of frigate Chesapeake had an encounter with the 
English frigate Shannon off 
Boston which proved disas- 
trous, but as the brave Com- 
modore fell mortally wound- 
ed, he shouted, "Don't give up 
the ship.'' These two brief 
sentences served to stimulate 
the enthusiasm of the whole 
nation. There were nineteen 
naval battles, and in four- 
teen of them tbe Americans 
were successful. Commodore 
Stewart, grandfather of the 
great Irish land - leaguer 
Parnell, with the American 
frigate Constitution, success- 
fully engaged two British 
ships off Madeira. 

There were twenty-two land 
1 uittles. The most humilia- 
ti ug feature of the war was the 
surrender of Detroit to the 
British by General Hull, 
August 16, 1812. By that 

unnecessary cowardice the English gained con- 
trol of Michigan, and if Perry had been beaten 
on Lake Erie a year later, 
they would have been masters 
of the lakes and the cities 
upon their shores. Of these 
twenty-two battles the Amer- 
icans won fourteen. For the 
most part these battles were 
. near the lakes, extending 
from Plattsburg on Lake 
captain lawrence. Champlaiii and Sackett's 
Harbor on Ontario, to Detroit, then the extreme 
limit of western civilization. But Fort McHeurv, 




a-wrnrry 




which guards Baltimore, was subjected to a terrible 
bombardment from sixteen British ships, September 
13, 1814. The failure of that assault called out the 
popular song, " The Star Spaugled Banner," from 
the pen of Francis S. Key, a Marylander, then de- 
tained as a prisoner on one of the English vessels 
of the bombarding fleet. It is worthy of remark that 
the two most sjnritedand brilliant military songs in 
American literature were written by Marylanders, 
the second beiug "My Maryland" by Mr. Randall. 
The only really eminent land engagement of that 
war was the battle of New Or- 
leans, January 8, 1815, some 
time after the treaty of peace 
had been signed, but before 
it had become known in this 
country. That battle, with 
its prelude of December 31, 
alone shed luster upon the 
American army, in distinc- 
tion from the navy. Had 
it not been for New Orleans, 
the second war with England 
would have been accounted, 
and justly, as an American 
defeat. There were, however, 
some brilliant feats of arms 
before that post-treaty battle. 
Two of them deserve special 
notice — Lundy's Lane and 
Plattsburg. The former was 
fought on the shore of Lake 
Ontario, July 25, 1814. Gen- 
eral Brown was in command, 
with General Winfield Scott 
next in rank. The latter led the advance. He and 
Brown were both wounded, but 
the enemy were defeated, each 
side losing about 800 men. 
" That battle " says Ingersoll in 
his historical sketches, " lias 
never been appreciated as it 
ought to be. The victory was 
the resurrection, or birth, of 
American arms. The charm 
of British military invincibility S3 
was as effectually broken by a jtcagara frontier. 
single brigade or that of naval supremacy by a 
single frigate, as much as if a large army or fleet 




65 



520 



THE YOUNG REPUBLIC. 



4- 



had been the agent." 




GENERAL BROWN. 



Another writer says of the 
battle of Plattsburg, fought 
September 11th of the same 
year : " In September, Sir 
George Prevost, at the head 
of fourteen thousand men, 
marched against Macomb, 
who had only a few hundred 
rnen,and,at the same time, the 
British fleet on Lake Cham- 
plain, 



com- 
manded by Commodore 
Dowiiie, sailed to attack 
the American fleet under 
Commodore MacDonough. 
While the British, from 
their batteries, commenced 
on the land, their fleet en- 
gaged MaeDonough's ves- 
sels which were at anchor 
in the bay of Plattsburg. 
In a little more than two 
hours MacDonough gained 
a complete victory. The 
fire from the land batteries 
then slackened, and, at 
nightfall, Prevost made a 
hasty retreat, having lost in 
killed, wounded and deser- 
tions, about twenty-five 
hundred men." 

Early in the war the En- 
glish had secured the co- 
operation of disaffected In- 
dians in Alabama and Florida, especially the Semi- 
noles, and General Andrew Jackson had been sent 
south to hold the savages and their instigators in 
check. Pensacola was then a Spanish port, but the 
British had been allowed to occupy it the same as if 
it were a part of the British empire. Finally, Jack- 
son, who was in command at Mobile, marched upon 
Pensacola with three thousand men, seized it and 
drove out the English. That was late in 1814. Soon 
after, he learned that the enemy proposed to take New 
Orleans in retaliation. He lost no time in marching 
to its defense. What followed is well told by Ander- 
son, and we quote from him : " Toward the middle 
of December a British squadron entered Lake Borgne, 




carrying 12,000 troops, commanded by Sir Edward 
Pakenham, the first object of the expedition being 
to capture New Orleans. On the 14th a flotilla of 
American guuboats was compelled to surrender, and, 
oil the 23d Jackson made a spirited, though inef- 
fectual, attack upon an encampment of the enemy's 
vanguard. On the 28th, and again ou the first day 
of the new year, the Britisli were unsuccessful in 
cannonading the intrenchments which Jackson had 
thrown up four miles from the city. On the 8th 
of January, 1815, the Brit- 
ish made a general advance 
against the enemy's in- 
trenchments ; but volley 
after volley was poured up- 
on them with such terrible 
effect, that they were com- 
pelled to flee. Pakenham 
was slam, and two thousand 
of his men were killed, 
wounded, or taken prison- 
ers. The Americans lost 
only seven killed and six 
wounded." This was the 
first and last time in the 
world's history that the su- 
preme battle of a war was 
fought after peace had been 
negotiated. 

One more incident of this 
war as we pass on to the 
treaty itself. The British, 
under General Boss, took 
the national capital, August 
24, 1814, and fired the pub- 
lic buildings. He had the same day defeated an 
American force of 3,500 at Blandeusburg, his 
own army 
numbering 
5,000. The 
American 
forces were 
under the 
command 
of General 
Winder. In 
his history 

c . , • BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS. 

oi this war 

Ingersoll says of this vandalism, " At a small beer- 




Ji * JacksoWS Line «£. " " « 




— 19 



- — 4\ 



THii YOUNG REPUBLIC. 



521 



house opposite to the Treasury, fire was procured 
with which the Treasury and then the President's 
house were fired. Before setting fire to the latter 
building, it was ransacked for booty, especially for 
objects of curiosity, to be carried off as spoils. After 
incendiarism had done its worst, both at the Presi- 
dent's house and the Navy-Yard, indiscriminate pil- 
lage closed the scene." 

The treaty of peace negotiated by John Quincy 



with England, our country, then more than now 
interested in the carrying trade upon the bigh seas, 
turned its attention to Algerine piracy. The gal- 
lant Decatur was sent to the Mediterranean with a 
naval force to demand of the Dey of Algiers the re- 
lease of the Americans captured and held for ran- 
som. He captured two large Algerine vessels and 
then secured the object of his misson, also treaties 
of a satisfactory nature from the neighboring Bar- 




JACKSON AT 

Adams, Henry Clay and their associates, was abso- 
lutely silent about the encroachments upon Ameri- 
can commerce and the impressment of American 
seamen, the two cardinal issues of the war. But 
the country was in such good humor over the battle 
of Xew Orleans, and so eager for peace, that the 
treaty was ratified. Everybody felt that the United 
States had amply demonstrated its prowess on land 
and sea, that henceforth its rights would be respect- 
ed by foreign governments, and this proved to be 
the case. Substantially, then, the war of 1812 com- 
pleted what the Revolutionary struggle had begun. 
After the second, and we may hope the last war 



European commer- 



NEW ORLEANS. 

I bary States, Tunis and Tripoli, 
cial nations were enthusiastic 

' in praise of the American navy. 
Earlier in the century Tripoli 
haul declared war against the 
United States and captured 
and sold into slavery the crew 
of the frigate Philadelphia. 
The evil of Mediterranean piracy 
was effectually cured by the 
dauntless Decatur. This gal- 
lant sailor fell, mortally wound- 
ed, in a duel with Commodore Barron, in 1820. 




LIEUTENANT DECATCR. 












^r^^jp 








THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE. 



=*-*- 



> 



St: 



iiiiMiiiiuiuuuiuiiiiiiiii 111 ii minium iiiiiiiiiiniiiii miiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiihiiiiiiiiiiiimiiii 

S^3 





CHAPTER LXXX 



Non-Partisan and Non-Skctional Slavery— The Missouri Compromise— The Cotton Gin— The 
Tariff Question — Clay, Webster and Calhoun — John Quincy Adams— General Jackson 
and His Policy— His Protege and the Panic of 1837— "Tippecanoe and Tyler Too" — 
Annexation of Texas— The Mexican War— Taylor and Fillmore— The Omnibus Bill- 
Scott and Pierce— Repeal of the Missouri Compromise— Seward, Sumner and Douglas 
—Buchanan and Fremont— From Compromise to Conflict. 




>^~§3*Efc§- Oi 




HE war of 1812 went out in 
such a perfect and unex- 
pected blaze of glory that 
when the excitement had 
passed by, the Federal party 
was missed. It has never 
been found since. Mr. Mon- 
roe, an amiable gentleman 
of fair ability, a nrotege of Jeffer- 
son, was elected to the presidency 
two terms in succession. Ho was 
indeed a Republican, but his elec- 
tions were not party -victories. Nei- 
ther were they the result of a com- 
promise. The two parties had come 
to a final struggle over war with 
^7^V!S/ England, and the one which had 
U £' suffered defeat had the grace and 

good sense to " step down and out," not with any 
blare of horns or waving of banners, but so very 
quietly that " no man knoweth of [its] grave to this 
day." It simply faded out. 

The compromise did. indeed, begin during the 
Monroe administration, but it related to the future 
rather than the past, the future being that great 
question of slavery, hitherto in no sense a political 



issue. The Northwest Ordinance, a very important 
anti-slavery measure, was neither partisan nor sec- 
tional. The slaveholdiug state of Virginia volunta- 
rily surrendered to the general government all claim 
to the territory west of the Ohio River, and there was 
hardly any objection to the prohibition of slavery 
therein. That prohibition fairly represented the 
opinion prevailing at that time throughout the coun- 
try that the institution of involuntary labor was an 
evil to be gradually removed by the voluntary action 
of the states in which it existed. Originally the in- 
stitution existed, to a limited extent, over nearly the 
entire North, as well as South. 

The question of slavery first came before Congress 
in a way to provoke controversy in connection with 
the admission of Missouri into the Union, 1820. 
That state and Maine, the latter an offshoot from 
Massachusetts, both applied for admission into the 
Union the same year. Previous to that time terri- 
tories had been admitted to the Union and raised to 
the dignity of states whenever their population war- 
ranted it and admission was sought in due form. 
Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohio, Louisiana, Mississippi. 
Indiana, Illinois and Alabama had knocked and 
been admitted without controversy. Maine was ad- 
mitted March 15, twelve days after the passage of 



r^ 



(5 22 ) 



<s •_ 



THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE. 



5^3 



the Missouri Compromise Bill. Missouri itself came 
into the Union in August of the year following, un- 
der the operation of the compromise. 

The raising of this issue was very largely due to 
the cotton gin, a " Yankee notion," invented by Eli 
Whitney. That great invention dates from 1792, 
but its revolutionary effect was the work of time. 
By its aid one man could gin, or free from seeds, as 
much cotton as five hundred men could without it. 
Under its influence labor in the cotton states became 
highly profitable, and the institution of slavery 
(without which, it was thought cotton could not be 
raised in America so as to 
compete with British India) 
acquired a hold which it 
had not before possessed 
upon the people of the cot- 
ton states. 

After a great deal of agi- 
tation it was agreed that 
Missouri should come in, 
but that slavery should not 
be allowed in any territory 
north of 315° 30', except in 
the case of Missouri, a very 
small part of which was 
above that line. This com- 
promise was supposed to be 
a final settlement of the 
slavery question as a nation- 
al issue. The compromise 
was not disturbed until the 
Nebraska bill of 1854 came 
up. Sectionalism did not 
die out, but was in abeyance until 1828, when the 
tariff question revived it. 

The North with its manufactures demanded pro- 
tection ; the South with its great staple of export, cot- 
ton, demanded free trade. Webster, originally op- 
posed to the tariff system, became a champion of it, 
the interest of his state, Massachusetts, demanding it. 
Henry Clay was the especial champion of protection, 
which he called "the American system." John C. 
Calhoun, of South Carolina, was the leader of the 
uncompromising Southern element. These three 
names will be forever associated. They form the 
great triumvirate of the compromise period. 

Clay was born in Virginia in 1777. His early 
education was meager. Natural eloquence drew him 




into the legal profession, and as early as 1806 the 
legislature of Kentucky, to which state he early 
removed, sent him to the United States Senate. He 
filled many places of honor, being in the public ser- 
vice almost constantly until his death, 1852, for the 
most part serving in Congress. He was speaker of 
the House several times. He was a candidate for 
President repeatedly, being the father and favorite of 
the Whig party. Webster was born in New Hamp- 
shire in 1782. He received a collegiate education. 
His political career began in 1812, when he was 
elected to Congress. That was in his native state. 
From 1816 to 1822 he prac- 
ticed his profession at Bos- 
ton, acquiring the highest 
rank as a lawyer. From 
that time until his death, 
1852, he was almost wholly 
devoted to public affairs, 
most of the time in the 
senate. He aspired to the 
presidency, but never re- 
ceived the nomination of 
his party, the Whig. Cal- 
houn was born in South 
Carolina in 1782. He 
gradnated at Yale College. 
In 1808 his public life be- 
gan, by his election to the 
legislature of his native 
state. He then served six 
years in the National House 
of Representatives. His next 
position was that of Secre- 
tary of War, followed by that of Vice-President. 
He aspired to the presidency, but was not a 
favorite with the autocrat of his party, Andrew 
Jackson, and in the nullification movement in 
South Carolina he rendei'ed himself unpopular 
to the country at large. He was the idol of his state, 
and from that time until his death (1850) he was 
content to represent that commonwealth in the sen- 
ate of the United States. For about a year, how- 
ever, he served as Secretary of State under Presi- 
dent Tyler. Calhoun was not a compromiser. He 
believed in slavery and the right of secession, never 
hesitating to avow his sentiments and advocate 
them. His private life was without a stain. Not 
as persuasive as Clay nor as sublime as Webster, he 



ItL 



5 2 4 



THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE. 



was in many respects their intellectual peer. Ameri- 
can politics reached its highest point of personal 
ability in those Titans. 

In the year 1824 occurred the presidential elec- 
tion which resulted in the choice of John Quiney 
Adams for President and John C. Calhoun for Vice- 
President, a combination peculiarly incongruous in 
the light of subsequent events. The electors did 
not elect, and the matter was settled by Congress. 
Adams had for his Secretary of State Henry Clay. 
His administration was a most excellent one. Mr. 
Adams was a very great statesman, but he was not 
a politician, and lie failed to build up a political 




party. The opportunity was peculiarly favorable 
for so doing, but he lacked the qualifications of an 
organizer. It was during his term of office that the 
Erie canal was built, and the construction of rail- 
ways began. The country prospered and every in- 
terest developed rapidly. 

The seventh President of the United States, An- 
drew Jackson, was one of the most strongly individ- 
ual characters in American annals. The hero of 
New Orleans, his hold upon the popular heart was 
peculiarly tenacious. Ignorant, rough, and often 
unreasonable, he never faltered in what he con- 
ceived to bo his duty, nor did he hesitate to employ 
freely the power of his office to build up a political 



party with himself as its center. A patriot, but not 
a statesman, he was the chief of politicians. 

The great features of Jackson's administration 
were, first, his unyielding and fatal opposition to a 
renewal of the charter of Hie national banks; sec- 
ond, the crushing of nullification or secession, in 
South Carolina ; third, the creation of Mie Demo- 
cratic party ; fourth, the introduction into the civil 
service of the pernicious practice of distributing of- 
fices in reward for partisan and personal services. 
He did not originate the phrase, " to the victors be- 
long the spoils," but he did establish the system, 




JOHN C. CALHOUN. 

and that so firmly that it has survived all the vicissi- 
tudes of party. 

Of all the many important events of Jackson's 
memorable career, the most remarkable was the 
promptness with which he met nullification in the 
Palmetto State. The additional duties on imports 
which gave such grievous offense were levied in 
1832. A state convention held at Charleston soon 
after declared this act null and void, and prepared 
to resist its enforcement. The state legislature made 
no secret of a determination to secede if the law was 
executed. A man-of-war, with General Scott and 
a few soldiers on board, quelled the storm without 
the shedding of blood. Soon after, Mr. Clay, true 



SFT 



THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE. 



525 



i > his instincts as a pacifier, secured the passage of 
a bill providing for a scaling down of duties. 

The next president, Martin Van Buren, of New 
York, was a wily politician, the convenient and 
crafty lieutenant of Jackson in all his political 
movements. In the first year of his administration, 
1837, the country was whelmed in bankruptcy. That 
panic was largely due to the refusal of Jackson to 
sign the bill for renewing the charter of the national 
banks. His pet scheme was the Independent Treas- 
ury, or Sub-Treasury system, by which the govern- 
ment should keep in its 
own vaults the public 
money. The hard times 
had somewhat abated 
when the next presiden- 
tial election occurred 
(1840), but the memory 
of the panic was fresh, 
and the demand for a 
change was imperious. 

The campaign of 1840 
was very exciting. The 
Whigs dropped their reg- 
ular candidate, Clay, and 
took up General Harri- 
son. He had rendered 
good service in the war 
of 1813. but better still 
in Indian warfare. He 
was the hero of the bril- 
liant affair at Tippeca- 
noe, Indiana, near La- 
fayette, which broke up 
the confederacy of Tecumseh and ended the ap- 
prehension of an Indian war. That was about 
thirty years before he was a candidate for President, 
but it served the purposes of the campaign. 

His death, one month after his inauguration, 
brought to the presidency John Tyler, the first of 
the Presidents elected by the Messenger of Death. 
He proved unfaithful to the party which elected 
him, and covered himself with reproach. The tariff 
question was a leading issue of the campaign, 
and he repudiated the protective policy which was 
the distinguishing doctrine of the Whigs. The only 
redeeming feature of Tyler's administration was the 
retention of Daniel Webster as Secretary of State, 
and the negotiation by him of a treaty with England 




GENERAL SAM HOUSTON. 



which fixed amicably the boundaries between the 
United States and British America, both in the 
northeast and the northwest. 

The bill annexing Texas to the Union was passed 
three days before the Tyler administration closed, 
but it was none the less the great issue in the presi- 
dential election of 1844, which resulted in the defeat 
of Clay and the election of James K. Polk, of Ten- 
nessee. Texas was originally a part of Mexico. It 
had been largely settled by citizens of the United 
States. The people rebelled and seceded from Mex- 
ico, General Sam Hous- 
ton being the leader in 
the Texan war of inde- 
pendence. The battle 
of San Jacinto, result- 
ing in the capture of 
Santa Anna, then Presi- 
dent of Mexico, Houston 
consented to release him 
only on condition that 
the independence of 
Texas should be recog- 
nized. The condition 
was complied with. Not 
long after Texas asked 
to be annexed to the 
United States. Nations 
usually covet territorial 
acquisition, but in this 
case the North opposed 
it because the area of 
slavery would be extend- 
ed thereby The elec- 
tion of Polk settled the matter affirmatively. 

It was during 
the administration 
of Polk that the 
war between Mex- 
ico and the Uni- 
ted States was 
waged, growing 
out of the annex- 
ation of Texas, 
largely, and the 
desire of the South 
for an enlarged 
area. There were -htnfield scott in 1865. 

thirteen battles during that war, the first beingf ought 




=irT 



e ^ 



J£ 



526 



THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE. 




BOUTE OF THE I S. AKMY fKOM VI UX CUOZ TU MEXICO. 



at Palo Alto, May 8, 1846, and the last at Huamautla, 
October 9, 1847. In all the United States troops 
were victorious. General Taylor won the victories of 
Palo Alto, Monterey, Pahna and Buena Vista ; Gen- 
eral Scott 
those of Ve- 
raCruz,Cer- 
ro Gordo, 
Go ntreras, 
Cherubusco 
and Chapul- 

tepec. Many of the names rendered famous in the 
civil war appear among the 
subordinate officers of 
that campaign. Among 
the volunteer geuerals of 
that war was Franklin 
Pierce, afterwards Presi- 
dent of the United Stales. 
The treaty of peace was 
signed February 2, 1848. 
By its terms all the terri- 
tory north of the Rio 
Grande, including New 
Mexico and California, 
should thereafter belong 
to the United States. In- 
stead of exacting, in ad- 
dition to this, a sum of 
money, as Germany did 
of France a few years ago, 
the victor agreed to pay the 
vanquished $15,000,000 
and assume debts amounting to about $3,000,000. 
At a later period, there having arisen some disjiute 
as to the boundary, the United States paid Mexico 
$10,000,000 more in final settlement of the whole 
matter. 

The Whigs had denounced the Mexican war in 
severest terms, but no sooner was it over than they 
took up General Taylor as their candidate for the 
presidency, to the great chagrin of Clay and his es- 
pecial friends. " Old Rough and Ready," as Taylor 
was called, had for his opponent General Cass of 
Michigan, and, on the Free-soil or Anti-slavery 
ticket, ex-President Van Buren. The latter hoped 
to so weaken Cass, whom he hated, that he would 
be defeated. In this he was successful, Taylor was 
elected, and with him Millard Fillmore of New 




York. The new, yet old, president died in the sum- 
mer of 1850. His administration is almost a blank. 
Not so with that of Fillmore, during whose term of 
office the policy of compromise reached its cul- 
mination. 

The ill-feeling between the North and the South 
on slavery and the questions growing out of it, was 
such as to seriously threaten the Union. Henry 
Clay, true to his life-work, came forward in 1850 
with what was known as his " Omnibus Bill," pro- 
viding, first, that California should be admitted as a 
free state ; second, that if new states formed by the 
division of Texas should 
knock for admission they 
should be admitted ; third, 
Utah and Mexico to be 
organized as territories ; 
fourth, the claim of Texas 
to New Mexico to be pur- 
chased by the general gov- 
ernment for $10,000,000; 
fifth, the slave trade to be 
forbidden in the District 
of Columbia ; sixth, slaves 
escaping to free states to 
be arrested and restored to 
their masters. Thi meas- 
ure received the s iport 
of both of the twc ;jreat 
parties. But it fade- of 
the desired effect. At the 
South the admission of 
California was looked up- 
on as the supreme feature of the bill, and the North 
forgot everything else in fierce indignation over the 
fugitive slave law. The two sections were thus all 
the more unfriendly. Compromise had been the 
ruling policy of the government for thirty years, 
and all to no conciliatory purpose. 

The next presidential election was the last in 
which the Whig party was ever to take part. Born 
of compromise, it died with it. In 1852 the Whigs 
had for standard-bearer General Winfield Scott, the 
hero of two wars, but he was utterly routed by Gen- 
eral Pierce, who had nothing to recommend him 
to the people. It was not in any sense a personal 
campaign. The country was dissatisfied with both 
parties, but of the two evils the people chose the 
one least conspicuous for compromise. That was 



=sp 



J± 



THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE. 



52 7 



the last national election ever held at which both of 
the leading parties attempted to win the favor of 
both sections of the country 

There had long been a distinctively anti-slavery 
party at the North, with now and then a represen- 
tative in congress ; but its strength was inconsidera- 
ble as compared with the other two parties. In 1840, 
and again in 1844, the Abolitionists had cast their 
votes for electors pledged to support James G. Bir- 
ney for president. In 1848, under the lead of Van 
Buren, and again in 1852, under the lead of John 
P. Hale, the Free-Soil party had secured the anti- 
slavery vote, gaining a lit; le each time, but not much. 




WILLIAM H. SEWARD. 

The election of Pierce seemed to be the permanent 
triumph of the pro-slavery party. 

Early in 1854 Senator Douglas of Illinois, Chair- 
man of the Committee on- Territories, introduced 
the Kansas-Nebraska Bill which was, in effect, the 
repeal of the Missouri Compromise. A fierce con- 
flict arose. The Whig party, as if conscious that 
its mission of conciliation was over, went the way 
of the Federal party, to which it had fallen heir. 
It died of inanition, and with the passage of the 
bill introduced by Mr. Douglas (for after a hotly 
contested struggle in Congress it became a law) there 
was born the Republican party of the present day. 
It succeeded to the estate of the Whig organization 
without assuming its liabilities. 

A new set of great men came to the front about 
this time to take the place of Clay, Webster and 



Calhoun. This triumvirate consisted of Wm. H. 
Seward of New York, Charles Sumner of Massa- 
chusetts and Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois. 

Mr. Seward was a native of New York, born in 
1801. He graduated at Union College and settled 
as a lawyer in Auburn, New York. His public ca- 
reer began in 1830, when he was elected to the State 
Senate. Subsequently he served as governor of the 
state. He was elected to the United States Senate 
as a representative of the anti-slavery wing of the 
Whig party, entering that body in time to take part 
against the compromise of 1850. He was the father. 




CHARLES SUMNER. 



more than any other man, of the Republican party. 
In 1860 he was a prominent candidate before the 
national convention of his party for the presidency, 
but was defeated by Mr. Lincoln. Upon the elec- 
tion of the latter Mr. Seward became Secretary of 
State, a position he occupied eight years, when his 
public career closed. Mr. Seward was at once a 
great statesman and a great politician. Mr. Sum- 
ner was the former, but not the latter. Happily, his 
native state, Massachusetts, required no wire-work- 
ing to place in the Senate and keep there her great- 
est son, for such Mr. Sumner was for many years. 
Born in Boston in 1811, he was elected to the Sen- 
ate of the United States at the age of forty, his first 
and only office. He remained in that body until 



9 



THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE. 




his death in 1874. During those twenty-three years 
he was the unfaltering friend of the black man. He 
was the most learned man ever identified with 
American politics. His eloquence was of a lofty 
nature and his character singularly free from taint. 

Douglas was a very 
different man 
from either of the 
oilier two. Uned- 
ucated, coarse and 
unscrupulous, he 
was a master of 
all the arts of pol- 
itics. Born in 
Vermont in 1813, 
he entered Con- 
gress at the age of 
thirty as a Demo- 
cratic representa- 
tive from the state 
of Illinois. In 1847 he entered the Senate, and 
soon became the leader of his party in that body, 
where he remained until his death in 1861. In the 
fall of 1860 he was a candidate for the presidency. 
When the civil war began he was appointed a Major- 
General by President Lincoln. He was a staunch 
friend of the Union. 

Although carried by the current of these three 
lives quite beyond the period of compromise, there 
is one more administration belonging to it, that of 
James Buchanan, the fifteenth President of the 
United States. His election in 185G over the Re- 
publican nominee. Col. John C. Fremont, by a large 
majority, showed that the old regime was still poten- 
tial. At that election, for the first time in the history 
of the republic, a presidential candidate nominated 
on the anti-slavexy issue received Electoral College 



STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS. 



votes, and a good many of them, too, enough cer- 
tainly to foreshadow plainly the result in 1860. The 
Buchanan administration was characterized by an- 
tagonism between the Executive and Congress on 




all questions at issue between the two parties. Mr. 
Buchanan was willing to carry the policy of conces- 
sion to the South to almost any length, in the hope 
of thereby averting civil war, while the Republicans 
scoffed at the threats of secession and braved all 
peril rather than consent to any extension of the 
area of slavery. Thus in that period, from 1857 to 
1861, Compromise exhausted itself and developed by 
a natural process into Conflict. 






^*®& 



^^'^^^^WML ^^"'1^' 



~7\- 



A 





CHAPTER LXXXI. 



Political Conflict — John Brown — 1860 — Secession— War Begun—Bull Run— McClellan on 
the Potomac— Missouri — Close op 18G1 — 18G2 — Fort Donelson— Pea Kidge— Merrimack and 
Monitor— Pittsburg Landing— New Orleans— On the Potomac Again— Yorktown — 
Before Richmond — Colored Troops — Gen. Pope — Antietam — Fredericksburg and Burn- 
side — Emancipation— Gettysburg— Vicksburg — Chattanooga — New York Riots— Ander- 
sontille — Grant Supreme — Fort Pillow — Battle of the Wilderness — Spottstlvania — 
Atlanta— March to the Sea— Thomas and Hood — Presidential Election — Fall of Rich- 
mond, and Surrender of Lee — Other Surrenders and the Capture of Davis — Assassin- 
ation of Lincoln — Sinking of the Alabama, and Other Naval Engagements— Personal 
Sketches of Union Heroes— Andrew Johnson— Reconstruction Conflict— Impeachment 
of Johnson— Election of Grant— Ku-Klux-Klan— Close of the Great Conflict. 




< 



*M—s3. 



N an important sense the 
great political conflict in 
the United States began 
with the organization of 
the Republican party. The 
Abolitionists, such as Wil- 
liam Lloyd Garrison, Wen- 
dell Phillips, Birney, Whit- 
tier and Gerrit Smith, merely formed 
a skirmish line. The first bloody field 
was the territory of Kansas. Beyond 
the Missouri border was really fought 
llio first campaign of the terrible war. 
That Territory would have been 
open to the introduction of slavery un- 
der the Missouri Compromise, but the 
South demanded more than that. Slav- 
ery must be allowed in Nebraska also. 
In grasping for both, it lost both. No sooner was 
the old landmark of 1820 removed than Northern 
immigration poured into Kansas, well knowing that 
if the southern of those two territories was saved to 
free labor the other would follow as a matter of 
course. The South was no match for the North in 



supplying pioneers, and slave labor is illy adapted 
to frontier life. But the adjacent state of Missouri 
was unfriendly to the " Northern horde,'' and that 
was quite an advantage. There were numerous en- 
counters between the two factions, and the Territory 
fully earned the designation of " Bleeding Kansas." 
It was not until the general appeal to the sword in 
1861 that it ceased to be the especial victim of con- 
flict, and even after that time it was subject to des- 
olating raids. 

Among those who flocked to Kansas to take part 
in the struggle there was "John Brown of Ossawat- 
tomie," as he was known in connection with that 
Territory. He was an Abolitionist of the intensest 
sort. Having remained in the far West until satis- 
fied how the issue was to be decided, he came East 
and undertook to organize a slave insurrection. It 
was late in the fall of 1859 when he put his plan in 
execution. Harper's Ferry, Virgiuia, a wild gorge in 
the mountains, was selected as his rendezvous. With 
him were associated a few kindred spirits. They 
succeded in causing a tremendous excitement and 
alarm, but cannot be said to have struck a respon- 
sive chord in the nes^ro heart. The idea that the 



(5.-9) 



=sr 



53° 



THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 



colored people were ripe for insurrection was a mis- 
take. Brown had embarked in an enterprise which 
was utterly hopeless. He was soon taken prisoner, 
tried, convicted and hanged. Many at the North 
sympathized with him, and when the war between 
the states came, he was canonized as a martyr to 
liberty. The most popular and inspiring of all the 
war songs of the period was a wild chant in his 
honor. 

The presidential election of 1860 was conducted on 
both sides of Mason and Dixon's line upon the theo- 
ry that the time 
for compromise 
had gone by. 
Mr. Douglas was 
indeed the can- 
didate of one 
wing of the De- 
mocracy, a wing 
that still clung 
to the hopeof rec- 
onciliation, and 
Mr. Bell. of Ken- 
tucky, was the 
candidate of a 
movement t<> 
galvanize into 
life the dry 
bones of the old 
Whig party; but 
the favorite can- 
didate of the 
South was John C. Breckenridge ; of the North, 
Abraham Lincoln ; and they represented, each in 
his way, what Mr. Seward very justly (ailed "the 
irrepressible conflict." The latter received no votes 
at the South, the former carried no Northern state, 
and consequently Mr. Lincoln was elected. 

At the North it whs supposed that the threats of 
secession would not be executed: at the South that 
the threats of coercion would not be carried out. 
Neither section really anticipated what was impend- 
ing; still the spirit of hostility was so fully aroused 
that no considerations of prudence could have had 
weight and force. 

The first state to pass an ordinance of secession was 
South Carolina. Other Southern States adopted 
the same measure early in the year following, and 
in February the " Confederate States of America " 




was formed, with Jefferson Davis as President, 
and Alexander II. Stephens as Vice-President. Be- 
fore Mr. Lincoln became President the national 
troops had withdrawn from Fort Moultrie to Fort 
Sumter in Charleston harbor. Seven states hud se- 
ceded and a government in opposition to the United 
States had been fully organized and fairly launched 
at the South, President Buchanan doing nothing to 
arrest the progress of the movement. Mr. Lincoln 
was obliged to pass through Baltimore on his way to 
the capital in disguise. Abraham Lincoln was inau- 
gurated March 
4th, and on the 
twelfth of the 
next month Fort 
Sumter. Major 
Robert Ander- 
son command- 
ant, was fired 
upon. That was 
the first shot of 
the war. The 
South Carolini- 
ans were impa- 
tient of delay. 
and wished to 
fire the South- 
ern heart. The 
same result fol- 
lowed in both 
sections. " To 
arms !" was all 
the cry. Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers three 
days after the first shot had been fired, and two 
days later Davis issued 
letters of marque and 
reprisal, whicii were 
at once followed by 
t be blockade of South- 
ern ports by the Uni- 
ted States navy. In 
less than a month En- 
gland had made haste 
to acknowledge the 
Confederate States as 
belligerents, and not 
mere insurgents and robert andehsok. 

rebels. France and some other nations soon did the 
same. The first direct personal eucounterof the war 




-*F 



»-£+ 



THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 



53i 



was in the streets of Baltimore. That city fully sym- 
pathized with the South, yet lay between the North 
and the national capital. It was on the nineteenth 
of April that some Massachusetts volunteers were 
fired upon as they passed through the streets of that 
city. The effect was to stimulate the patriotism of 
the North, and render still more remote all hope of 
reconciliation. 

June '■> occurred a trivial battle at Philippi, which 
was a Con- 



federate rout, 
and a week 
later the Un- 
ion troops 
were repuls- 
ed at Big 
Bethel. Thus 
did the f < >r- 
tunes of war 
alternate for 
overamonth. 
the Confed- 
erates rout ci 1 
at Booues- 
ville, the Fed- 
erals at Car- 
thage. In the 
meanwh ile 
Congress had 
met, July ■', . 
in extra sc: - 
sion, and hot 




large scale. 



. ides were eager for a battle upon a 
Each seemed to think that one great 
victory and all 
would lie over. 
" On to Rich- 
mond" was the 
cry of the North : 
•• Mi, to Washing- 
ton'' of the South. 
The impatient 
public hail not 
Ling to wait. July 
'.' 1 witnessed the 
first great battle 
of the war, the 
ikwin ji-imwELi.. nrst Hull Bun, or 

Mana.-sas. as i! is called in the South. A slight skir- 
mish at Centerville three davs liefore had occurred. 




The Union forces were under the command of Gen- 
eral McDowell ; the Confederates were led by General 
Beauregard. Both armies fought desperately for 
six hours, when reinforcements coming to the aid 
of Beauregard, he won the day. The defeat was a 
rout. The demoralized volunteers, when once put 
to flight, became a frantic mob. But the victors 
were too much exhausted and crippled to march 
upon Washington, and no substantial and per- 
Laanent ad- 
vantage was 
gained. Gen- 
eral Winfield 
Scott. who 
had been the 
master spirit 
in planning 
the hat tie. 
and McDow- 
ell, who had 
executed the 
plans, both 
retired, and 
General Mc- 
Clellan, who 
had achieved 
some small 
success in 
West Virgin- 
ia, came to 
the fore as 

commander-in-chief. Congress called for 500,000 
recruits, and 
appropriated 
$500,000,000 to 
defray the ex- 
penses of the 
war. The se- 
riousness of 
the undertak- 
ing now for 
the first time 
dawned upon 
thepublicminc 
of the North. 
At the South \ 
the effect was 
deceptive. It 
was supposed that secession was an assured fact, and 




GEORGE B. M'CLELLAN. 



-7T, 



l& 



53 2 



THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 




could not long be delayed in its complete triumph. 

All the sto- 
ries of North- 
ern cowardice 
were confirm- 
ed. Thus vic- 
tory was a 
great injury 
to the South- 
ern cause, 
and a bene- 
fit, indirect, 
but very real, 
to the North. 
It is claim- 
ed by the 
Southern authorities that in the battle of Bull Run 
the Federal force was 60,000, the Confederate, 30,- 
000. "The Confederate loss," says Derry, "was 
nearly three thousand killed and wounded, while the 
Federal army lost nearly five thousand killed, 
wounded and prisoners, twenty-eight cannon, ten 
bat lie-flags, five thousand muskets and five hundred 
thousand cartridges." The Northern estimate of 
the forces engaged places the number at about 
40,000 each, and the losses at about 3,000 each. 
Nothing important was done during the remainder 
of that year at the East. Several minor battles 
were fought with see-saw results. 

The only other military events of much import- 
ance during 1801 were in Missouri. A very deter- 
mined effort was made to prevent that state from 
going out of tohe Union. It never did secede, in the 
regular way. An ordinance of secession was passed 

by a portion of the 
state legislature in 
November, 1861, 
but it was not bind- 
ing, oven upou 
those who held 
state fealty above 
national loyalty. 
In holding that 
part of the country 
in the Union, Gen- 
erals Fremont, 
Sigel, Lyon and 
Grant bore prominent part, also the gallant Colonel 
Mulligan. The battle of Belmont (November 7), on 




NATHANIEL LYON. 




CAPT. CHAJiLES WILKES. 

fell, had occurred August 



10, 

the 



the Mississippi River, opposite Columbus, Missouri, 
was the begin- 
ning of Gen- 
eral Grant's 
victories, but 
it was a vic- 
tory so far 
turned into 
defeat that he 
was finally 
glad to seek 
the shelter of 
his gun-boats. 

The battle 
of Wilson's 
Creek, where 
the gallant Lyon 

and was the most destructive engagement of 
year, except Bull Run. It terminated favorably to 
the South, although very nearly an even thing. 

The year 1861 closed with the South in possession 
of several points of advantage, gained during the 
season. On that side was an army of 350,000 ; on 
the Northern, a force of 500,000. Missouri and 
Maryland were saved from seceding. Both could 
point to trophies, but neither had occasion for over- 
weening confidence of ability to achieve final victory. 

"' The Trent affair " was the capture by Captain 
Wilkes, of the United States navy, of Mason and 
Slidell, representatives of the Confederacy, while on 
board the British steamer the Trent. It occurred 
November 8, and occasioned tremendous excitement 
in this country and in England. War between the 
two nations seemed imminent. But Secretary Sew- 
ard calmed the waters by releasing the prisoners, 
taking care in so doing to secure from England a 
distinct repudiation of the right of search, the very 
issue which the war of 1812 involved but did not 
settle. American diplomacy won a brilliant victory, 
completing what the treaty of Ghent had left un- 
settled. 

The first battle of 1863 was between a small force 
under Humphrey Marshall and a brigade, or hardly 
that, under Colonel James A. Garfield, at Preston- 
burg, Kentucky. Garfield won the day, and was 
promoted to the rank of brigadier-general on the 
strength of his gallantry on that occasion. 

With this year began formidable naval operations 
in the West. Commodore Foote had a large flotilla 



-*Jk. 



THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 



533 



under his command 




HL'MI'HHEV MARSHALL. 



which had been fitted out at St. 
Louis for ser- 
vice on the 
Mississippi 
and its tribu- 
taries. Febru- 
ary 6, Fort 
Henry was 
compelled to 
surrender, and 
ten days later 
Fort Donel- 
son was at 
the mercy of 
Foote and 
Grant, acting in concert. Grant being in command of 
the department of West Tennessee. Buckner was 
in command 
of the fort. |~ 
He opened 
negotiations 
for capitula- 
tion, when 
Grant made 
the memor- 
able reply, 
" No terms 
except un- 
conditional 
and immedi- 
ate surren- 
der can be 

accepted. I propose to move immediately on your 

works." The 
terms were ac- 
cepted and 
fifteen thousand 
prisoners fell in- 
to the hands of 
the captors. That 
capture, the re- 
|i suit largely of 
Foote's gun- 
boats, was the 
foundation of 
Grant's popular- 
ity. It placed his 
name in the head 
ranK and occasioned many ;i prediction that he 



if the war. Fort 



would prove the supreme her 
Donelson sur- 
rendered Feb- 
ruary 16. 

The next im- 
portant event 
was the battle 
of Pea Ridge, 
or Elkhorn, 
Missouri. Both 
armies concen- 
trated, the Con- 
federates under 
Van Dorn, the 
Federals un- 
der Curtis. The earl van dorn. 
battle began March 7, and was not terminated un- 
til the next 





INTERIOR OF FORT HENRY. 



4tl 




ANDRLW h poote 



morning. The 
Confederates 
were com- 
pletely beat- 
en, notwith- 
standing they 
fought with 
great brav- 
ery. The shat- 
tered rem- 
nants fled in- 
to Tennessee, 
joining Beau- 
regard at 
headquarters at Spring- 



Memphis. Curtis took up In- 
field, Mis- 
souri. The 
next day oc- 
curred the 
fierce duel 
between the 
Monitor and 
the Merri- 
mack in 
H a m p t o n 
Roads. The 
latter was a 
magnificent 
man-of-war, 
formerly the 
pride of the American navy ; the former was a 




JOHN ERICSSON. 



-7r: 



— _zfK, 



534 



THK PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 




newly devised iron-clad and almost ball-proof gun- 
boat, the invention of that great genius, John Erics- 
son. It is not too much to say that the success of 
the little Monitor on that occasion revolutionized 
naval architecture, for 
it signed the death 
warrant of modern 
vessels of war. If the 
Merrimack had not 
been arrested in its 
course it would have 
strewn the North At- 
lantic seaboard with 
desolation and havoc 
The result of that 
encounter was an infi- 
nite relief to the na- 
tional capital, which 
had been in great apprehension from an assault 
by water. 

The battle of Shiloh, or Pittsburg Lauding, oc- 
curred April fi and 7. Grant had over 30,000 men, 
and Buell was advancing from Nashville to his sup- 
port. The Confederates were commanded by the 

brave and bril- 
liant Gen. A. 
S. Johnston. 
He decided to 
attack Grant 
at Pittsburg 
Landing be- 
fore he could 
be joined by 
Buell. Early 
in the morn- 
ing the fight 
began, and at 
nightfall the 
Federal.- had been pushed very nearly into the river. 
It looked as if (Jrant was about to he completely 
used up. That night Buell arrived. If was another 
instance of " night or Bliicher." There were no 
corresponding recruits fur the attacking army, and 
the next morning the Confederates were compelled 
to fall back on Corinth. The losses on both sides 
were very heavy. Those on the Federal side were 
about 13,000. Among the Confederates who fell was 
Gen. A. S. Johnston himself Alexander H. Ste- 
phens pronounced the loss irreparable, and Jeffer ion 




IARLOS Bl'hl 



Davis placed the very highest estimate upon the 
greatness of the calamity. 

April 25 New Orleans fell into the hands of the 
Federals. It was well fortified, and thought to be 

almost impregnable. 
The fleet which suc- 
ceeded in forcing the 
surrender consisted of 
eight steamships, six- 
teen gunboats and 
twenty - one mortar- 
vessels. This large 
force had for co-oper- 
ative support General 
Butler at Southwest 
Pass with 9,000 troops. 
The Confederate de- 
fense consisted of sev- 
eral strong fortifications and seventeen vessels, in- 
cluding several rams. The forts surrendered, the few 
vessels of the defense were destroyed, and the city 
was at the mercy of the assailants. General Butlef 
took possession of the city. His administration 
of affairs in New Orleans gave great satisfaction 
at the North 
and aroused still 
greater indigna- 
tion at the South. 
He was accused 
of robbing the 
people even of 
their spoons, and 
of playing the j 
despot general Iy.C 
The real secret 
of Butler's un- 
popularity was 
an order issued 
to the effect that any woman who should insult the 
flag, or show contempt for the Union, should be as- 
sumed to bea woman of the town plying her vocation. 
It is now time to revisit the mud -bound army of the 
Potomac. The pressure of Northern public opinion 
was such that early in March President Lincoln or- 
dered McClellan to move on Richmond. An abor- 
tive movement was made on the 10th of that month. 
About that time the Burnside expedition was sent 
to capture Newbern, North Carolina, a port on the 
Neuse river. A fortnight later McClellen changed 




BENJAMIN F. BUTLER. 



s\j- 



THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 



535 



his base of operations against Richmond to Fortress 
Monroe. The Peninsula campaign may be said to 
have begun with the evacuation of Yorktown, 
May 3. The Confederates were behind "Quaker," or 
wooden guns. McClellan was deceived. He sup- 
posed the army then there under Magruder to be 
very large. He expected a long siege and a des- 
perate resist- 
ance. Instead 
of that, the 
Confederates 
withdrew to 
Willi am s- 
burg without 
tiring a shot. 
Two days 
later the bat- 
tle of Wil- 
liamsbu rg 
was fought. 
The Feder- 
al army of 
the Potomac 
had long 
been impa- 
tient for ac- 
tive service, 
and pursued 
the retreat- 
ing Confed- 
erates with 
the utmost 

zeal, led by Generals Hooker. Kearney and Stone- 
man. Early in the 
morning of the 5th 
of May the fight- 
ing began The 
swollen condition 
of the streams im- 
peded reinforce- 
ments and the for- 




FuKTKESS .MON'KOE IX 1861. 




Ifes: wardingof supplies. 
Hooker's division 
bore the brunt of 
the battle early in 
the day, but Kear- 
ney came to the res- 
cue when most needed. Hancock ordered a bayonet 
charge that was promptly made, when a complete vic- 



J. BANKUEAIJ MAGRUDER. 



tory was won, and McClellan was able to move into 
Williamsburg. Instead of following up his advantage 
with vigor, he allowed J. E. Johnston to retire hi 
good order to the opposite bank of the Chickahom- 
iny. On both sides it was thought that the decisive 
hour had come. There was the gravest apprehen- 
sion at Richmond, the wildest exultation at Wash- 
ington. But 
Johnston 
was equal to 
the emergen- 
cy. He or- 
dered Stone- 
wall Jack- 
son, then in 
the Shenan- 
doah valley, 
to make a 
demonstra- 
tion ujjon 
Washington. 
This diver- 
sion had an 
importantef- 
fectincheck- 
ing the fur- 
ther progress 
of the main 
army. Banks 
and his army 
were driven 
out of the 
valley by Jackson, and fell hack to the Potomac. 
McClellan was 
within a few 
miles of Rich- 
mond. There 
was a battle at 
Hanover Court 
House, May 27. 
That, however, 
was hardly 

more than a 
skirmish as 
compared with 
the battles 9 

which were to 
follow, begin- 
ning with Fair Oaks, May 31, and closing with Mal- 




PHILIP KEARNET. 



TTF 



i& 



536 



THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 



vern Hills, July 1. 



NATHANIEL 



of the river, 
been for Gen- 
eral Sumner 
and the re- 
cruits he 
brought to- 
ward even- 
ing from the 
opposite side. 
The loss on 
either side 
was about 
7,000, and 
Johnsto 11 , 
then the 
leading sol- 
dier of the 



That was a terrific period. Fair 
Oaks came very 
near being an 
overwhelming 
Union defeat. 
McClellan's ar- 
my was on both 
sides of the 
< 'hickahominy, 
and the swamps 
were flooded. 
Johnston's plan 
was to destroy 
the portion of 
the army on the 
Fair Oaks side 
and he would have done it if it had not 





BATTLEFIELD OF MALVERN 



Confederacy, 



was seriously wounded. 
That wound 
brought Gen- 
eral Lee to the 
front, a posi- 
tion which he 
kept to the 
very last. 

Both armies 
were so badly 
crippled that 
neither felt 
like taking 
the initiative. 
The North 
edwin v. sumner. greatly cen- 

sured McClellan for remaining quietly in the malarial 




• pi -\i 1 



swamps of the hickahominy, and the South re- 
gained confidence. This confidence showed itself 
in the gallant but uneventful dash of Confederate 
cavalry under General Stuart within the very 
lines of the main Federal army. The battle of Oak 
Grove was fought June 25. It was a comparatively 
small battle, but it was a victory for the Confeder- 
ates, and McClellen then gave up all aggressive 
plans. It was no longer " On to Richmond," but 
the problem was " How not to do it." The next day 
Jackson and A. P. Hill were directed by Lee to at- 
tack the Federal right. All day the battle raged, 
with indecisive results. The next day at the battle of 
Gaines' Mills. Lee had hopes of capturing McClel- 
lan, and the latter sought to fall back upon the 
James river in good order and with his supplies. 
During the 27th Porter held the enemy at bay. The 

next day Gen. 
Sumner ren- 
dered sub- 
stantiallythe 
same service 
at the battle 
of Savage 
Station. The 
third day 
the battle 
of Frazier's 
Farm served 
the same 
negative pur- 
pose, and 

during that night the army of the Potomac was 
re-united for the first time since the Chickahom- 
iuy flowed between it. And now came the climax 
of the campaign — the battle of Malvern Hill, 
July 1. That conflict raged until nine o'clock 
in the evening, when the Confederates aban- 
doned the idea of capturing the Federals. McClel- 
lan fell back upon the James, Lee to the entrench- 
ments at Richmond, both sides beaten, with losses 
on either side variously estimated at from 15,000 to 
25,000. The loss by sickness during the heated term 
was terrible. Of the splendid army of 160,000 
which had entered the Peninsula only a small pro- 
portion could be mustered as " present and fit for 
service." The public sentiment at the North was 
so strongly against General McClellan that he was 
relieved, practically, and General Pope called from 



TnF 



5C 



t. 



THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 



537 




F1TZ JOHN POUTER 



the West to take his place. The army of the Poto- 
mac was re-organized late in July, and early in 
August Pope assumed the aggressive. " On to 
Richmond" was once more the cry. The battle 

of Cedar 
Mountainwas 
fought Au- 
gust 9, in 
which Jack- 
son punished 
Banks unmer- 
cifully. Lee 
now prepared 
to attempt 
to capture 
Pope's whole 
army, and 
the latter took 
alarm. The 
swollen condition of the Rappahannock baffled 
both retreat and attack. Pope was gradually forced 
back toward Washington. The second battle of 
Bull Run, or Manassas, was fought August 30. At 
one time it looked as if 
the Federals were about 
to win the day, but Fitz 
John Porter failing to 
co-operate with the 
main army, the day was 
lost and Pope obliged 
to fall back upon Cen- 
terville. By this time 
Pope was ready to re- 
turn West, a confessed 
failure in Virginia, a 
failure more due, how- 
ever, to the jealousy of 
leading subordinate of- 
ficers than to any lack 
of soldierly qualities. 

It was now Lee's turn 
to assume a still more 
decidedly aggressive attitude. Not content with push- 
ing the enemy to the wall, he moved into Maryland, 
intending to strike Baltimore and Washington. 
Several minor battles were fought, and September 
17 came the great battle of Antietam. The Con- 
federates under Lee numbered 00,000 ; the Federals, 
under McClellan, who was given one more oppor- 



tunity to fail, numbered 90,000. Three days before, 
Harper's Ferry had fallen into the hands of the 
Confederates and the battles of South Mountain (in 
which the gallant Reno fell), and of Crapton's Gap 
were fought. 
But both ar- 
mies were 
eager for a 
decisive vic- 
tory. "Fight- 
ing Joe " 
Hooker be- 
gan the firing 
at daybreak, 
when Stone- 
wall Jackson 
swept his 
corps from 
off the field. 
Hooker himself being wounded. All day the firing 
was kept up. Both sides claimed a victory. It was 
a substantial triumph for the Federals, for Lee 
abandoned for a time his aggressive policy and retired 
up the Shenandoah 




AMBROSE E. BURNSIDE. 




valley to Winchester. 

One more great bat- 
tle was fought in 1862. 
It was before the 
heights of Fredericks- 
burg, Virginia. Burn- 
side, who had now been 
promoted to the com- 
mand of the army of 
the Potomac, attempted 
the capture of that 
stronghold. He sacri- 
ficed about 15,000 men 
in the unavailing as 
sault. He took com- 
mand November 5, and 
the battle of Freder- 
icksburg was fought 
December 13. It was a fearful, fruitless and un- 
necessary slaughter. 

In the Southwest the Federals held every strong- 
hold except Vicksburg and Port Hudson, but those 
were important exceptions. While we have been fol- 
lowing the fortunes of the army of the Potomac sev- 
eral important events were occurring in the Mississip- 



■> *V 



A« 



0*L 



53§ 



THE PERIOD OF t'ONFLICT. 



pi Valley. Bragg invaded Kentucky in the hope of 
adding that state to the Confederacy, and making 
Tennessee solid for the same cause. He had an 
army of 00,000. Buell was in command of the op- 
posing Federal forces, having an army of 100,000. 
Bragg did not succeed in establishing Confederate 
rule in that region, but he did manage to capture 
and carry off vast stores of provisions which were 
greatly needed by the South. 

General Grant began in 1862 his movement upon 
Vicksburg, but he accomplished nothing. lie found 
himself checkmated. His supplies at Holly Springs 
were captured by the enemy. Corinth, Iuka and 
Murf reesboro were claimed as Federal victories in 
the West, but Bragg had much whereof to boast and 
the South a 
happier ]Sew 
Year than 
the North. 

The year 
1862 saw the 
peace party 
at the North 
called Cop- 
perheads at 
its strongest. 
Manydoubt- 
ful Congres- 
sional dis- 
tricts were 

carried by them, and some states, notably New York. 

The discon- 




RUIXS OF CTIAXCELLOKSVILLE. 




tent was 


gen- 


eral. 


Some 


wanted 


more 


lighting, 


and 


others 


less, 



and no one 
seemed to he 
atisfied with 
the conduct 
■ >f the war. 

The proc- 

' lunation of 

Emancipation, 

JOSEPH HOOKER. the lllOSt llOt- 

able American document since the Constitution, was 
President Lincoln's New Year's greeting. It was 
issued September 22, 1862, to take effect the first 



day of January following. That declaration of 
freedom was confined in its immediate operation to 
territory not then within the actual jurisdiction of 
the United States, while careful not to disturb the 
institution of slavery within the Federal lines. But 
everybody understood that henceforth the real poli- 
cy of the government would be liberty to all. From 
that time 011, both sides were more determined than 
ever before to win the day, feeling the gravity of the 
stake involved. 

The first day of the year 1863 was a day of vic- 
tory for the Confederates. They captured the im- 
portant city of Galveston, the key to communica- 
tion by water with Texas. The next day the Fed- 
erals gained a victory at Murf reesboro, and a few 

days later 
they captur- 
ed Arkansas 
Post. But 
these were 
not mat- 
ters of very 
much im- 
port an ce. 
On both 
sides the Po- 
tomac was 
the center 
of attrac- 
tion. Burn- 
side asked to be relieved, and was succeeded by 
"Fighting Joe Hooker," of whom much was ex- 
pected. He crossed the Rappahannock and fought 
Lee at Chancellorsville early in May. The result 
was a victory for the Confederates. The Union loss 
was over 11,000. Hooker recrossed the river. 

About a month later, Lee took his splendid army 
of 100,000 men northward into Maryland and Penn- 
sylvania,, boldly assuming the aggressive. Now for 
the first time the war was actually transferred in 
part to the North. On the 28th of June Hooker 
was superseded by General Geo. G. Meade, of Penn- 
sylvania. Presently the battle of Gettysburg was 
fought. That was probably the supreme battle of 
the war. Gettysburg is just over the Maryland line 
in Pennsylvania. The battle began July 1, and did 
not close until the third day. The decisive moment 
was when, in the afternoon of the third day, Lee 
opened on Hancock's position with one hundred and 



7« 



"s 'v 



\ <1_ 



THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 



ik^ 



539 




=^=iFr 



d£- 



THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 



541 



fifteen guns. The shock did not break the line. It 
is estimated that about fifty thousand men were lost 
in that desperate encounter. Lee was obliged to aban- 
don the offensive and retire to the Potomac. The 
field of Gettysburg is now a national cemetery. It 

is estimated 
by Derry 
that in the 
Pennsylva- 
nia cam- 
paign the 
Southern 
loss was a- 
bout 18,000 
killed and 
w oiniJed 
and 10,000 
prisoners, 
lie places 

GEORGE G. MEADE, tlie N Orth- 

eru losse • at about the same approximate figures. 

Among those who fell at Gettysburg was General 
John F. Reynolds, of Pennsylvania. A rifle-hall 
struck him during the first day of the battle, killing 
him instantly, while in active command of the First 
Corps. He was a very popular, brave and efficient 
officer. General Sickles, of New York, it may he 
added, lost a leg at Gettysburg. 

While Lee and Meade were mowing down each 
other's soldiers in winrows at Gettysburg, General 





GENEKAL ME A UK - HEADQUARTERS AT GETTYSBURG. 

Grant was persistently pushing his way into Vicks- 
burg. The siege began May 19 and ended almost 
simultaneously with the retreat of Lee. The two 
events formed one piece of intelligence. General 
Pemberton was in command of the beleaguered 
force. On the 3d of July he proposed to surrender, 
and the next day the surrender was made — 31,600 




men, 172 cannon, and no less than 15 generals. 
Four days later Port Hudson surrendered to Banks, 
and the Mississippi was restored to the Union. 
The summer of Federal prosperity was undisturbed 
by any serious counter-disaster-. The desperate 
Morgan dashed 
into Ohio and 
Indiana with 
four thousand 
Confederate cav- 
alry, but no sub- 
stantial advan- 
tage was gained. 
On the contrary, 
the state militia 
of Ohio proved 
an overmatch 
for the raiders. 
In the fall 
there was ini- john f. Reynolds. 

port ant fighting farther south, in the mountain- 
ous region of northern Georgia and southern 
Tennessee. Upon the banks of the Tennessee stood 
the little town of Chattanooga, almost at the very 
foot of Lookout Mountain and near Missionary 
Ridge. These are names conspicuous in the military 
annals of the country. In (he summer General 
Rosecrans had won important vi tori in Tennessee, 
but in September 
he was defeated 
with great loss 
at Chickamauga 
Uiver. He was 
hemmed in and 
his forces near- 
ly starved out by 
Bragg. General 
Thomas grandly 
came to his res- 
cue ami saved 
his army from 
overwhelm ing 
disaster, from ir- 
retrievable ruin. General Grant was sent to super- 
sede him, and given ample resources. His first 
care was to relieve the wants of the army. General 
Thomas, who had prevented the defeat of Chicka- 
mauga from being a rout, was in command of the 
Army of the Cumberland. General Hooker came 




DANIEL E. SICKLES. 



a'l- 



^iS: 



<u 



54 2 



THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 




down from Virginia with 23,000 men, and Sherman 

was at the 
head of four 
divisions of the 
Army of the 
Tennessee. In 
a month from 
the I ime < Irani 
arrived every 
p reparation 
had been made 
for a genera] 
e ngagom e nt. 
November 24. 
J looker charg- 

WILLIAM S, ROSECRANS c'd Up Lookoilt 

Mountain, " above the clouds." and won a brilliant 
victory. The 
next day the 
great battle 
of Chatta- 
nooga was 
fought and 
won, mainly 
by General 
Thomas and 
the gallant 
Army of the 
Cumberland. 
Burn side had 
rendered ef- 
fective ser- 
vice by drawing Longstreet away from ro-inforcing 
Bragg. He could not meet him on the open field, 
but he could prevent him putting his army where it 
would do the most good fur the Confederate cause. 
When Bragg was compelled to break camp and flee 
northward, Burnside, then at Kuoxville, was re-in- 
foreed and Longstreet marched away. 

The fighting of the year 1863 was now at an end. 
It only remains to speak of two features of the year, 
the riot in New York and Andersonville. The gov- 
ernment felt compelled to draft for more soldiers 
during that summer. Nearly everywhere the people 
submitted graciously ; but the "baser sort" in New 
York City rebelled and raised a most disgraceful 
riot. The mob wreaked its vengeance on all colored 
persons found, and even destroyed an asylum for 
colored orphans. The riot began July 13 and raged 



three days. It is believed that a thousand persons 
were killed or 
wounded. The 
military were 
obliged to inter- 
pose and put it 
down. 

The Confeder- 
ate prison pen at 
Andersonville, 
Georgia, dates 
from Novem- 
ber 27, 1863. 
Thew hole num- 
ber of prisoners 
registered there 
was 19,485. T 




W^ 




\ IEW op LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN AND VALLEY FKOM CHATTANOOGA. 



WILLIAM T. SHERMAN. 

f 1 1 1 1 number of deaths recorded 
were 12,462. 
The superin- 
tendent, one 
Henry Wirz, 
was tried, con- 
victed and 
hanged, after 
the war, for 
murderous 
cruelty. 

Duringthe 
months of 
January and 
February no 
event of im- 
portance transpired. On the fourth of March, 1 864, 
Grant was made Lieutenant-Oeneral, and placed in 
command of all the forces of the United States. 
Then for the lirst time the army was so unified that 
it could be handled to the best advantage. Grant was 
given unlimited scope, and leaving Sherman, Thomas 
and others of less note in the West, took command 
in person of the army of the Potomac. He placed 
General Sheridan, hitherto in obscurity, at the head 
of the cavalry service, and sent him to scour the 
Shenandoah Valley. He rendered brilliant service, 
notably in winning the battle of Winchester, im- 
mortalized by T. Buchanan Read's poem, " Sheridan's 
Ride." 

The massacre at Port Pillow occurred April 13. 
That was the most cruel episode of the war. There 
were a great many colored troops at the fort and the 



r 



4 



THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 



543 



lLu 




1*F 



68 



5fV 



THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 



545 




object seems to have been to intimidate the blacks 

and deter them from enlisting. Generals Forrest 

and Chalmers share the dishonor of that massacre. 
The battle of the Wilderness was fought May 5 

and G. It was a part of Grant's comprehensive plan 

for crushing 
the enemy. 
He evident- 
ly thought 
that the 
time had 
come to put 
an end to 
(he war by 
one great 
iattle before 
v Richmond. 
Hi US SI In this he 

was mistak- 
philip h. sueeidan. en. Sher- 

man was ordered to advance on Atlanta the same 

day that Grant crossed the Rapid Anna to engage 
■ Lee. For two days the battle raged and the slaughter 

was terrible. Grant lost 20,000 men ; Lee 10,000. 

Neither gained any advantage. 

But Grant was not disheartened or shaken in his 

purpose. With dogged perseverance he followed up 

that battle 

with another, 

the battle of 

Spottsylvania 

Court House. 

fought May 

10,11 and 12. 

In that great 

battle fell 

General John 

Sedgwick of 

New York, 

commander of 

the Sixth 

Corps. On the 

11th inst. General Grant seutto the War Department 

the famous dispatch, " I propose to fight it out on 

this line if it takes all summer." In those words 

were revealed the character of the man and the secret 

of his power. "All summer" stretched into and 

through the next winter, and it was not " on this 

line" that final victory was won. He kept pushing 





things, at Cold Harbor, Petersburg, and elsewhere. 
His losses were enormous and constant. Before 
July, Grant had lost, it is estimated, 80,000, and Lee 
half that number. 

The great success of the season was Sherman s 
campaign in 
Georgia. He 
captured At- 
lanta Septem- 
ber 1. It was 
in this battle 
that General 
M'Pherson fell 
wounded mor- 
tally. Includ- 
ing the several 
engagements 

which Culinin- Spottsylvania Court House. 

ated in the siege of Atlanta, Sherman lost 30,000 
men ; the Confederates under Hood and J. E. John- 
ston, 40,000. He next organized and executed his 
famous March to the Sea, which was intended to 
cut off the supplies and sever the railway connections 
of the Confederacy. The plan was successfully car- 
ried out. The march from Atlanta to Savannah 
was practically unimpeded. 

A presidential election occurred attheJNorth dur- 
ing the year 
1864. On the 
Republica n 
side President 
Lincoln was 
the candidate, 
with Andrew 
Johnson on 
the ticket as 
Vice-Presi- 
dent. The lat- 
ter was put 
forward as a 
representative 
of Southern 
Unionists. On the Democratic side the candidates 
were General McClellan and Geo. H. Pendleton of 
Ohio. At the time McClellan was nominated the 
Union cause was under a thick cloud. The fall of 
Atlanta came just after that. The platform on which 
the Democratic candidates were placed pledged them 
to secure peace at almost any cost. Of course the 



54 6 



THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 



states which had seceded and belonged to the Con- 
federacy could not vote, and Mr. Lincoln received 
an overwhelming majority of the votes cast. 

Sherman's March to the Sea began November 15, 
and on the morning of the 21st of December he 
entered Savannah. It was during that period that 
General Thomas outgeneraled Hood completely in 
Tennessee, and almost crushed his army. Hood as- 
sumed the offensive at Franklin November 30, and 
was rejTiulsed. He planned another assault on 
Thomas at Nash- 
ville, but before he 
could put it into exe- 
cution he had been 
attacked (December 
15) and in a battle 
which raged two 
days, so crippled that 
he had to flee to the 
mountains of Ala- 
bama. That virtu- 
ally ended the war 
in the interior. 

The war was not 
projected far into 
1865. It was obvi- 
ous that Richmond 
could not hold out 
long. The only ques- 
tion was whether to 
surrender or take a change of base. The latter was 
prevented by the cutting of Lee's railway commu- 
nication by 
Sheridan's 
cavalry, and 
the gradual 
closing in 
upon the 
' Southern ar- 
my of the 



Federal for- 
ces. Causes 
not known 
at the North, 
and disclos- 
ed in the 
next chap- 
ter, conspired to render resistance impossible. 

Grant carried Petersburg by assault, and there be- 




McLEAN'S HOUSE. WHERE LEE SURRENDERED. 




GEORGE H. THOMAS. 



ing no other alternative, Lee surrendered April 9, 
1865, at Appomattox Court House. The war was 
over ; the occupancy of Richmond had already oc- 
curred. Davis and his cabinet had left the capital a 
week before. Johnston surrendered the Confederate 
forces in North Carolina to Sherman, who had 
moved northward from Savannah, April 26. Gen- 
eral Taylor, commanding in Alabama, surrendered 
to General Terry May 4, and Kirby Smith in Miss- 
issippi the 26th. The total number of Confederates 

who surrendered was 

about 150,000. 

The most tragic 
event of the war was 
yet to come, the one 
which caused the 
profoundest grief. 
That was the assas- 
sination of President 
Lincoln. He was 
shot by J. Wilkes 
Booth while attend- 
ing a theatrical en- 
tertainment given 
at Ford's theater, 
Washington, on the 
evening of April 14. 
Before morning the 
wound had proved 
fatal. Secretary Sew- 
ard narrowly escaped being killed by a conspirator. 
The shock was terrible and the loss incomparable. 
A great statesman, one who could have harmonized 
the nation, and restored the reign of law at the 
South satisfactorily to both sections, gave place to 
a politician singularly unsuited to the great task in 
hand. The passions of the war had not had time to 
cool when that assassination occurred, but it was 
evident that the South sincerely deprecated the great 
crime. At first the impression prevailed that the 
assassin was the agent of Jefferson Davis and other 
Confederates, but there was no good ground for the 
suspicion, and it soon faded from the public mind. 

Nothing in all the history of the Republic was 
more creditable than the good behavior of the sol- 
diers after disbandment. More than a million men, 
North and South, were at once released from mili- 
tary duty and remanded to the walks of civil life. 
Many of them had long been accustomed to camp 



sr- 



^5 



THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 



547 




At 



THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 



549 




HENHY W. BELLOWS, D.L>. 

Founder U. S. Sanitary Commission. 



and field, but they took up the duties of peace in a 
quiet, orderly manner, resolved into the general 
mass of the population without any of the horrors 
usually experienced in such cases in other lands. 
The immense increase in the productive power of the 

nation was ab- 
solutely phe- 
nomenal. 

The records 
of the army 
medical de- 
partment give 
the number 
treated as 5,- 
825,000 includ- 
ing field and 
hospital both. 
Of these the 
fatal cases were 
166,623. The 
wounded were 
273,175; deaths among them, 33,777. Perhaps 
the most creditable feature of the entire period 
of conflict was the provision made during the war 
for the comfort of the sick and wounded. The 
Sanitary Commission and the Christian Commission, 
distinct but kindred organizations, raised many 
millions of dollars which were expended in amelior- 
ating the condition of the sick and wounded soldiers. 

The Sanitary 
Commission dis- 
bursed 15,000,000 
and supplies 
valued at about 
three times that 
amount, and the 
Christian Com- 
mission is believed 
to have expended 
not less than $6,- 
000,000 in the 
same way, the 
only difference 
being that the 
latter Commission looked after the religious and 
literary wants of the soldiers as well as their phys- 
ical requirements. 

When the war began, the navy of the United 
States numbered less than 8,000 men, and at the 




VINCENT COLTER. 

Chairman U. S. Christian Commission. 




ADMIRAL FARRAQUT. 



close it numbered over 50,000. The idea of block- 
ading the South Atlantic coast was ridiculed by the 
British, and it certainly was the most memorable 
blockade of history 

During the war there were twenty naval engage- 
ments, counting 
those sieges and 
assaults in which 
laud forces took 
the chief part, 
but required for 
success naval co- 
operation. 

The independ- 
ent naval battle 
was the success- 
ful attempt of 
the Confederate 
ram Merrimac 
to sink the Fed- 
eral frigates Cumberland and Congress hi Hampton 
Roads. That occurred March 8, 1862. It caused 
great consternation at the North and rejoicing at the 
South. The very next day, as we have seen, the Fed- 
eral gunboat Monitor engaged the Merrimac and 
disabled her. In January of the following year the 
Confederate privateer, the Alabama, sunk the United 
States steamer Hatteras. June 19, 1864, the Kear- 
sage sunk the Alabama off Cherbourg, France. It 
may be added 
that the most 
brilliant na- 
val operation 
was the cap- 
ture of Mobile 
by a fleet un 
der Admiral 
Farragut, on 
August 5th, 
1864, and the 
most impor- 
tant the cap- 
ture of Fort 
Fisher, Janu- 
ary 15, 1865, by the combined land forces under Gen- 
eral Terry and naval forces under Commodore 
Porter. Confederate privateers captured no less 
than two hundred and eigbty-five Federal vessels, 
and the number of blockade-runners and privateers 




PPP 



COMMODORE PORTER. 



^ 



ft 



4h 



55° 



THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 



captured by the Federal navy during the entire war 
was no less than thirteen hundred and fifty. 

Before leaving the battlefields and following the 
period of conflict in its political phases, it may be 
well to add a few biographical sketches. 

General Robert Anderson, the first officer on tbe 
Union side to attract general attention, was born 
in Kentucky in 1805, and died in France in 
1871. Hardly had he become prominent by virtue 
of the attack on Sumter, before he sank out of 
sight, owing to physical inability to take the field. 

General B. F. Butler was an eminent lawyer and ex- 
treme Democrat when the war began, lie promptly 
laid aside his profession and his prejudices and went 
to the front. But his strictly military operations were 
inglorious. It was as a radical Republican Con- 
gressman during the period of Reconstruction that 
lie rendered the main service of his life. Of late 
years he has been devoted to his profession, being 
out of sympathy with either political party. He 
has been a candidate for governor of Massachusetts 
several times, and was elected in 1882. 

General H. W. Halleck was at one time the su- 
preme officer of the army, virtually commander-in 
chief. He was a native of New York. He was 
born in 1815, and died in 1872. His opportunities 
were good and his prospects flattering for being the 
greatest hero of the war, but he was a failure as a 
practical soldier on a truly national scale. 

"Fighting Joe Hooker" was born at Hadley, 
Mass., in 1815. He was a gallant soldier and ren- 
dered truly great service in several important battles. 
He was not quite equal to the demands of the first 
rank, but as a corps commander he was brilliant. 
Lookout Mountain and the battle above the clouds 
will always be associated with his name. He died in 
1872 after a long period of suffering. 

General George B. Meade first attracted conspic- 
uous attention at Gettysburg. He superseded 
Hooker in time to be tbe hero of that memorable 
battle. He held important commands and acquitted 
himself creditably at South Mountain, Antietam, 
Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville and elsewhere. 
General Meade was a native of Cadiz, Spain, where 
he was born in 1815, but he was a Pennsylvanian, 
and died in Philadelphia in 1872. 

General Pope was born at Kaskaskia, Illinois, in 
1 823. His career in the Western army was so very 
successful that he was transferred to the Potomac 



to succeed McClellan, where, as we have seen, he 
was very unfortunate. General Pope is still in the 
service. General W. S. Rosecrans, who was early 
conspicuous in the Southwest, was born in Ohio in 
1819. He retired from the army in 1866. In 1868 
President Johnson appointed him Minister to Mex- 
ico. He shortly afterwards retired to private life in 
California. In 1880 he was elected to Congress as a 
Democrat. He was a warm supporter in that po- 
litical campaign of General W. S. Hancock, as 
against his former chief of staff, General Garfield. 
General Hancock was born in Pennsylvania in 1824. 
His entire life, it might be said, has been spent in the 
army. From 
the time he 
entered West 
Point as a 
cadet until 
now he has 
been devoted 
to the mili- 
tary service. 
His presiden- 
tialcandidacy 
was thrust 
upon him, 
and that 
mainly for 
the conservatism of his course as military com- 
mander at New Orleans during the period of recon- 
struction. Gettysburg was his most important 
battle. His death occurred early in 1886. 

General Geo. H. Thomas, like General Lee, was 
a native of Virginia, but to him national loyalty 
was paramount to state fealty. Born in 1816, he 
had seen service in the Seminole and Mexican wars, 
and been a professor at AVest Point. In the valley of 
the Shenandoah, in Kentucky, Mississippi, Tennessee 
and Georgia lie showed himself to be a grand genius 
for war. Had he been pushed forward by influen- 
tial friends, he might have proved the supreme hero 
of the war ; but his state was iu hostility to the 
cause in which lie was engaged, and that was a seri- 
ous hindrance to his promotion. He died a major- 
general iu the regular army, at San Francisco, in 
1870. 

General W. T. Sherman was born in Lancaster, 
Ohio, in 1820. He is a brother of John Sherman. 
We have already spoken of his more notable ex- 




GENERAL HANCOCK. 



->*r 



i£ 



THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 



551 




69 



THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 



553 



ploits. When General Grant was elected to the 
presidency General Sherman succeeded him at the 
head of the army, the position which he still main- 
tains. Next to him, holding since 1800 the rank of 
lieutenant-general, is Philip II. Sheridan. Grant, 
Sherman and Sheridan are the names most illustri- 
ous in connection with the Union cause, and all 
three were born in Ohio, Grant in 1822, Sherman in 
1820 and Sheridan in 1831. Sheridan was an ob- 
scure cavalry officer uutil Grant was placed in com- 
mand of all the armies, when he was made chief of 
cavalry, and amply justified the confidence reposed 
in him. Especial mention should also be made of 
General McPherson who was killed before Atlanta 
in 186-1. He too was a native of Ohio, born in 1828. 
His death was a great loss to the army. He had 
proved himself a great soldier in many a hard-fought 
battle, from Corinth to Kenesaw and Atlanta. Gen- 
eral 0. 0. Howard, now at the head of the Military 
Academy at West Point, is a native of Maine. He 
was equally eminent as a soldier and a Christian. 
Pious and brave, he bore a prominent part in the 
battle of Fair Oaks where he lost an arm, also in the 
battles of Chancellors ville, Gettysburg, Chattanooga 
and Atlanta. He was at the head of the Freedman's 
Bureau, after the war. 

The administration of Andrew Johnson belongs 
to the period of conflict. It was during his term of 
office, which extended from April 15, 1865, to March 
4, 1869, that the work of restoring the Union was 
all virtually performed, and it may be said that 
when that task had been accomplished the present 
period of the United States began. 

In a political way very little was done at the North 
after the war had closed until December, 1865, when 
Congress convened. The states which had formed 
the Confederacy for the most part repealed their 
several ordinances of secession, repudiated their 
state war debts and formally ratified the abolition 
of slavery. Mississippi led the way, August 22. 
Alabama followed her example September 10 ; 
South Carolina, September 13 ; North Carolina, 
October 2 ; Florida and Georgia, October 25. The 
position of Virginia was anomalous. As early as 
1863 a state government, loyal to the Union, was 
formed in counties under Federal control, and Pres- 
ident Johnson recognized that government as valid 
for the whole state, and prohibited the meeting of 
the more general legislature of the state, called for 



the purpose of repealing the ordinance of secession 
and abolishing slavery. As early as February, 1864, 
the legislature which Mr. Johnson recognized as 
valid for the whole state of Virginia had abolished 
slavery. 

When Congress convened, the Southern states 
presented themselves for admission, but their repre- 
sentatives were denied admission, with the exception 
of Tennessee, which was re-admitted during 1866. 
The jiosition of the Republican party was that the 
states which had gone out of the Union should re- 
main out until the necessary safeguards against se- 
cession in the future should have been provided. 
Thaddeus Stevens of Pennsylvania was the virtual 
leader of the party at that time. He was a member 
of the House of Representatives. President Johnson 
insisted that the seceded states should be restored as 
soon as they had repealed their ordinances of seces- 
sion and duly elected representatives to Congress. In 
this position he was sustained by a few Republicans 
and all the Democrats. But he was utterly power- 
less. The Republican majority was so large that 
any party measure could be passed over his veto by 
a two-thirds majority. Instead of accepting the 
situation and yielding his personal views to the inev- 
itable will of the majority, he persisted throughout 
his entire term of office in keeping up the conflict. 
In the meanwhile the states which had seceded were 
under provisional government and their restoration 
to prosperity seriously impeded. 

The Thirteenth Constitutional Amendment abol- 
ishing slavery, was the first important step toward 
reconstruction. That was officially declared adopted 
December 18, 1865. An elaborate Reconstruction 
Act became a law March 2, 1867, and the same day 
Congress passed over the President's veto the Ten- 
ure-of-Office bill, which greatly restricted the re- 
moving power of the Executive. The Fourteenth 
Amendment to the Constitution, which was an elab- 
orate embodiment of the principles of the Republi- 
can party on reconstruction, became a part of the 
organic law of the Republic, July 28, 1868. It was 
not until March 30, 1870, that the Fifteenth Amend- 
ment, virtually conferring the right of suffrage upon 
the negro, was adopted. 

The longer the conflict between Congress and the 
President was continued, the more radical and bold 
did the dominant party become. During all this 
period of post-war contest, the Southern States were 



554 



THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 



in a condition of suspended political animation. By 
July, 1870, the restoration of all the states had been 
effected, and the period of conflict may be said to 
have come to a close. 

In the meanwhile had occurred the impeachment, 
trial and acquittal of Andrew Johnson, and the 
election of his successor, General Grant. That im- 
peachment was the culmination of the feud between 
the legislative and executive departments of the 
general government. It requires a two-thirds ma- 
jority of the Senate, sitting as a high court of im- 
peachment, to convict. One more vote against him, 
and President Johnson would have been deposed. 
That great state trial occurred in the spring of 1868. 
Just after its termination the National Republican 
Convention met at Chicago and nominated General 
Grant for President by acclamation, and Schuyler 
Colfax for Vice-President. Their opponents were 
Horatio Seymour, of New York, who as Governor of 
that state had opposed the military draft, and Gen- 
eral Francis P. Blair. All the states took part in 
the election except Virginia, Georgia, Mississippi 
and Texas, which had not been reconstructed at that 
time. Grant and Colfax received 214 electoral 
votes, and Seymour and Blair 71. The popular 



majority of the Republican party was nearly 
3,000,000. That election settled forever the 
validity of the amendments to the Constitution 
adopted subsequent to the war, including universal 
suffrage. 

Early in 1808 there was organized at the South a 
secret order known as the Ku-Klux-Klan, with Gen- 
eral Forrest at its head. Its object was to thwart by 
intimidation the enfranchisement of the colored peo- 
ple and prevent the complete triumph at the South 
of the Northern cause, or, as the members would ex- 
press it, the design was to "redeem the South." 
That was the last flicker of the flames which had 
reddened the whole horizon of the nation. Many 
of the members were brought to trial, convicted 
and sentenced to the penitentiary for their acts of 
violence. After the excitement had died away and 
the punishment was supposed to have had its due 
effect in breaking up the organization, President 
Grant pardoned the prisoners, and now the last em- 
ber of the war, kindled in 1854, seems to be dead. 
Before passing on, however, to the present United 
States it will be well to devote a chapter to the dis- 
tinctively Southern features of the period which has 
been under consideration in this chapter. 




S*T 








RISE AND FALL 



OF THE CONFEDERACY. 



?i?WA-Q?--.KvA -x.j,\ 






—, — r-7 




Jt 



r 




J-VX- 



(■ I -' \_ 



t >,\ c 



%~ 




CHAPTER LXXXII 



The Turpose or the Chapter — Causes of the Confederacy— The Election of Lincoln— The 
Doctrine of State Sovereignty— The Right of Revolution — Ordinances of Secession 
—At Montgomery— The Confederate Constitution— Virginia and the Peace Conven- 
tion — Sumter and the First Call for Troops — General Lee — Semmes and the "Ala- 
bama''' — Population, Black and White, of the South— Results at the Close of First, 
Second and Third Years of the War— Derry on the Two Armies— Stephens on Fort 
Fisher — Another Comparison of the Two Armies — Causes of the Failure of the Con- 
federacy—Testimony of Davis — Davis on Southern Finance — Exhaustion of the South 
— Testimony of the Confederate Commissary General — False LTope — The Cause Lost — 
Penalties— Persons and States — The End of the War— Biographical Sketches. 





^•i^s^fj*-^ 



| T is customary in histories 
of the United States, 
whether brief or long, to 
consider the Confederate 
States only so far as they 
relate to the great conflict 
which engaged our atten- 
tion in the chapter im- 
mediately preceding this one. It is 
difficult to form adistinct conception of 
the subject from that merely side view 
of it. The purpose of the chapter now 
2fesdw ln nau( l * s t° se t forth the actual apart 
from the argumentative in the rise and 
fall of that stupendous political organ- 
ization which, without gaining recogni- 
tion as an independent government 
from any of the nations, performed all 
the functions of a confederate republic for about 
four years, and must ever stand hi history as one of 
the more memorable of national episodes. 

It is no part of the present purpose to either dis- 
cuss principles, analyze motives, or even to sift evi- 
dence. The first half of the sixth decade of this 



century is too near the present to be treated dispas- 
sionately by the historians of the country. In this 
connection those whose sympathies were with the 
Southern cause will be allowed, as it were, to tell 
their own story without interruption or contradic- 
tion, only with such abbreviation as the general 
scope of this volume may require. 

Jefferson Davis in his elaborate work, " The Rise 
and Fall of the Confederate Government," begins 
his first chapter with a discussion of "the institu- 
tion of negro servitude." In his famous first speech 
in defense of the Confederacy, Alexander H. Ste- 
phens declared slavery to be the corner-stone of the 
new government. We thus have the two highest 
officers under that goverment, the President and 
Vice-President, uniting on this point, disagreeing as 
they did and do on many others. Beyond a doubt 
secession was the culmination of the struggle over 
slavery and the election of Mr. Lincoln upon a 
platform pledging him to oppose the further exten- 
sion of the institution was the immediate occasion 
of it. The new President took every opportunity 
to allay apprehensions as to his policy, but the 
spirit which would not brook the Tariff Act of the 



7; 



(555) 



•L 



55« 



RISE AND' FALL OF THE CONFEDERACY. 



Jacksonian period became absolutely irrepressible 
in the presence of a great political victory, which was 
the first in the history of the Union won by a party 
avowedly hostile to slavery, and tolerant of it only 
so far as compelled to be by the constitution. 

Still another cause, the one which was in point of 
fact the corner-stone of the movement, was the doc- 
trine of state sovereignty. That issue was older than 
the constitution and entirely independent of slavery 
in its origin, if not in its development. " Govern- 
ments," says the Declaration of Independence, "de- 
rive their just powers from the consent of the 
governed," but the government of the United States 
derived its powers from 
the " consent of the 
states which in the dele- 
gation of authority re- 
served all rights not 
specifically vested in 
the general govern- 
ment. Even before its 
adoption so true a pa- 
triot as Patrick Henry 
denounced the consti- 
tution as an infringe- 
ment upon the rights of 
the states. The issue 
thus raised was not sec- 
tional. And in later 
years there were not 
wanting those at the 
North who denounced 
the Union and the Constitution. The systematic 
inculcation of the doctrine that states were sov- 
ereign and the Union a partnership liable to be 
changed by the withdrawal of any partner, may 
be fairly attributed to John C. Calhoun. But as 
early as 1798 a convention was held in Kentucky 
which adopted the same theory of the Union. 
That manifesto was the formal expression of the 
fundamental political principle of the Confederate 
States. 

The right of secession was also defended upon 
the broad ground that when nearly ten millions of 
people, occupying a correspondingly large area, unite 
in a political movement, however revolutionary, they 
have a right to make the proposed change. In oth- 
er words, the cause was based on the doctrine 
of popular sovereignty, or the right of revolution in 




STATE HOUSE, MONTGOMERY. 



distinction from constitutional limitations. This 
position was maintained hi the debates of Congress 
and in the various discussions of the day. 

Such were the doctrines of the Southern cause. 
The first act, however, of secession was the passage 
by the legislature of South Carolina of the ordi- 
nance of separation, December 20, 1860. It was 
passed without a dissenting vote. Five other states 
followed the same course, but not with the same 
unanimity, during the month following, namely, 
Mississippi, January 9, 1861 ; Florida, the 10th ; 
Alabama, the 11th; Georgia, the 19th, and Louisi- 
ana, the 26th. Texas delayed only until the first 

day of February. 

These seven states 
alone constituted the 
original Confederacy. 
They met in a repre- 
sentative and collective 
body at Montgomery, 
Alabama, February 4, 
and organized a new 
Union, framed a new 
constitution and pro- 
claimed a new federa- 
tion, calling it "The 
Confederate States of 
America." From that 
time on, such was the 
official name of the 
Confederacy then and 
thus formed. This con- 
stitution was modeled closely after that of the 
United States. 

In the appendix to the first volume of his work, 
Mr. Davis prints these two documents in parallel 
columns, italicizing the passages and parts peculiar 
to the later of the two. The new features of the 
Confederate constitution worthy of any note are 
these : First, the favor and guidance of Almighty 
God were invoked ; second, Congress was specifically 
authorized to grant bylaw to the principal officer in 
each of the executive departments a seat upon the 
floor of either House, with the privilege of discussing 
any measure appertaining to his department ; third, 
the President might approve a part of an appropria- 
tion bill and veto a part ; fourth, Congress was for- 
bidden to grant any bounties from the treasury or 
levy a tariff except for revenue only ; fifth, no ap- 






a ^ 



RISE AND FALL OF THE CONFEDERACY. 



557 



propriations could be made for internal improve- 
ments ; sixth, a bankruptcy law could be passed, 
but not to apply to any debt contracted prior 
to its passage ; seventh, the expenses of the postal 
service must not exceed the revenue derived there- 
from ; eighth, Congress could prohibit the introduc- 
tion of slaves from any state not a member of the 
Confederacy; ninth, no law could be passed denying 
or impairing the right of property in negro slaves ; 
tenth, a tariff could be levied upon exports, but only 
by a vote of two-thirds of both houses; eleventh, 
" Congress shall appropriate no money from the 
treasury, except by a vote of two-thirds of both 
houses, taken by yeas and nays, unless it be asked 
and estimated for by some one of the heads of de- 
partments, and submitted to Congress ; or for the 
purpose of paying its own expenses and contingen- 
cies ; or for the payment of claims against the Con- 
federate states, the justice of which shall have been 
judicially declared by a tribunal for the investigation 
of claims against the government, which it is hereby 
the duty of Congress to establish;" twelfth, "all 
bills appropriating money shall specify in Federal 
currency the exact amount of each appropriation, 
and the purposes for which it is made ; and Congress 
shall grant no extra compensation to any public 
contractor, officer, agent or servant after such con- 
tract shall have been made or such service rendered ;" 
thirteenth, '-'every law, or resolution having the force 
of law, shall relate to but one subject, and that shall 
be expressed hi the title ; " fourteenth, in the im- 
provement of rivers and harbors the states might 
singly or in concert levy taxes for that purpose, 
any surplus raised to be covered into the general 
treasury ; fifteenth, the term of office of the Presi- 
dent and Vice-President to be six, instead of four 
years, the President being ineligible to re-election ; 
sixteenth, civil officers, except cabinet officers and 
the diplomatic corps, removable during their term 
of office only for cause, the same to be reported to 
the senate in all cases of removal ; seventeenth, the 
right to carrv slaves from one state to another 
without impairment of property therein fully 
guaranteed ; eighteenth, new states could be admit- 
ted by a two-thirds vote of Congress and new terri- 
tory acquired,but in all cases and everywhere through- 
out the Confederacy the right of property in slaves 
should be preserved intact; nineteenth, U2x>n the 
ratification of the constitution by five states it 




JEFFERSON DAVIB. 



should be binding, a presidential election should be 
held and the provisional government at Montgomery 
should give place to the permanent one chosen in 
accordance with constitutional requirements. 

The constitution took effect February 22, 1862. 
Jefferson Davis continued as President and Alex- 
ander H. Ste- 
phens as Vice- 
President. 

We must now 
go back a lit- 
tle. The state 
of Virginia was 
reluctant to se- 
cede, and made 
special effort 
to bring about 
a reconcilia- 
tion. A Peace 
Convention at 
the instance of 
that state, hi which thirteen Northern and seven 
Southern states were represented, ex-President 
Tyler presiding, accomplished nothing. Three 
commissioners were sent from Montgomery to 
Washington to treat for an amicable division 
of the Union and settlement of all claims in- 
cident to separation. That was during the presi- 
dential term of Mr. Buchanan. He received them 
as private citizens, refusing to entertain any prop- 
osition for disunion. A week after Mr. Lincoln be- 
came President the Confederate commissioners tried 
to open negotiations through the Secretary of State, 
Mr. Seward. All hope of success in that direction 
was abandoned when it was known that a squadron 
of seven ships had been fitted out to reinforce Fort 
Sumter. It only remained then to abandon the 
Confederate movement or resort to arms. If there 
was any hesitation as to which course to pursue, the 
firing on Sumter, April 12, put an end to it, and 
its fall the next day produced the wildest enthusiam 
throughout the South. The call of Mr. Lincoln 
for 75,000 volunteers, issued two days after the fall 
of Sumter, was met at Montgomery by a call for 
volunteers to repel oppression. Two days later, 
April 17, Virginia held a convention and withdrew 
from the Union. Arkansas followed May 6, North 
Carolina May 20, and Teunessee June 8. The 
other slave-holding states on the border, Maryland 



7c 



s »> 



558 



RISE AND FALL OF THE CONFEDERACY. 



4c 




olina. 

1807. 



Kentucky, Missouri and Delaware, never formally 
withdrew from the Union, and were said to have 
contributed their quota to both armies. 

An election for President and Vice-President of 
the Confederacy was held November 6, 1SG2, with 

the result stated. 
The choice was 
unanimous. At 
the same time 
General Robert 
E. Lee, who at 
first hesitated as 
to which side to 
espouse, was ap- 
pointed to take 
command of 
the Confederate 
forces on the 
coast of Georgia 
robebt e. lee. and South Car- 

lie was a native of Virginia, born in 
He was a colonel in the regular army at 
the time Virginia seceded. He felt that the state 
had a higher claim upon him than the United 
States, and resigned his commission. He was a 
man of superb physique, high moral character 
and great ability. Ho was early second in impor- 
tance among the Confederate army, and after Gen- 

eral Joseph E. 
Johnston was 
wounded and 
succeeded by 
him at Fair 
Oaks (May 31, 
1862) he was the 
first. When Lee 
died,October 12, 
1870, he was the 
most popular 
man in the 
South. 
josepu e. Johnston. T] ie first year 

of the war was in its net results favorable to the 
Confederacy, both on land and water. The Con- 
federate privateers crippled Northern commerce 
very seriously, and captured merchandise upon 
the high seas to the value of many millions of 
dollars. In these operations one name stands 
out conspicuous, Raphael Semmes of Alabama, 




who began his privateering in command of the 
Sumter, but who became best known in connec- 
tion with the famous Alabama which he commanded, 
and which was built for privateering by 260 English 
merchants. The second year of the war was still 
more favorable to 
the. Confederate 
cause than the first. 
There is wide di- 
vergence of opin- 
ion between South- 
ern and Northern 
writers as to the 
number of men on 
cither side and the 
result of many of 
the engagements in ^ 
which no very de- 
rided advantage 

was gained by citll- Raphael semmes. 

cr army ; but there is agreement as to the general 
fact that the first and second years of the war made 
exhibits in their balance sheets in favor of the 
Confederacy. 

It is stated that there were about- 3,000,000 slaves 
within the limits of the Confederate states when 
the Proclamation of Emancipation was issued. The 
white population was about 5,000,000, as against 
22,000,000 whites and 1,000,000 blacks within the 
Union. From the beginning of 1863 the Confeder- 





THL ALABAMA. 



ate army dwindled in size and the Union army aug- 
mented. It is agreed on all sides that 1863 was a 
year of great advantage to the Federal army. Not- 
withstanding some defeats, the United States had 
control of the Mississippi River and the state of 
Tennessee, while the aggressive movement of Lee 
upon Pennsylvania had been repulsed. Derry sets 



-afV 



\ 


© .. 














— ca 


J- 


°t 




1° 


1 


RISE AND FALL OF THE CONFEDERACY. 5^9 


r 


the number of the Federal armies at that time at 


number of battles fought at 220 ; the number of the 




1,000,000; of the Confederate army at 250,000. 


Confederate troops surrendered at the close of the 






The same' authority claims that a year later the 


war at 174,223; and the Confederate debt at 






Federal army was still a niillion strong while the 


$2,000,000,000. Derry asserts that when Lee sur- 






Confederate forces had been reduced to 150,000 


rendered he had only 8,000 soldiers capable of bear- 






The capture 




ing arms, con- 






of Fort Fisher 


\ i \ 




fronting an 






at the entrance 
of Cape Fear 


• \ ^ .=» jp >,„. \^ 

^ .,f TROOPS jjf *.„,....„ \ 




army of 180,- 
000." Mr. Ste- 






Eiver, North 


* \ y^^cz'", \ 




phens furnish- 






Carolina, by 






es the follow- 






General Terry, 


^^\ /~~x~y^//(3i^^ jS s''^ \ 2 \ 




ing facts in 






January 15,- 






regard to the 






18G5, did not 






depreciation of 






attract very 


\ 


the Confeder- 






much atten- 


& 4 %L • v;.^/^ -Ji^—- \ \ 




ate currency, 






tion at the 


_j^ ^'^b^yy^^i^^x^^^^.x 1 j. 








the gold dollar 






North, but 


fort ^^^^s^inzr \ 










being the unit 






speaking of 


,! F 1 S H E R J - ^ — 










of measure- 






its importance, 




ment and the 






Alexander II. 




time being the 






Stephens says, 




first of each 






"the closing of 




year : 1862, 






the port of 




$1.20; 1863, 






Wilmington 


|Wy \ieP\\v\ ^V^^v^^^^^O^*"^ "* * /« *"" 


$3.00 ; 1864, 






[the result of 


\ \\\\ \ jm^ \\ \ \\ \^xh^^nx i ^V-n»>*y* *»/ 
N \v\JiiK\ \\ V \\ ^"""\ IJ^^O^Nfc^ / *"/ 

NOdNE) '\\\j^B\\\\ \\ \ W-^ \l^ N\ X S S>l, t» 1 ,6 ll , 1 , / 

■2***TH»^ \\\ \\ \ V\ -oS^f 'v s ^=x s ^«»yt*«M*-« y 


$21.00; 1865, 






that capture] 


$50.00. By the 






was the com- 
plete shutting 


j&\> — >a\ \\ a ^^r \ *. A 

fffTV \\\ \\ a vA \ X#\ \ \ \ 11/ / *j 

\\ * VX. \ \\ \ \ Vs \ \ \ \ \ \x* ' /^ ^ * fwuii 
v \\ VMM \ \ Y\ Vx \ \ XXX j^v' ' X ° 


first of April, 
nine days be- 






out of the Con- 


fore the sur- 






federate states 


^*^\A_\ \\N\ y\ \\ \x\ \ Ve^Tx ^V* S * n«oec*»iM 

\\\w^V\\Vf\\X /\ ./ 

\ \ V'\ W\\\ \ \ \ \> \ \ X >/ '•'•>*aooi cy«i 


render of Lee, 






from all inter- 


$100 in Con- 






course by sea 


J*^ \ \\ \ \ \ V. \ \ \ \X. \ ^X X rt T J*C»S»rfi /A Q.YI.J.OB 

\ y \ \ v\ \\ \ \ \ \^x\ V "M** 1 -* 


federate cur- 






with foreign 
countries. The 


^^W .AW \ Vx\\\ \ V \ \W^^ 


^ /cHtptOHCI 

0- 

** #niLarniitti 


rency was es- 
timated to be 






\ \\ \ \ \ V' \\ \ \«*'" \ 






respiratory 


\ \\\ V^^X \\ \ \jV \* ■"- cu,LB " ^rlOWQUAB 


equivalent to 






functions of 


\\ w\ \ W »"""•■ '*"'" 


$1 in coin. 






external trade, 


J\\\£!tzr 


In discuss- 






so essential to 


ing the cause 






the vitality of 


^/ \ \ 4™«~ —« 


of the Con- 






all communi- 


\ «V • -' 1v 


federate fail- 






ties, had been 




ures. Blaek- 






' BOMBARDMENT OF FORT FISHER. 






performed for burn and Mac- 






the whole Confederacy mainly for nearly three 


Donald allege five reasons, first, lack of una- 






years through the small aperture of the little port, 


nimity at the South ; second, number and wealth 






choked to wheezing as it was by a cordon of 


of the Federals ; third, mismanagement of the 






armed ships drawn around its neck." 


finances ; fourth, retention of inefficient officers ; 




i 


Another Southern authority, Blackburn and Mc- 


fifth, endeavor to protect too many points at once 


1 


Donald's history of the United States, places the 

* 


when the war began. As their history soon 


[ 


*7 
1 


• ' 70 














■•• 





5 6 ° 



RISE AND FALL OF THE CONFEDERACY. 



reached eleven editions, the sale almost wholly con- 
fined to the South, this verdict may be presumed to 
accord with that of the court of popular Southern 
opinion. Jefferson Davis briefly observes that the 
war showed the right of secession to be impracti- 
cable. It is universally conceded that the decision 
was a finality, and even Mr. Davis, the most insist- 
ent and elaborate defender of the right to secede, 
closes his great work with the hope that there may be 
written upon the arch of the Union, Esto Perpetua. 
Jefferson Davis defends the financial policy of the 
Confederate government as the best possible under 
the circumstances. The government, he says, entered 
upon its second year without any floating debt, and 
the total expenditures were $170,000,000 up to the 
time that the permanent government came into oper- 
ation, February 1, 1863. The latest official statement 
of the public debt of the Confederacy bears date of 
October 1, 1864. Mr. Davis places the amount at 
that time of the total debt at $1,126,381,095. Of this 
amount $541,340,000 consisted of funded debt and 
the balance unfunded debt, or treasury notes. This 
statement is exclusive of the foreign debt, which, he 
adds, amounted to £2,200,000, provided for by about 
250,000 bales of cotton collected by the government. 
To this statement Mr. Davis adds in a foot-note, 
" These bales were the security for the foreign cotton 
loan, and were seized by the United States govern- 
ment. Was it not liable to the bondholders?" He 
also makes the following statement : " The earliest 
proposals on which this debt was contracted were 
issued in London and Paris in March, 1863, [as the 
result of the missions of Mason and Slidell.] The 
bonds bore interest at seven per cent, per annum in 
sterling, payable half-yearly. They were exchange- 
able for cotton on application, at the option of the 
holder, or redeemable at par in sterling, in twenty 
years, by half-yearly drawings, commencing March 
1, 1864. The special security of these bonds was 
the engagement of the government to deliver cotton 
to the holders. Each bond, at option of the holder, 
was convertible at its nominal amount in cotton at 
the rate of six-pence sterliug for each pound of cot- 
ton, say 4,000 pounds of cotton to each bond of 
£100, or 2,500 francs ; and this could be done at 
any time not later than six months after the ratifi- 
cation of a treaty of peace between the belligerents. 
An annual sinking fund of five per cent, was pro- 
vided for, whereby two and a half per cent, of the 



bonds unredeemed by cotton should be drawn by lot 
half-yearly, so as to finally extinguish the loan in 
twenty years from the first drawing. The bonds 
were issued at ninety per cent., payable in install- 
ments. The loan soon stood in the London market 
at five per cent, premium. The amount asked for was 
three million pounds. The amount of applications 
in London and Paris exceeded £15,000,000." Such 
was the financial system of the Confederacy, as set 
forth by the highest Southern authority. 

While the resources of the North were such that 
production was far more rapid than consumption 
all through the war, and the more the army used of 
every necessary of life, the more the country seemed 
to have, the Southern supplies of food had to be kept 
up by importation. The condition of the Confeder- 
acy was stated to the Confederate Congress, Decem- 
ber 14, 1864, by the commissary-general of subsist- 
ence to be as follows : " First, there was not meat 
enough in the Southern Confederacy for the armies 
it had in the field ; second, there was not in Virginia 
meat or bread enough for the armies within her lim- 
its ; third, the bread supply from other places de- 
pended absolutely upon the keeping open of the rail- 
road connections of the South ; fourth, the meat 
supply must be obtained from abroad through a sea- 
port and by a different system from that which pre- 
vailed ; fifth, the bread could not be had by impress- 
ment, but must be paid for in market rates ; sixth, 
the payment must be paid in cash which, so far, had 
not beeu furnished, and from present indications 
could not be, and, if possible, in a better medium than 
at present circulating; seventh, that the transporta- 
tion was not adequate, from whatever cause, to meet 
the demands of the service; eighth, the supply of fresh 
meat to General Lee's army was precarious, and if 
the army fell back from Richmond and Petersburg, 
there was every probability that it would cease alto- 
gether." 

Such being the condition of the Confederacy, the 
surrender of Lee, the departure of Davis with the 
remnants of his government from Richmond, fol- 
lowed as matters of course. The only surprise is 
that it was delayed so long. The eighth item in the 
foregoing resume explains the fact that no attempt 
was made to prolong the conflict by a change of 
base. Mr. Davis had contemplated resort to that 
expedient. 

At the very last moment a deceptive gleam of 



-?F 



;fv- 



RISE AND FALL OF THE CONFEDERACY. 



5^ 



hope illumined the darkness at Richmond. On the 
5th of April Mr. Davis, then at Danville, Rich- 
mond being in Federal rjossession, issued an 
address which closed with the words, " Let 
us, then, my countrymen, not despond, but rely 
upon God, meet the foe with fresh defiance 
and with uncouquered and unconquerable hearts." 
The very next day commenced the correspondence 
between Grant and Lee which culminated in the sur- 
render at Appomattox Court House, April 9, in ac- 
cordance with which each officer and man was 
allowed to return home, not to be disturbed by the 
United States authorities so long as he observed 
Lis parole and the laws. 
Thus the great war 
closed with no one so 
much as imprisoned for 
bearing arms against the 
victor. President Davis 
and Vice-President Ste- 
phens were arrested. The 
former was kept in For- 
tress Monroe some two 
years, the latter in Fort 
Warren only a short time. 
Practically, the partici- 
pants in the Confeder- 
acy were not punished, 
except in so far as the for- 
tunes of war and the abolition of slavery were 
calamitous. The great mass of the people were 

allowed to vote at 
once, the same as 
if the relations be- 
tween the states 
had always been 
amicable and those 
who were disfran- 
chised nearly all 
regained the right 
of suffrage in a 
few years. Mr. Ste- 
phens and many 
others high in 
authority under 
the Confederacy, were long ago admitted to Con- 
gress as members. The attempt to re-enfranchise 
Mr. Davis, however, was the occasion of intense 
feelings of hostility, and he is still deprived of the 



highest privilege of citizenship. The states which 
seceded were kept, as we have seen in a pre- 
vious chapter, in a provisional condition for 
several years, all of them, except Tennessee, which 
re-entered the Union the next summer. During 
that period military governors were in command. 
And when the states were restored, so many of the 
white people were under political disability that the 
colored people and their few political allies, mostly 
from the North, had control of the offices. That 
condition of things was a part of the results of the 
attempt to establish an independent Southern Con- 
federacv, but the war itself was carried to such an 

extreme of exhaustion 




CAPITOL AT RICHMOND. 




ALEXANDER II. STEPHENS. 



that when once over, that 
was the end of it. The 
little battle, if such it 
may be called, of Brazos, 
Texas, May 13, 1865, in 
which the Confederates 
were an overmatch for 
the Federal troops op- 
posed, was the last shot, 
as Sumter was the first, 
of the Confederacy. 

It only remains now 
to supplement this chap- 
ter with a little further 
biographical information. 
The first military commander at the South to at- 
tract attention was General P. <\ T. Beauregard. 
He was a native of 
Louisiana, where 
he was born in 
1818. He was ed- 
ucated at West 
Point and served 
in the Mexican 
war. He resigned 
his commission in 
the United States 
army to enter the 
Confederate ser- 
vice at the begin- 
ning of the war. p. o. t. beaureqard. 
He commanded at the firing upon Sumter, also in 
the battle of Manassas, or Bull Run. He was less 
prominent after that, owing in part to poor health. 
He remained in the service until the war closed. 




tL^ 



562 



RISE AND FALL OF THE CONFEDERACY. 




JOHN C. BBECKENRIOGE. 



When Gen. A. S. Johnston was killed he took the 
command and was at the head of the army which 
Halleck drove outof Corinth in 1802. His last ser- 
vice was the command of the division of Georgia and 
South Carolina. He was among the officers who 
surrendered to Sherman. After the war he became 
a civil engineer at the South. 

General John C. Breckenridge took a somewhat 
prominent part in the war. He was a major-general. 

He was also Secretary 
of AVar in the last days 
of the Confederacy. 
But his prominence was 
prior to the war. Born 
in Kentucky in 1821, 
he became Vice-Presi- 
dent of the United 
States in 1857. He 
had previously seen 
service in the Mexican 
war. He was the reg- 
ular Democratic can- 
didate for the presidency hi 1860. He died at his 
home in Kentucky in 1875. 

General J. T. Jackson, best known as " Stone- 
wall " Jackson, was 
one of the most bril- 
liant soldiers of the 
war. A native of 
Virginia, and edu- 
cated at West Point, 
he received his prac- 
tical training in .Mex- 
ico. The war be- 
tween the states 
found him a profes- 
sor in a military 
school in his own 
state. He entered 
the seivice at the 
was in the field pre- 
cisely two years, falling at Chancellorsville May 2, 
1863. He was shot by a party of his own sol- 
diers, he and his staff being mistaken for the 
advance-guard of Federal cavalry. He was the 
idol of the army, and his loss was mourned as a 
great calamity. He was brilliant and dashing, know- 
ing neither fear nor fatigue. He was withal a very 
devout Christian. 




j. t. (Stonewall) jackson. 

beginning of the war, and 



South Caro- 




General James Longstreet, 
lina in 1820, 
a West Pointer 
and a soldier 
in the Mexican 
war, bore a 
prominent part 
in the Confed- 
erate a r m y, 
from Bull Run 
to Appomat- 
tox. He came 
very near shar- 
ing the fate of 
Jackson, for 
he was severe- james lonqstkeet. 

ly wounded by the blundering of his own men in one 
of the battles of the Wilderness. After the war, 
Longstreet accepted the political situation and be- 
came a Republican. In 1880 he was appointed 
XJ. S. minister at the Turkish court. 

There were two Johnstons in the war on the Con- 
federate side who rivaled Lee and Jackson in pop- 
ularity, Albert Siduey and Joseph E. The war 
found the former in command of the Federal forces 
at San Francis- 
co. He was a 
native of Ken- 
tucky, born in 
1803, a gradu- 
ate of West 
Point, and a 
Mexican veteran. 
When lie resign- 
ed to join the 
Confederacy he 
was a brigadier- 
general in the 
regular army. 
He was killed in 
the battle of Shiloh, early in 1862. Jefferson Davis 
and Alexander H. Stephens unite in pronouncing 
his death a great calamity to the Southern cause. 
General J. E. Johnston was a native of Virginia, 
which state he now represents in Congress. He too 
was a West Point graduate and Mexican veteran. 
He was born in 1807. At the battle of Manassas he 
was the ranking officer, but waived his right to 
command in favor of Beauregard. He won more 




ALBERT SIDNEY JOHNSTON. 



■ner 



]£. 



RISE AND FALL OF THE CONFEDERACY. 



z,6i 



credit, however, by holding Patterson in check than 
Beauregard did by winning the victory thus made 
possible. In the Peninsula campaign he was the 
commander of the Confederate forces. But Mr. 
Davis conceived a dislike for him which culminated 
hi his being relieved of his command for several 
months. The popular pressure for his restoration 
to active service was so great that he was given 
another command. When the war closed he was in 
command of the army in the Carolinas and practi- 
cally second only to General Lee. To what has 
already been said of the latter need only be added 
that the last years of his life were spent in the pres- 
idency of Washington College, Virginia. One of the 
latest utterances of Lee were these words addressed 
to the widow of a Confederate soldier, " Madame, 
do not train up your children in hostility to the gov- 
ernment of the United States." 

Wade Hampton, now the most popular man in 
South Carolina and a member of the Senate of the 

United States, held a 
command in the bat- 
tle of Bull Run. He 
was wounded during 
that battle, also at 
Gettysburg and Seven 
i Pines. He remained 
in the service to the 
end of the war. He 
Jias been more promi- 
nent as a Democratic 
politician than he was as a soldier. His grand- 
father, the first Wade Hampton, served under 
Sumter and Marion in the Revolutionary War. He 
was a man of immense wealth, owning at one time 
3,000 slaves and a correspondingly large amount of 
cotton lands. 

General Hardee, author of Hardens Tactics, a 
Georgian, was commandant at West Point when his 
state seceded. He resigned his commission and 
cast his fortunes with the Confederacy. He rose to 
the rank of lieutenant-general, but in the field did 
not prove specially brilliant. He was brave and 
scientific, but not fertile in invention. 

There were two Hills of some prominence, A. P. 
and D. H. The former received the surrender of 




WADE HAMPTON. 




Harper's Ferry, and then rendered his side most 
timely aid at Antietam. He fell just as Richmond 
was surrendered. D. H. Hill was born in South Car- 
olina in 1822, was educated at West Point, and ren- 
dered good service in the Mexican war. For some- 
thing over ten years thereafter he was an educator and 
author of con- 
siderable note 
at the South. 
When his state 
seceded he ten- 
dered his ser- 
vices to the Con- 
federacy. He 
held important 
commands at 
Big Bethel, York- 
town, Mechan- 
icsville, Cold 
Harbor, Mal- 
vern Hill, Sec- 
ond Bull Run, 
Fredericksburg, 
to literary pursuits. 

General Hood was 
served cred- 
itably,work- 
ing up from 
first lieuten- 
ant to lieu- 
tenant-gen- 
eral in the 
a r my of 
Virginia. 
The second 
Manassas, 
Antietam, 
Gettysburg, 
and Chicka- 
maugaform 

a part of Ms record. He lost a leg in the latter 
battle. Appointed in 18G4 to succeed General John- 
ston in the West, he failed to meet the demands 
of the position, and after the disasters of Franklin 
and Nashville he was superseded by General Rich- 
ard Taylor, a son of President Taylor. 



W. J. HARDEE. 

South Mountain, Antietam and 
Since the war he has been devoted 



a native of Kentucky. He 




J. B. HOOD. 



. .-&.*& # %&& fi£h /®£&M±_JSL_ 



-ft 



It* 





CHAPTER LXXXIII. 

General Grant Becomes President Grant— Pacific Railroad— "Alabama" Claims— Chicago 
Fire— Grant and Greeley— The Panic of 1873 — The Centennial — Hates and Tilden— 
Southern Policy of Hayes— His Administration — Great Railway Strike — Presidential 
Campaign, 1880 — Garfield's Administration — Assassination — Arthur — Constitutional 
Amendments — Area and Public Domain — Population — Geographical Peculi abities. 





^HN^^f— * 



HE last hope of a Southern 
Confederacy must have 
been dispelled by the elec- 
tion to the presidency of 
General Grant, the chief 
representative of the force 
which maintained the 
Union. He was at the head of 
the government from March 4, 
1869, to March 4, 1877. Those 
eight years witnessed great pros- 
perity followed by most distress- 
ing depression in business. 

The first event of note was the 
completion of the Pacific Railroad, 
May, 1869. The work of con- 
struction was in progress six years. 
The Central Pacific extends from 
San Francisco to Ogden, in Utah, a distance of 882 
miles, where it meets the Union Pacific, which ex- 
tends to Omaha, Nebraska, a distance of 1,032 
miles. 

The next year, as we have seen, the work of re- 
construction was completed by the readmission to 
Congress of all the Southern states, and the adoption 
of the Fifteenth Amendment to the constitution. 
Early in the next year a joint high commission met 



at Washington to settle the claim of the United 
States against Great Britain, growing out of the 
depredations of the Alabama and other Confederate 
privateers fitted out in England. The result was 
the payment of an indemnity of $15,000,000 to this 
government by the British Government. 

Late in the same year, October 9, 1871, occurred 
the most memorable conflagration of modern times, 
the Chicago Fire. The entire business portion of 
the city was destroyed and a great portion of the 
residence part. The number of lives lost could 
never be ascertained and was variously estimated at 
from 50 to 200. Not less than 100,000 people were 
rendered homeless, and many who were in affluence 
were rendered penniless. The loss of property was 
not less than $200,000,000. The immediate wants 
of the people were nobly met by a charity as wide 
as the civilized world and absolutely prodigal in its 
generosity. The next year another fire of vast, if 
greatly less proportions, visited Chicago. In 1872 
Boston, too, had its " burnt district." It may be 
added that both cities long since rebuilt fully and 
upon a grand scale. 

In the year 1872 occurred another presidential 
election. The first ticket hi the field was headed by 
Horace Greeley, who for thirty years had been a 
leading journalist and ardent opponent of the Dem- 



(564) 



JR- 



=£,£. 



THE PRESENT UNITED STATES. 



565 



ocratic party. He was nominated by the Liberal 
Convention. The Democratic National Convention 
accepted him as the candidate <>f the Democracy in 
the hope that he would draw enough Republican 
votes to elect him, and he did; but the Democrats 
failed to fulfill their part of the contract. Many 
of them stayed away from the polls altogether. 
Some of them united in supporting for the presi- 
dency that eminent Democratic lawyer of New 



which continued until after resumption in 1879, 
nearly six years. Notwithstanding good crops, hard 
times continued year after year. The general de- 
pression of business gave rise to a political party 
which demanded a large increase in the volume of 
the currency, and deprecated any attempt to re- 
sume specie payments. This Greenback party was 
especially hostile to the national bank system. 
The year 1876, which completed the first century 




CHICAGO 



York, Charles O'Conor. General Grant was re- 
elected by an overwhelming majority, and with him 
Henry Wilson for Vice-President. Mr. Greeley made 
a very remarkable campaign upon the policy of 
reconciliation and good feeling between the sections. 
After the popular election and before the meeting 
of the electoral colleges of the several states, he 
died, and the nation was once more in mourning. 
No American was better known or more profoundly 
respected as a pure patriot than the founder of the 
New York Dibuiw, well called our second Franklin. 
In the following October occurred the panic of 
1873, which inaugurated a period of hard times, 



m FLAMES. 

of American independence, was celebrated by a 
grand exposition at Philadelphia, at which were rep- 
resented all the countries of the world, civilized and 
uncivilized, the most successful affair of its kind ever 
projected. 

The year 187(3 was also the year of another presi- 
dential election. Two governors were the standard- 
bearers of the two great parties, Rutherford B. 
Hayes, then Governor of Ohio, and Samuel J. Til- 
den, then Governor of New York. The former was 
nominated as a compromise candidate after a con- 
vention of memorable excitement. Many wanted 
General Grant nominated for a third term, but his 



I? 



ijft- 



566 



THE PRESENT UNITED STATES, 



name was not presented in the convention. The 
strongest candidate in the field was James Gr. Blaine, 
at that time Speaker of the House of Representa- 
tives. It was to defeat him that the friends of the 
rival candidates united, a large 
majority of them, upon Mr. 
Hayes, who was the first choice 
of Ohio only. With him upon 
the ticket was associated Wil- 
liam A. Wheeler, of New York. 
The Democratic nominee, Gov- 
ernor Tilden, was from the first 
the leading candidate before 
that convention, and the Vice- 
Presidential candidate, Governor 
Hendricks, of Indiana, was his 
chief competitor. 

The campaign was so very 
Close that each party claimed the 
victory. Charges and counter- 
charges of fraud were freely and 
fiercely made. The Republicans 
conceded that 
Mr. Tilden had 
lacked only 
one electoral 
vote of a ma- 
jority. There 
was very seri- 
ous danger of 
civil war. Both 
parties seemed 
ripe for blood- 
shed, but final- 
ly the patriot- 
ism and sa- 
gacity of a few 
men in Con- 
gress, notably 
Senators Ed- 
munds of Ver- 
mont (Repub- 
lican) and Thurman of Ohio (Democrat), secured 
the passage of a law creating a commission of ar- 
bitration. That extra-constitutional and national 
return ing-board decided in favor of Hayes and 
"Wheeler, who were duly declared elected and peace- 
ably installed in office. 

One of the first acts of President Hayes was to 




WILLIAM A. WHEELER. 




withdraw the Federal troops from the South, which 
was, in effect, turning out the Republican govern- 
ors of Louisiana and South Carolina and turning 
the entire South over, politically, to the Democratic 
• party. There was, thenceforth, 
a " Solid South." 

Mr. Hayes was never popular 
with his party, nor did the op- 
position cease to denounce him 
as a fraudulent President. He 
succeeded, however, in so con- 
ducting the civil service as to 
command the confidence of the 
country and greatly strengthen 
the Republican party. During 
his term of office prosperity re- 
turned to the country. 

In the summer of 1877 occur- 
red the great railway strike. 
What began as a protest against 
an unjust reduction of wages on 
one particular railroad spread 
almost instan- 
taneously in 
every direc- 
tion, far and 
near. Trans- 
portation was 
very nearly 
suspended and 
the country 
filled with the 
wildest appre- 
hension of a 
general cru- 
sade of labor 
against capi- 
tal. Some lives 
were lost and 
a great deal of 
property de- 
stroyed. But 
soon all was quiet, and business of every kind re- 
sumed its customary channels and ways. 

The spring of 1880 inaugurated another presi- 
dential campaign. The first convention held was 
the Republican gathering at Chicago. Mr. Blaine 
was again a leading candidate, with General Grant 
as his chief competitor. Day after day the conven- 



es V 



•v 



THE PRESENT UNITED STATES. 



567 



t|!'.;,l:'i| 















"o V 



A q . 



THE PRESENT UNITED STATES. 



5 6 9 



M. 



tion was in session, and after numerous ballots it 
became evident that neither of the prominent can- 
didates could bear off the prize. There were several 
compromise candidates in the field, in the hope of 
being what was called '• the dark horse " in the race. 
But the convention went outside of them all and took 
up one of its own members, James A. Garfield of 
Ohio. General Garfield had been the recognized 
leader of the anti-Grant faction in the convention 
without being the champion of Mr. Blaine. His 
nomination created the wildest enthusiasm. Asso- 
ciated with him upon the ticket was Chester A. Ar- 
thur of Mew York, nominated as a representative 
of the Grant wing of the convention. 

The Democrats placed in the field General Win- 
field S. Hancock, of the regular army, an officer of 
honorable record, who had rendered specially good 
service at Gettysburg. With him was nominated 
for Vice-President, Win. II. English, a capitalist of 
Indiana. For two or three months the indications 
were that the Democrats had at last come to the 
turning of the tide, but the longer the campaign 
progressed the more evident did it become that a 
majority of the people were for continuing, if not 
perpetuating, the Republican party in power. The 
election was not dubious in its result. On the con- 
trary, the election of Garfield and Arthur was 
promptly and frankly conceded. 

General Garfield eutered upon his office under pe- 
culiarly favorable auspices. All the signs pointed to 
a harmonious and prosperous administration. But 
hardly had he begun the discharge of the duties of 
his great office before the spirit of faction showed 
itself. So trivial a matter as the appointment of a 
collector of customs at the port of New York served 
to kindle the flames of a most senseless war of fac- 
tions. The press of the country entered upon it 
with the utmost enthusiasm, as if the fate of the 
nation depended upon the pe?-sonnel of that office. 
The two United States Senators from New York re- 
signed their seats and became candidates for re-elec- 
tion. It was very soon apparent that the legislature 
of the state, then in session at Albany, would not 
re-elect them, and that served as oil upon the fire. 
While the country was being inflamed by such irra- 
tional and causeless factiousness, came the report of 
a pistol. It was fired July 3, by Charles J. Guiteau, 
in a railway depot at Washington. Hardly had the 
sound died away before the terrible news was flashed 



wherever in this land or any other electricity is a 
medium of intelligence that President Garfield had 
been shot by an assassin. The shock was even greater 
than when Lincoln fell at the hands of Booth, for 
the passions of the war had died away and the people 
were not accustomed, as in 1865, to the flow of blood. 

Mr. Garfield lingered in great agony for many 
days. Day after day and week after week the pub- 
lic watched with the agony of suspense at his bed- 
side, and when at last deatli brought relief to the 
heroic patient, September 10, all sections and both 
parties united in profound grief. If there were any 
to sympathize with the assassin, there were certainlv 
none ready to acknowledge such sympathy. In due 
time the assassin was brought to trial, when the ques- 
tion raised was whether he was sane or insane. The 
verdict of the jury was that he was sane, and public 
sentiment very generally commended the jury. It 
was felt that acquittal on the jilea of insanity would 
be contrary to public policy. It may be remarked 
that the Guiteau case added the word crunk to the 
English language, to designate a person of naturally 
unsound mind, neither sane nor insane, strictly 
speaking. 

President Arthur entered upon the duties of his 
office September 22, 1881, and remained at the 
head of the government until March 4, 1885, 
when lie was succeeded by Grover Cleveland, the 
first Democratic President since James Buchanan. 
The Arthur administration was unmarked by any 
startling event. An excellent executive officer 
and an accomplished gentleman, his administra- 
tion gave very general satisfaction by its conserva- 
tism. Its chief sensation was the Star Eoute trial, 
which attracted popular attention for several 
months, and resulted in the acquital of the de- 
fendants. The most notable feature of legis- 
lation was the revision and reduction of the 
tariff. 

The constitution of the United States has been 
amended fifteen times, the last three amendments 
being a part of reconstruction, as we have seen. The 
first ten were added as early as December, 1 791, and 
grew out of the discussion of the constitution as 
originally submitted to the states. The eleventh 
amendment, which in effect exempts a state from 
being made a defendant in a court of justice, was the 
result of a suit brought in the United States Court to 
recover a debt due an individual from the state of 



a 



57° 



THE PRESENT UNITED STATES. 



Georgia. That pernicious amendment has borne 
fruit in the repeated and enormous repudiation of 
state debts. The twelfth amendment provides some 
changes in the method of electing presidents and 
vice-presidents, and grew out of the Jefferson -Burr 
election. This amendment was adopted September 
25, 1804. 

The total area of the United States is about 4,000,- 
000 square miles, inclusive of Alaska, which is value- 
less for all purposes of agriculture. Without Alaska, 
the area is, in round numbers, 3,000,000 square miles. 
A writer in a recent number of the North American 
Review gives the following analysis of the public 
lands of the country, exclusive of Alaska : 

" The public domain of the United States, ac- 
quired by cession from the several states and by 
treaty from France, Spam, and Mexico, Texas and 
Russia, amounts to 2,804,235.91 square miles, or 
about 1,852,310,000 acres, and its cost was, in round 
numbers, §322,000,000, of which sum the Govern- 
ment lias received back about §200,000,000 for lands 
sold. Down to July, 1880, the Government of the 
United States had disj>osed by sale of about 170,- 
000,000 acres ; by act of donation, 3,000,000 acres ; 
in bounties for military and naval service, 61,000,- 
000 acres; for internal improvements, 7,000,000 
acres ; by grants of saline lands to states, 560,000 
acres; for town sites and county seats, 150,000; by 
patent to railway companies, 45,000,000; canal 
grants, 4,000,000 ; for military roads, 1,300,000 ; by 
sale of mineral lands (since 1866), 148.000 ; home- 
steads,' 55,000,000 ; scrip, 2,000,000 ; coal lands, 10,- 
750; stone and timber lands (act of 1S78), 21,000; 
swamp and overflowed lands given to states, 60,000,- 
000; for educational purposes, 78,000.000 ; under 
Timber-culture Act, 9,350,000 ; Graduation Act of 
1854, 25,000,000. Mineral and timber lands are 
now our most valuable assets. The pasturage lands 
are of nominal value apart from the mineral under- 
lying them. Our remaining public lands, exclusive 
of Alaska, were, in June, 1880, estimated as 
follows: Timber lands, 85,000.000; coal lands, 
defined, 5,530,000; precious metal bearing lands, 
64,000,000; but this area will be increased as 
the pasturage andtimber lands are explored; 
lands in Southern states, agricultural, timber and 
mineral, 25,000,000 ; lands irrigable from streams. 



30,000,000 ; pasturage, desert, including certain lands 
in Indian reservations and barrens, 556,000,000." 
There have been ten censuses of the United 
States, the first having teen taken in 1790, and all 
at regular intervals of ten years. The population 
when first ascertained was 3,020,322, and ninety 
years later it was 50,152,559. No other country 
could ever make such an exhibit of growth. From 
the time the War of the Revolution began (1775) 
until the close of the last war with England (1815), 
a period of forty years, the increase by immigration 
was very small. In 1816 and 1817 there was a fam- 
ine in Europe, and a vast number of people crossed 
the ocean to seek homes in this land of plenty. All 
immigration came from Europe until some years 
after the discovery of the gold-fields of California, 
since which time a few drops from the great ocean of 
Chinese population have fallen upon the Pacific coast. 
The Chinaman does not bring his family, and is sure 
to return to his native land. Even his bones, if he 
dies, are taken back there. The permanent popu- 
ulation of the country is wholly European in its ori- 
gin, with the exception of the African and the abo- 
riginal Americans. All other details of population 
and area are given in tabular form later on. 

The United States is often divided into North 
and South, or East and West, but the really natural 
divisions are three, the Atlantic states, extending 
westward so as to include the Appalachian, or Alle- 
ghany, Mountain region ; the Mississippi Valley ; 
Pacific Highlands and slopie, the latter including the 
Rocky Mountains, the Pacific plateau, Sierra Ne- 
vada and Cascade ranges and the Pacific slope. 
The Appalachian range extends from the Gulf of 
St. Lawrence to Alabama. Instead of a system of 
mountains for its main feature, the Mississippi Val- 
ley has the great twin river, Mississippi-Missouri, 
4,200 miles long, the grandest stream in all the 
world, not excepting the broader but shorter Ama- 
zon. The Rocky Mountains are vast table-lands. A 
little gold and silver may be found in the Atlantic 
states, none in the Mississippi valley, but an abun- 
dance in the Rocky Mountains and the region 
between that plateau and the Pacific ocean. 
Further details on these points will appear in 
connection with the consideration of States and 
Territories of the United States. 



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xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx 



GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 




+ +X+.X + X + X+ V_,LJ_ ipt 



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f HE most curious feature 

and intricate problem in 

American government is 

the relation of the United 

States to the several states. 

It is complicated in a way 

quite foreign to the usual 

experience of nations and out of 

it, no less than the institution of 

slavery, grew the war between the 

North and the South. It is not 

within the design of this volume 

to discuss constitutional law, but 

simply to point out the undisputed 

) practical facts in the case. 

The broad ground of the consti- 
tution in restricting the general 
government to functions specified 
in the organic law itself covered a great deal of ter- 
ritory. It follows that the ordinary purposes of gov- 
ernment, such as the prevention and punishment of 
crimes, the enforcement of contracts and the gen- 
eral relation of public affairs, belong, as a rule, to 
the state. The United States may be said to be 




CHAPTER LXXXIV 



Federal Relations— Constitutional Limitations— Legislative Branch of the Government 
—The President and the Senate— Presidential Qualifications and Functions— The 
Cabinet and Departments— Secretary of State and Foreign Relations— The Treasury 
Department and its Bureaus— The War Department Secretary and the Ajrmy— The 
Navy; Ericsson and the Naval Department— Secretary op the Interior; Public 
Lands, Pensions, Patents, Census, Education and Agriculture— Post-Offices and Post 
Routes— Franklin and Armstrong— Department of Justice— The Judiciary of the 
United States— Territorial Government— Appointments and Confirmations— Right of 
Suffrage— Mode of Electing Presidents and Vice-Presidents. 



supplemental to the state, designed to prevent all 
clashing and injustice between the people of differ- 
ent states and to obviate the vexatious restrictions 
upon the liberty of person and traffic within the 
country which would be inevitable if each state were 
absolutely independent. The Federal system has 
the further advantage of the removal of all danger 
of interstate wars which, in view of European ex- 
perience, was certainly a wise precaution on the part 
of the constitutional fathers. 

The general government is divided into three 
branches, legislative, executive and judicial. The 
legislative has three subdivisions, the Senate, the 
House of Representatives and the President, the 
first two, constituting Congress, having the power by 
a two- thirds majority to pass a bill over the Presi- 
dent's veto. The third branch is therefore not coe- 
qual with the other two, while they are co-ordinate. 
The signature of the President must be attached to 
a bill before it can become an act of Congress, or it 
must receive, subsequent to the veto, the two-thirds 
majority specified. The power to originate bills of 
taxation belongs to the House, which body can elect 
its own presiding officer — speaker — while the Senate 



(57 1 ) 



a V 



57 2 



GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 



is presided over by the Vice-President, unless that 
officer is called upon to act as President, in which 
case the Senate elects its own President, pro tern., as 
he is called. Otherwise the powers of the two 
branches of Congress are equal. 

The Senate consists of two members from each 
state, the term being six years. The senators are 
elected by their respective state legislatures. In case 
of a vacancy during the adjournment of the legis- 
lature the governor of the state can fill the vacancy 
until the legislature convenes and elects a successor 
to fill the unexpired term. A senator must be at 
least thirty 
years of age 
and a citi- 
zen of the 
state herej> 
resents. A 
member of 
the House 
must be at 
least twen- 
ty-five years 
of age and 
a resident of 
the state. 
Congress fix- 
es a basis of 
representa- 
tion in that 
body upon 
a basis of 
population, 

for which purpose a census is taken once in ten years. 
Every state has at least one member of the lower 
house. The territories are represented therein by 
delegates empowered to speak but not to vote. The 
term of a member of the House is two years. Each 
senator, representative and delegate receives a salary 
of $5,000 a year, the speaker, like the Vice-President, 
receiving $8,000. 

The Executive Department consists of the Presi- 
dent aud the executive offices under him, and the 
Senate when in executive session. Such sessions are 
held in secret. Their objects are to ratify or reject 
treaties with other nations and confirm or reject ap- 
pointments to federal offices. In the exercise of a 
veto power the Senate is a part of the executive. 
Some appointments are regarded as too trivial to 




THE CAPITOL AT WASHINGTON. 



come before the Senate. The classification is fixed by 
law and has never occasioned difficulty or contro- 
versy. The exercise, however, of executive func- 
tions by the Senate has often given rise to bitter 
controversy. Such conflicts of opinion (for that is 
all they are or can be) have always been temporary in 
their effect. The legislative functions of the Presi- 
dent are trivial, comparatively. The great burden 
of his duty is to administer the laws. He is the 
chief executive, most emphatically. 

To be President of the United States or Vice- 
President, one must be a native citizen. Naturalized 

citizens are 
barred from 
the presi- 
dency, in- 
cluding the 
vice -presi- 
dential con- 
tingency, 
and from no 
other politi- 
cal prefer- 
ment. The 
President 
must be 
thirty-five 
years of age, 
orover. The 
term is four 
years, be- 
ginning on 
March 4 



There is no law against repeated re-elections, except 
the unwritten law of custom, which has restricted 
every President so far to two terms, at the most. 
The salary of the President is $50,000 a year. It was 
half that until 1873. The proper title of the Presi- 
dent in addressing him is "Mr. President." The 
Executive Mansion, familiarly called the " White 
House," is both office and residence. It is located 
one mile from the capitol at Washington. The 
President is provided with a small corps of private 
secretaries for subordinate routine duties, at the pub- 
lic expense, and the mansion is furnished by (he 
government. 

The President has for his chief assistants in the 
discharge of his duties a body of advisers and 
high functionaries called a Cabinet. That body 



^7J1 



-k+ 



GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 



573 



consists of the Secretaries of State, Treasury, War, 
the Navy, and the Interior, together with the Post- 
master-General and the Attorney-General. The de- 
partments over which they respectively preside are 
indicated by their titles. Originally the idea was 
that the Secretary of State should be a premier, in 
the English sense, but practically, he is simply the 
head of foreign af- 
fairs, having super- 
vision over all dip- 
lomatic and con- 
sular matters. Each 
cabinet officer re- 
ceives a salary of 
$8,000 a year, is 
appointed by the 
President, the Sen- 
ate consenting. The 
cabinet forms an 
official household, 
with the President 
as its head. In 
many of the details 
the duties of the 
different depart- 
ments vary with 
the enactments of 
each Congress ; but 
in fundamental du- 
ties and divisions 
of responsibility 
the departments 
remain unchanged. 
The Cabinet has 
grown in numbers 
with the growth of 
the nation and the 
necessities of the 

general government. Originally there were but tin ec 
ministers — Secretary of State, of the Treasury, and 
of War. In 1798 the portfolio of the Navy was 
added. During Jackson's administration the 
Postmaster-General was made a member of the 
cabinet, and during Tyler's the Attorney-General 
was admitted into the political family of the Presi- 
dent. Before those promotions they were mere 
heads of bureaus. In 18-19 the Department of the 
Interior was created, since which time there have 
been no changes, except that during the administra- 




TIIE SENATE CHAMBER. WASHINGTON. 



tion of President Grant the functions of the Attor- 
ney-General were materially enlarged by the creation 
of the Department of Justice. Prior to that time 
the Attorney-General was simply the legal adviser of 
the President and the Cabinet. The Constitution 
does not distinctly recognize the Cabinet, excepting 
by the nominal distinction of "heads of departments." 

' The Secretary of 

State was designed 
originally to be the 
head secretary of 
the government, 
including both 
Congress and the 
President. To him 
is intrusted the duty 
of promulgating 
the laws. In his 
office are kept the 
original bills and 
joint resolutions, 
the seal of the 
United States, and 
all treaties, postal 
conventions and 
other state papers, 
properly so called. 
But the especial 
department of state 
is Foreign Affairs. 
All communica- 
tions with foreign 
governments, di- 
rect or indirect, and 
all diplomatic and 
consular matters, 
are within the ju- 
risdiction of this 
secretary. Any American citizen going abroad is 
entitled to a passport issued by the Secretary of 
State, which document will serve as his credential 
of citizenship in case he may have occasion to want 
the protection of his government. The Secretary 
of State is supposed to be the most intimate polit- 
ical friend the President has — his most trusted 
adviser on all points. He makes no dejiartmental 
report to Congress, as the other secretaries and the 
Postmaster-General do. He is frequently called 
upon to make special reports, and the voluminous 



W 



j£- 



574 



GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 



diplomatic correspondence is published 
Department also is- 
sues monthly con- 
sular reports, giving 
commercial and in- 
dustrial information 
in regard to the 
countries and cities 
with which this gov- 
ernment sustains 
consular relations. 
The representa- 
tives of the United 
States are called en- 
voys extraordinary 
and ministers plen- 
ipotentiary; min- 
isters resident; 
charge d' affaires ; 
consul generals, con- 
suls and consular 
agents, accord uig to 
their several ranks 
and duties. The im- 
portant ministers 
have secretaries of 
legation. Treaties 
may be negotiated 
by ministers, by 
commissions ap- 
pointed especially 




for the purpose of settling some specific matter of 
an international 
nature, or by the 
Secretary of 
State and the 
representative at 
Washington of 
the other high 
contracting par- 
ty. Extradition 
treaties are the 
arrangements 
made for the 
surrender of 
persons accused 
of crime who 
have fled from 
one country to the 



The State | have such treaties with each other. The Secretary 

of the Treasury has 
charge of the finan- 
cial affairs of the 
government, under 
such laws as Con- 
gress may enact. 
He receives the 
money of the gov- 
ernment and makes 
its disbursements. 
No money can be 
paid out unless there 
is warrant for it in 
an ajypropriation by 
Congress. In a 
Treasury, or fiscal, 
point of view, July 1 
is new year's day. 
All annual reports 
and estimates of the 
government receipts 
or disbursements 
are for the year end- 
ing June 31. 

Tliis Secretary has 
under him several 
heads of bureaus 
and two associated 
secretaries. The 
Com ptroller, Second 



HALL OF REPRESENTATIVE; 



HINIiTON 




other. Nearly all civilized nations | the Currency supervises the 



Comptroller and five auditors have charge of disburse- 
ments; the Com- 
missioner of In- 
ternal Ee venue 
and the Com- 
missioner of 
Customs look 
after the collec- 
tions, although 
one of the assist- 
ant secretaries 
is virtually chief 
of customs. The 
Treasurer has 
the control of 
the funds. The 
Comptroller of 
national banks, the 



GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 



575 



ei - 



Director of the Mint lias charge uf the coining of 
money. The Independent Treasury is the term ap- 
plied to the system of sub-treasuries or branch 
offices of the Treasury in the larger cities of the 
country at which the actual receipts and disburse- 
ments of the government are largely transacted. 
The head of a sub-treasury is called Assistant Treas- 
urer. The Sub-Treasury at New York contains very 
much more money 
than the Treasury at 
Washington. Minute 
daily reports must 
be made to the Sec- 
retary of the Treas- 
ury and the Treas- 
urer, and the varia- 
tion of a penny in 
the account would 
be detected at head- 
quarters and call for 
an explanation. 

During the late 
war nearly every 
conceivable method 
of taxation was re- 
sorted to. Before 
that time the receipts 
from customs or the 
tariff and from the 
sale of public land 
amply sufficed to 
meet the demands of 
the government. At 
one period the rev- 
enue was excessive 
and Congress was 
sorely puzzled to 
know what to do with the surplus. The exigencies 
of war rendered necessary the creation of the 
Bureau of Internal Revenue. Since the restor- 
ation of peace the domestic taxation has been great- 
ly reduced and simplified, until now it is almost 
wholly confined to spirits, distilled and brewed, ami 
to tobacco. The tax on highwinen was 82 per gal- 
lon for several years and the temptation to defraud 
the government was so great that the enormous 
combination was formed known as the Whisky 
Ring. It was a case of spontaneous production. 
The evil spread and seemed to lie incurable until it 



/- 




was exposed, prosecuted and crushed during the two 
last years of Grant's last term of office. The in osi 
complicated and elaborate feature of the Treasury 
Department is the one having to do with the col- 
lection of duties ou imports. Nearly every Congress 
" tinkers " the tariff, and it takes a rare expert to be 
master of the subject in its practical workings. The 
objects of these levies are twofold, the raising of 

revenue and the fos- 
tering of domestic 
interests, productive 
and manufacturing. 
Those who insist 
that a tariff should 
be for revenue only 
are called free-trad- 
ers. As a rule, the 
protective policy has 
prevailed in this 
country. The Secre- 
tary of the Treasury 
has no voice in de- 
termining the policy 
to be adopted ; but 
the rules and regu- 
lations promulgated 
by him bear to the 
statutes much the 
same relation that 
the decisions of the 
courts do to law in 
general. This re- 
mark applies, only 
less conspicuously, 
to the other depart- 
ments. There is a 
tax on the tonnage, 
or carrying capacity, of vessels, and out of the 
relations of the Treasury Department to transporta- 
tion by water grow many complications. The con- 
stitution contemplates the regulation by the general 
government of commerce between the states, but 
that part of the organic law has thus far remained 
very nearly a dead letter. The constitution forbids 
the imposition of duties upon exports, also upon 
trade between the states, and therein it has never 
been violated. 

The Secretary of the Treasury is forbidden by 
law, as are his subordinates, to be in any way inter- 



ItL 



57 6 



GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES 



ested iii any branch of business which might come 
before them for official action. 

The Secretary of War became, under E. M. Stan- 
ton during the great Conflict, virtual commander- 
in-chief of the army, a position assigned by the con- 
stitution to the President. In time of peace the 
standing army is so small that this department is 
less important than any one of the several bureaus 
of the Treasury. Small as is the army, it might 



Pierce, and a son of President Lincoln was appoint- 
ed to the position by President Garfield, but the one 
great reputation made in the Department was that 
of Edwin M. Stanton, who sustained that great bur- 
den from 1863 to 1868, doing as much to preserve 
the Union as any one man. The office was con- 
spicuously disgraced by Secretary Belknap, who held 
it from 1860 to 1876. Besides strictly military mat- 
ters, the War Department has charge of public works 




THE NEW DEPARTMENT OF STATE. 



be much smaller if it were not for troubles with 
the Indians of the far west. The military officers 
are : general, lieutenant-general, major-general, brig- 
adier-general, colonel, lieutenant-colonel, major, 
captain, first lieutenant, second lieutenant. These 
are regularly and formally commissioned, and for 
the most part are graduates of the military acade- 
my at West Point, New York, the only institution 
for instruction in the science of war maintained by 
the government. The Secretary of War has a super- 
visory charge of that academy, also of depots of 
war material, arsenals, military hospitals and asy- 
lums. Jefferson Davis was Secretary of War under 



involving civil engineering. The erection and care 
of United States buildings belong to the Treasury 
Department, but river and harbor improvements 
are made through the Department of War. 

The least of all the Departments is the Navy. 
The President sustains the same relation to the navy 
that he does to the army. There are, besides pay- 
masters, nine grades of naval officers, correspond- 
in? in rank with major-general and the lower grades 
in the arniv. These are: rear-admirals, vice-ad- 
mirals, commodores, captains, commanders, lieuten- 
ant commanders, lieutenants, masters, ensigns. The 
government has one naval academy. It is located at 



71* 



IL. 



GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 



577 



Annapolis, Maryland. Like the military academy 
at West Point, this naval school is expected to have 
one student from each congressional district and ten 
appointed by the President, without regard to local- 
ity. The course of study in both covers a period of 
four years and has special reference to the profes- 
sion in view. The students are educated at the ex- 
pense of the government, and must give at least four 
years to the service after graduation, unless specially 
relieved or dismissed. There are several navy-yards 
and one naval observatory, the latter being in Wash- 
ington. All coast surveys belong to the Navy De- 
partment, but lighthouses, buoys and beacons, de- 
signed to protect the shipping interest, and marine 
hospitals for sick or disa- 
bled seamen, are attach- 
ed to the Treasury De- 
partment. The present 
navy of the United States 
is almost a nonentity. 
In the event of war with 
any foreign power laying 
the slightest claims to 
naval preparations, it 
would be necessary to 
make vast expenditures 
for men-of-war. 

No splendid reputation 
was ever made in the 
office of Secretary of the Navy, but besides the 
brilliant achievements of Paul Jones, Perry, Decatur, 
Foote and Porter, this country can boast a citizen, 
John Ericsson, whose genius for invention revolution- 
ized naval architecture, and rendered obsolete the 
navies of the world. 

The Interior Department, once the least of all the 
portfolios, has steadily risen in importance until it 
is hardly inferior to that of the Treasury. It was 
designed originally as a relief to the State Depart- 
ment. It has several bureaus of great responsibil- 
ity. Indian Affairs is the chief of these. The 
agents, inspectors ami others employed in this 
branch of the service, as explained in the chapter 
on the American Indian, arc under the Commis- 
sioner of Indian Affairs. The Pension Bureau is in 
that department, and it is no exaggeration to say 
that the Army and the Navy Departments com- 
bined are not in time of peace as important and dif- 
ficult of administration as this one bureau has been 



since the war of 1861-65. Only sick or crippled 
soldiers of the Federal army or their widowed still 
unmarried, or those actually dependent for support 
upon the soldier who died in the service, are entitled 
to pensions, but the disbursements are so immense 
and the liabilities to fraud so very great that the 
highest order of executive ability is required, and 
even then enormous frauds are inevitable. No 
other branch of the service is so open to abuse. The 
actual payments are made by local pension agents, 
who handle no money, but have credits from time 
to time at a sub-treasury and check against it. 

The public lands of the country, an elaborate 
statement in regard to which will be found in the 

chajiter on The Present 
United States, are 
under the care of a 
bureau of the Interior 
Department. Besides 
the commissioner at 
Washington there are 
surveyors-general and 
registers and receivers 
of public money for 
lauds. The former di- 
vide the land and define 
boundaries, so that the 
government can con- 
vey a title, and the reg- 
isters and receivers attend to the business incident to 
such conveyance. A section is the unit of measure- 
ment. It contains 640 acres, or a mile square, and 
thirty-six sections make a township. Ever since the 
organization of the first territory, the Northwest Ter- 
ritory, the government has set aside one section in 
each township for the support of public schools, 

The original policy of the government was to sell 
the public land, and that in large quantities only. 
Later it adoptee; the plan of encouraging pur- 
chases by actual settlers. This pioneer policy was 
supplemented in 1862 by the homestead act, under 
which the actual settler can, by the payment of fees 
hardly adequate to pay the cost to the government of 
doing the business, secure a farm, only he must re- 
side on it long enough to give assurance of good 
faith. If the homesteader served in the Federal 
army and was honorably discharged, the time spent 
in the service will reduce that much the time re- 
quired to perfect a homestead title. The period re- 




PENNSYI.VANIA AVENUE, WASHINGTON. 



iiFy 



jfc 



578 



GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 



quired is five years, and the amount; of land that 
can be taken up in that way is 160 acres, or a quar- 
ter-section. Public land can also be secured by pre- 
emption, or purchase, the price varying from $1.25 
to $2.50 per acre. 

All lgtters patent designed to stimulate invention 
and secure to the in- 
ventor his right of prop- 
erty therein, are issued 
by the Patent office, 
which is a bureau of 
the Interior Depart- 
ment. Patents are 
granted for seventeen 
years, and cannot be 
renewed. It is often 
difficult to determine 
whether an application 
for a patent should be 
granted or denied, and 
much litigation s;rows 
out of this branch of the government. The census is 
taken by the Interior Department. The original 
idea of a census was simply the ascertainment once 
in ten years of the actual population of the country, 
with the details of locality, with a view to determin- 
ing the apportionment of members of the House of 
Representatives. Each 
new census has been 
more elaborate and 
varied than its prede 
cessor, and under Gen- 
eral F. A. Walker, who 
tookthecensusesof 1870 
and 1880, the range of 
statistical information 
afforded by the reports 
of this bureau is most 
exhaustive. It is a 
marvel of complete- 
ness and accuracy. 

The bureau of railroads has been created to ascer- 
tain and conserve the interest of the government in 
the railways of the country which received subsidies, 
land or bonds, in aid of their construction. The 
bureau of education is hardly more than a bureau 
of educational information. The bureau of agricul- 
ture is another branch of the Interior Department 
which has a high-sounding name without having ac- 




IWTENT OFFICE. (South Front 




ITNITED STATES POSTOFFICE. 



complished much real good. Congress maintains it 
at considerable expense. It should be a department 
on a plane of equality with the other cabinet offices. 
The obligation owed it, thus far, by the agricultural 
interest of the country is iufinitesimally small. 
The Postoffice Department is devoted to one line 

of duty, the transmis- 
sion of mail matter 
from one place and 
person to another place 
and person. Distance 
is not taken into ac- 
count in determining 
the charge for this ser- 
vice, but there are sev- 
eral classes of mails, 
with rates according 
to classification. The 
Postmaster-General has 
a great army of assist- 
ants, superintendents, 
postmasters, postal-clerks, route agents and others 
under him. The real paternity of the postoffice 
of this country belongs (o Benjamin Franklin, who 
organized it nearly a generation before indejjendence 
was declared. It should be a strictly business in- 
stitution, as much so as an express company or a 

railroad enterprise ; but 
as a matter of fact it 
has long combined poli- 
tics with postal mat- 
ters. The most notable 
improvement made in 
this branch of the ser- 
vice was not due to any 
postmaster-general, but 
to a subordinate officer, 
George B. Armstrong 
of Chicago, the father 
of the railway mail 
service, which was es- 
war. Other improve- 
within a comparatively 
registration of impor- 
of postal money orders, 
mail in large cities by 



tablished during the civil 
ments have been made 
short time, such as the 
tant letters, the issuance 
and the distribution of 
carriers. The dead-letter office is located at Wash- 
ington, and is designed to return to the writer 
letters which have for any reason failed to reach 



GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 



579 



their destination. In due time all such waifs reach 
the morgue of the mail and the sender is no- 
tified. It is exceedingly difficult in many cases to 
arrive at the proper allowance to be made for carry- 
ing the mail, especially by routes off the line of rail- 
roads. All such routes are called " star routes." For 
the most part these lines of mail, are on the frontier 
and in out-of-the-way places where they are indis- 
pensable aids to settlement. They are often the 
veritable harbingers of civilization and development. 

The Attorney- General is the head of the Depart- 
ment of Justice, and as such, has a general supervis- 
ion over the attorneys and marshals of the United 
States in the several judicial districts. He is often 
called upon to render an opinion upon the interpre- 
tation of a statute of the United States. The gov- 
ernment has in him its " senior counsel." 

Besides these two branches of the government, 
the legislative and the executive, is one more, the 
judiciary. The constitution provides for one Su- 
preme Court, and such inferior courts as. Congress 
might create. In addition to the Supreme Court 
with one chief justice at a salary of $10,500, and 
eight associate justices with a salary of $10,000, 
there are nine circuits, presided over sometimes by 
a member of the supreme bench and sometimes by 
the judge of that particular circuit. The salary of 
the circuit judge is $6,000 a year. The number of 
the district judges varies from time to time, and 
their compensation is not uniform. There are now 
60 districts. All these judges are appointed for life 
or good behavior. The judges appoint their own 
clerks, and generally for life. The United States 
marshals are appointed by the President and con- 
firmed by the Senate, for terms of four years. The 
same is true of district attorneys. 

It remains to sjjeak of the territories, from a gov- 
ernmental point of view. The governor, secretary, 
and judge, or judges, as the case may be, are ap- 
pointed by the President, the people being allowed 
to elect their own legislatures. A territorial gover- 
nor or judge receives a salary of $2,600, the secre- 
tary $1,800. Besides the regular territories, which 
are prospective states, is the District of Columbia. 



Its affairs are under the control, in the main, of 
three commissioners, appointed by the President, 
and entitled to a salary of $5,000 per annum. 

It may be added in this connection that in 
nlmost all cases appointments are for four years in 
the Presidential offices, as those are called which 
require the President to submit the name to the Sen- 
ate, while subordinate positions are subject to the 
caprices of politics, the mutations of friendship or 
the freaks of personal whim. As a matter of fact 
the great bulk of the civil service is performed by 
officers, clerks and employes who are retained on 
their merits by their respective chiefs. Since 1861 
women have been freely and satisfactorily employed 
in the public service of the United States. 

In concluding this chapter it may be well to define 
the rights of suffrage and mode of election in this 
country. No one can be debarred from this right 
on account of race, color, or previous condition of 
servitude. The details on this subject are given in 
tabular form, the conditions of elective franchise 
being different in different states. 

In choosing a President and Vice-President the 
mode required is for each state to elect by the people 
or appoint by the legislature (the latter is now no- 
where done) as many electors as the state has mem- 
bers of both houses of Congress. Those electors are 
all chosen on the same day, the first Monday in the 
November preceding the expiration of a presidential 
term. The electors of each state meet on the first 
Wednesday of December at the state capital, form- 
ing an Electoral College, and casting their ballots 
for President and Vice-President, and send the re- 
turns to the President of the Senate the first Wednes- 
day in January. The second Wednesday in February 
both houses of Congress meet as one body and the 
President of the Senate opens and declares the vote. 
If no candidate has received a majority of all the votes 
cast, tlie House proceeds to elect a President, the 
Senate a Vice-President. In the House the voting 
must be by states, and only the candidates having 
the three highest Electoral College votes are eligible. 

Such is the government of the United States in 
the more important of its many ramifications. 







Al- 





CHAPTER LXXXV. 



The Presidents op the United States— Bioqraphical Sketch or Each op the Twenty-one 
Presidents, in the order op their Respective Terms op Ofpice— Historical Sketch op 
Each of the Twentt-four Presidential Elections in Chronolooical Order. 




^HrSscfclK^ 




T is proposed in this chap- 
ter to give brief biographies 
of the Presidents of the 
United States and present 
specifically the several pres- 
idential elections. As some 
of our Presidentswereelect- 
ed twice and others again 
were only elected to the vice-presidency,it 
is thought best to keep the two branches 
of the subject distinct. In both cases the 
chronological order will be followed, be- 
erinninc with the Presidents themselves 
and closing with the elections. Care 
will be observed not to repeat what has 
been brought out in previous chapters, 
so far as possible. 

George Washington was born in Vir- 
ginia, February 22, 1. 732. His death occurred Decem- 
ber 14,1799. He was a planter with some knowledge 
of surveying and experience in the Virginia House of 
Burgesses, or Legislature. His military career and 
presidential service belong to history rather than to 
biography. When the war closed he retired to his 
plantation at Mount Vernon until called to serve as 
president of the constitutional convention, and 
later, of the United States. He refused a third 
term. His private life was without reproach. The 




management of his estate was more to his taste 
than the cares and perplexities of office. In man- 
ner he was courtly. He never fully identified him- 
self with any political party, but leaned strongly to- 
ward Federalism. 

John Adams was born in Massachusetts, October 
19, 1735, and died July 4, 1826. He was a gradu- 
ate of Harvard College, a lawyer by profession, and 
by temperament an imperious partisan. His public 
career may be said to date from the passage of the 
Stamp Act by Parliament. He early and eloquently 
advocated the union and independence of the colo- 
nies. From 1778 until 1788 he represented the 
United States at either the French or English court. 
He sympathized with the aristocratic tastes of 
Washington rather than the democratic ideas of 
Jefferson. He attributed his defeat for re-election 
to the presidency quite as much to Hamilton's luke- 
warmness as to republican opposition, and retired to 
private life embittered and unhappy. He lived to 
witness the election of his son to the presidency. 

Thomas Jefferson was born in Virginia, April 13, 
1743, and died July 4, 1826. The family was of 
Welsh extraction. Educated at William and Mary's 
College, he adopted the profession of law. His ser- 
vice in the Continental Congress was brief. The 
Revolution fairly inaugurated, he returned to Vir- 
ginia and devoted himself to the establishment of 



(58o) 



;S* 




OUR, PRESIDENTS. 



Ml 



ihL 



PRESIDENTS AND PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS. 



583 



republican institutions in that state. He represented 
this country at the French court from 1784 to 1780. 
During Washington's administration lie was Secre- 
tary of State. After he retired from public life, at 
the close of his second presidential term, Jefferson 
devoted himself to the advancement of the cause of 
education and the interest of agriculture. He was 
a voluminous writer, and his works constitute a 
storehouse of political wisdom. 

James Madison, also of Virginia, was born March 
16, 1751, and died June 28, 1836. He was a gradu- 
ate of Princeton College, and remarkable for his 
studious habits. He had no gifts of oratory. He 
first distinguished himself as an advocate of relig- 
ious liberty in Virginia. He served a short time in 
the Continental Congress, but not conspicuously. 
His supreme service was in the convention which 
framed the Constitution of the United States, where 
his profound learning and thorough republicanism 
made him greatly useful. He was a member of the 
first four Congresses. He might have been a formid- 
able rival of Jefferson's, but preferred to bide his 
time. Jefferson made him his Secretary of State 
and secured his acceptance by the Republican party 
as heir to the presidency. In private life he was 
hardly less useful to education and agriculture than 
Jefferson. His life was serene and faultless. 

James Monroe was born in Virginia. April 28, 
1758, and died in New York. July 4, 1831. He was 
the first poor man in the presidential office. He in- 
herited no estate, and was too continuously in public 
life to acquire wealth. He served in the Continen- 
tal Congress from 1783 to 178(5 ; in the United States 
Senate from 1790 to 1704 ; as governor from 1790 to 
1802, and again in 1811; as minister to France, 
Spain and England from 1802 to 1808 ;as Secretary 
of State from 1811 to 1817, and as President from 
1817 to 1825. He was a justice of the peace in Vir- 
ginia for some time after the expiration of his pres- 
idential term. His last years were clouded with the 
perplexities of poverty. His ability was hardly above 
mediocrity. The " machine" set up by Jefferson 
made him President. 

John Quincy Adams was born in Massachusetts, 
July 11, 1767, and died at the national capital Feb- 
ruary 23, 1848. Although a graduate of Harvard 
College, the second Adams was maiuly educated 
abroad. He was a ripe scholar, a tireless worker, 
and a great orator. He had none of the tact of 



the politician. His best services before the presi- 
dency were diplomatic. In the Senate from 1805 
to 1808 he failed to give satisfaction to his constitu- 
ents. His state was strongly Federal, but he joined 
the Republican party. Monroe made him his Sec- 
retary of State, and he was on the " slate " for 
President. He won the prize, but it was a victory 
which left him without the support of any party. His 
great life-work was wrought in the House of Repre- 
sentatives from 1830 to 1848, where his advocacy of 
freedom won him the appellation of "The Old Man 
Eloquent." He was stricken down by paralysis in 
his seat in Congress and died two days thereafter. 

Andrew Jackson was a native of North Carolina, 
of Scotch-Irish descent, born March 15, 1767, and 
died in Tennessee June 8, 1845. Jackson was the 
first President chosen from the humblest ranks in 
life. His father was a poor farm-laborer, and his 
education was sadly neglected. A lawyer by pro- 
fession, his life was mainly spent in war ami poli- 
ties. In both lie was a brilliant success. No man 
ever exerted a deeper and more enduring influence 
upon the politics of this country than he. As Jef- 
ferson was the father of the first Republican party, 
so Jackson was of the Democracy. He was rough, 
quarrelsome, headstrong and outspoken. His elec- 
tion to the presidency was the triumph of the com- 
mon people, and formed an era in politics. To him 
belongs the bad pre-eminence of having inaugu- 
rated the policy of parceling out the offices as the 
reward of political service. He fought several duels, 
but finally died in the odor of Preshyterianism. 

Martin Van Buren, a representative of the Dutch 
of New York, was born December 5, 1782, and died 
July 24, 1862. He was a politician of the most par- 
tisan character and a remarkable adejit in the arts 
of politics. He began the study of law at the age of 
fourteen and entered the legislature of his state in 
1812. In 1821 he was elected to the United States 
Senate. He served later as Governor of New York, 
Secretary of State under Jackson, and during the 
second term of the latter he was Vice-President. 
The favor of Jackson and his own adroitness made 
him President. He did not abandon the hope of a 
second term when beaten by Harrison in 1840, and 
was the choice of a majority of the delegates to the 
National Convention of 1844, but failing to secure 
a two-thirds majority, he was defeated. That closed 
his public career, except the inglorious episode of 



73 



5§4 



PRESIDENTS AND PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS. 



1848. In retirement lie wrote a history of political 
parties in the United States. 

William Henry Harrison was a citizen of Ohio 
when elected to the presidency, but a native of Vir- 
ginia. He was born February 9, 1773, and died 
April 4, 1841. He was the first President to die in 
office. His father was Governor Benjamin Harri- 
son, and his grandson of the .same name is now a 
senator from Indiana. He entered the army in 1791 
and was stationed at Fort Washington, now Cincin- 
nati. He was secretary of the Northwest Territory, 
a delegate to Congress,and later governor of Indi- 
ana. He was in the Ohio State Senate ; both 
houses of Congress; minister to Colombia, South 
America, and a county clerk during the twelve years 
immediatelv preceding hi* election to the presidency. 
His success at the Indian battle of Tippecanoe really 
made him President. Harrison was charged by the 
Democrats with living in a log cabin and drinking 
hard cider. His political friends turned the accusa- 
tion into an element of enthusiastic popularity. 

John Tyler was born in Virginia March 29, 1790, 
and died in llichmond January 17, 1862. He was 
educated at William and Man's College and early 
entered public life. His career was such as to make 
him singularly unpopular. He was a member of 
the United States Senate when South Carolina 
passed the nullification act, and approved its pas- 
sage. He was an intense anti-Jackson man, and 
that endeared him to the Whigs, who nominated 
him for Vice-President because he had resigned his 
seat hi the Senate rather than obey the behests of 
the Democratic legislature of Virginia. He was 
not in accord, throughout, with any party, and he 
went out of office the most unpopular man who ever 
filled that position, not excepting the other vice- 
presidential Presidents of a later date. His last ap- 
pearance in public was as President of the Peace 
Convention of 1801. He aspired to the presidency 
in 1844, but found himself a candidate without a 
party or a following. 

James K. Polk, like the two other Presidents of 
the United States furnished by Tennessee, Jackson 
and Johnson, was a native of North Carolina. He 
was born November 2, 1795, and died June 19, 1849. 
He was educated at the University of Nashville. 
His Congressional life began in 1824. He served as 
Speaker of the House two terms, and governor of 
his state one term. Polk was a staunch supporter 



of Jackson and all his measures. Like Abraham 
Lincoln, he had aspired to the vice-presidency four 
years before his election to the presidency. He was 
not a candidate for re-election in 1848. The issue 
on which be was elected, the annexation of Texas, 
was settled by Tyler before he came into the presi- 
dency, but the Mexican war which followed was the 
natural sequence of that annexation. Polk was a 
Presbyterian in religion, and his life was consistent 
with his professions. 

Zachary Taylor was born in Virginia September 
24, 1784. His family residence when elected to the 
presidency was in Louisiana. He died in the Exec- 
utive Mansion, Washington, July 9, 1850. General 
Taylor remained upon his father's plantation until 
1808, when he was appointed an officer in the reg- 
ular army, and lie remained in the service until his 
elevation to the presidency on the strength of his 
record in Mexico. He was a slaveholder, but not in 
sympathy with the prevailing Southern eagerness 
for more slave territory. Some suspicion of foul 
play and poison lingers about his death which 
was attributed to an attack of bilious fever. He 
was father-in-law to Jefferson Davis and father of 
General Richard Taylor of the Confederate army. 

Millard Fillmore, who came to the presidency in 
consequence of the death of General Taylor, was a 
native of New York, born January 7, 1800, and died 
at Buffalo March 8, 1874. His early education was 
meager, but being of a studious disposition, he be- 
came a well-informed man. He was a lawyer by 
profession. Fillmore entered Cougress as a Whig 
in 1833, and gradually rose in influence until he be- 
came chairman of the committee of Ways and 
Means in 1842. He was the Whig candidate for gov- 
ernor of New York in 1844, but was defeated. When 
nominated and elected for the vice-presidency he 
was comptroller of the state. He aspired to the 
presidency by election, but the Whig party may be 
said to have died upon his hands. His last years 
were spent in the practice of law in Buffalo. He 
was an elegant gentleman and an honest man. 

Franklin Pierce was a native of New Hampshire. 
He was born November 23, 1804, and died October 
8, 1869. His father, Benjamin Pierce, had been 
governor of the state. Bowdoin College was his 
alma mater, where Nathaniel Hawthorne was his 
classmate. They became and remained warm 
friends. Pierce was in the lower house of Congress 






PRESIDENTS AND PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS. 



585 



from 1833 to 1837, and in the Senate from 1837 to 
1842. Polk offered him a seat in his cabinet, but 
he preferred to accept a brigadier-generalship in the 
army during the war with Mexico. He did not dis- 
tinguish himself, but acquired availability, as it 
proved, for the presidency to which he was elected in 
1852. He was always strongly Southern in his sym- 
pathies. After his retirement from the presidency 
he lived quietly at Concord, New Hampshire. He 
made a feeble effort to secure a re-nomination in 
1856. 

James Buchanan was a native of Pennsylvania 
and never changed his residence. He was born 
April 23, 1791, and died June 1, 1868. He was edu- 
cated at Dickinson College. He began his long po- 
litical career as a Federalist, but rallied around the 
standard of General Jackson. In 1828 he was 
elected to Congress. Three years later he was ap- 
pointed minister to Russia. Two years later he was 
elected to the United States Senate and served cred- 
itably in that body twelve years. In 1853 he was 
appointed minister to England. It was while he 
was holding that position that he was nominated 
for the presidency. His election in 1856 was the 
last national triumph of the Democracy. In 1866 
he published in self-defense a volume entitled, " Mr. 
Buchanan's Administration." As an attempt at 
vindication it was a failure. 

Abraham Lincoln was bom in Kentucky Febru- 
ary 19, 1809, and died at the hand of the assassin, 
J. Wilkes Booth, April 15, 1865. Like Jackson 
and his immediate successor, Johnson, he sprang 
from the very humblest rank. His education 
was almost wholly self -procured. His early life was 
spent upon a pioneer farm. He was elected to the 
legislature of Illinois in 1834 and studied law. He 
removed to Springfield and gradually rose to con- 
siderable eminence in his profession and as an effect- 
ive political speaker. In 1846 he was elected to 
Congress as a Whig and served one term. When 
the Republican party was organized he was its recog- 
nized leader in Illinois. He received 110 votes as 
candidate for the vice-presidency in 1856. In 1858 
he canvassed Illinois in a joint debate with Douglas, 
acquitting himself so grandly that his nomination 
for and election to the presidency was his reward. 
From that time to his tragic death the life of Lin- 
coln was historical rather than biographical. 

Andrew Johnson was born December 29, 1808, and 



died July 31, 1875. A tailor by trade, he was taught 
to read and write by his wife. His first office was 
that of alderman. He drifted into politics natur- 
ally, being always very popular with the industrial 
class. He entered Congress in 1843 as a Democrat, 
where he remained until chosen governor of Ten- 
nessee in 1853. In 1857 he was elected to the Sen- 
ate. When secession came he was a staunch sup- 
porter of the Union, and that gave him a popularity 
at the North which secured him the vice-presiden- 
tial nomination in 1864, and ultimately the presi- 
dency. His presidential term was one long struggle 
against the party which elected him. He made two 
unsuccessful attempts to get back into the United 
States Senate, and finally, in 1875, his wish was 
gratified, but he died soon after taking his seat. 

Ulysses S. Grant was born iu Ohio, April 27,1822. 
His father was a sagacious business man, and the 
son was educated at West Point. He took part in 
the Mexican war and served for a time upon the 
frontier. In 1854 he resigned his position in the 
army and devoted himself to business. His career 
from 1861 to 1877 forms a conspicuous part of 
American history. In the spring of 1877 he started 
on a trip around the world, and was everywhere re- 
ceived with distinguished honors. He returned to 
America in the fall of 1879. He became a promi- 
nent but unsuccessful candidate for the Republican 
nomination for the presidency in 1880. General 
Grant died July 23, 1885. 

Rutherford B. Hayes was born in Ohio. He was 
educated at Kenyon College and adopted the profes- 
sion of law, entering upon its practice in Cincinnati. 
When the civil war came he entered the service and 
was a very creditable but not very conspicuous Briga- 
dier-General. After the war he served one term in 
Congress and was elected to the governorship of his 
state, which office he occupied at the time of his elec- 
tion to the presidency. Since the expiration of his 
term of office, March 4, 1881, he has lived in retire- 
ment at his home in Fremont, Ohio. 

James A. Garfield was born in Ohio November 19, 
1831, and died at the hand of the assassin Guiteau 
September 19, 1881. Young as he was, his public 
life had been long and eventful. He graduated at 
Williams' College in 1856 and adopted teaching as a 
profession. In 1859 he was elected to the State Sen- 
ate of Ohio. He studied law and prepared to enter 
the legal profession. When the war came he entered 



5 86 



PRESIDENTS AND PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS. 



the military service. He rose to the rank of Major- 
Geueral. In 1862 he was elected io Congress. He 
remained in that body until elected to the presidency 
in 1880. In the previous winter he had been chosen 
United States Senator for the term beginning March 
4, 1881. His election was the triumph of genius and 
goodness over calumny, and he entered upon the 
office of chief magistrate with every prospect of a 
great future. 

Chester A. Arthur, the third Vice-President to 
reach the presidency, was born in Vermont. He is 
a graduate of Union College. Choosing the law as 
his profession, he made New York City his home. 
His first public effort was the defense of a fugitive 
slave, and he acquitted himself with great credit. 
During the gubernatorial term of Governor Morgan 
he was Adjutant-General of the state of New York, 
rendering important service during the first year 
and a half of the war in that capacity. Late in the 
second term of President Grant, General Arthur was 
appointed Collector of the port of New York. He 
was removed by President Haves, but not upon any 
charge of malfeasance. His removal was due to a 
difference of opinion upon the political features of 
the civil service. He was a member of the National 
Republican Convention of 1880, in which body he 
supported General Grant for a third term.* 

Having finished what may lie railed a kev to the 
presidential group introductory to this chapter, we 
turn to the elections which have been held. The 
United States has had twenty-one Presidents and 
twenty-four presidential elections. 

During the Revolutionary War this country was 
without an executive head in distinction from a letr- 
islative body, the Continental Congress exercising 
all the political functions of a national nature. The 
President of that body was its presiding officer and 
nothing more. 

The first presidential election occurred the first 
Wednesday in January, 1789. It was held by order 
of the Continental Congress. The electors were 
chosen that day in accordance with the Constitution 
which had been duly ratified during the previous 
summer, taking the place of the Articles of Confed- 
eration. On the Wednesday next following, the 
electors met, those of each state by themselves, in 
their respective state capitols, to vote for President 
and Vice-President. So perfectly harmonious and 

well understood was the whole matter that the elec- 
* See note page 591. 



tions of George Washington to the presidency and 
John Adams to the vice-presidency were unanimous. 
The same law of the Continental Congress which 
provided for the presidential election also provided 
that a new Congress should be elected when the 
electors were chosen, and that body is known as the 
First Congress. It was further provided that both 
Congress and the President should enter upon their 
official duties the first Wednesday in the following 
March (which fell upon the fourth day of the 
month) in the city of New York. Washington and 
Adams were on hand in time, but it was April 30 be- 
fore a quorum of Congress convened and the new exe- 
cutive actually came into power. North Carolina and 
Rhode Island had not ratified the constitution and 
took no part in the first election of a President. The 
second presidential election was also unanimous, the 
President and Vice-President being re-elected without 
opposition. Fifteen states took part in it, Vermont 
and Kentucky, as well as the original thirteen. 

Washington refused a third term. The candidates 
balloted for, with their electoral votes, were these: 
John Adams, Massachusetts, 71 ; Thomas Jefferson, 
Virginia, 00 ; Thomas Pinckney, South Carolina, 
59 ; Aaron Burr, New York, 38. As the constitu- 
tion then stood, the second choice of the people for 
President became Vice-President. Tennessee was 
added to the list of states by that time, 1796, and 
the existence of two well-defined political parties 
was manifest. Washington was not a partisan, but 
leaned toward Federalism, or a strong central gov- 
ernment. John Adams, Pinckney and Alexander 
Hamilton were the leaders of the Federalists; 
Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr were the leaders 
of the Republicans, or State-rights party. 

In 1804 the same candidates were in the field as 
in 1796, and the election resulted, Jefferson and 
Burr 73 votes each, Adams 64 and Pinckney 63. 
There was thus a tie and a tangle which threatened 
very serious consequences. The election was thrown 
into the House. After balloting seven days that 
body chose Jefferson President and Burr Vice-Presi- 
dent. Before another election was held, the con- 
stitution was so amended that the electors have since 
voted directly for presidents and vice-presidents. 
With that defeat Adams and his party went out of 
power forever. It continued to exist and vainly 
strive for the ascendancy until after the war of 1812, 
when, with the election of Monroe, it ceased to exist. 



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The fifth election brought another member of the 
Pinckney family, Charles C, to the front as the can- 
didate of the Federalists, with Rufus King of New 
York as candidate for Vice-President. The duel 
between Burr and Hamilton, resulting in the latter's 
death, had made the name of Burr second in odium 
only to Arnold, and in his place New York furnished, 
as second to Jefferson, George Clinton. It may 
be remarked that if Virginia is the Mother of Pres- 
idents, New York is of Vice-Presidents. Jefferson 
and Clinton received 162 votes ; their opponents only 
14. Ohio had been admitted to the Union in 1802. 

Following the example of Washington, Jefferson 
retired to private life at the close of his second term. 
James Madison of Virginia came to the front as the 
leader of the Republican forces, with Clinton still 
second. Pinckney and King were again the candi- 
dates of the Federalists. They received 47 each, to 
123 for Madison and 113 for Clinton. 

Four years later Madison was re-elected, but George 
Clinton had died in office, and Elbridge Gerry of 
Massachusetts took his place as Vice-President. The 
Federal candidates were DeWitt Clinton (nephew of 
George) of New York and Jared Ingersoll of Penn- 
sylvania. By that time Louisianahad been admitted 
to the Union. The Republican candidates received 
128 electoral votes each, Clinton 89 and Ingersoll 57. 
The second war with England was fought during 
that seventh administration. 

The election in 1816 stood, James Monroe of Vir- 
ginia for President and Daniel D. Tompkins of New 
York for Vice-President, 183 votes each; and Rufus 
King of New York and John E. Howard of Mary- 
land, 34 votes each. Indiana took part in that elec- 
tion. The Federalists who had carried the second 
presidential election, and struggled vainly for the 
mastery in the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh and 
eighth, now at last gave up the contest, accepting the 
inevitable. 

The condition of the country was one of measure- 
less content. Monroe and Tompkins were re-elected 
in 1820 without opposition. Four new states had 
been added to the Union, Illinois, Alabama, Maine, 
and Mississippi. The Republicans had been in 
power twenty-four years, and selected the President 
all the time from Virginia. 

Before 1824 the contest over Missouri had been 
waged, resulting in the compromise which was in 
reality the first battle of the war between the states. 



In that, the tenth election, there were four candi- 
dates for President, none of them representing a 
party. The persistence of the Federalists in hold- 
ing together had been, as it proved, the cohesive 
power of Republicanism. The four candidates in 
1824, and their respective votes, were as follows : 
Andrew Jackson, 00; John Quincy Adams, 84; 
Wm. II. Crawford, 1 1 ; Henry Clay, 31. The num- 
ber necessary to a choice was 131, consequently the 
election of a President devolved upon the House. 
The result was the selection of Adams for the presi- 
dency. John C. Calhoun of South Carolina had 
received 182 electoral votes for the vice-presidency. 
Adams and Clay combined their forces against the 
hero of the battle of New Orleans. Being a great 
statesman but no politician, Adams failed to rally 
to his support a party organization, and the time 
came fur another presidential election. Hitherto no 
national conventions had been held. The candi- 
dates for President and Vice-President had always 
been selected by congressional caucuses. The year 
1824 saw the last of ''King Caucus" as presidential 
dictator. 

The eleventh election, 1828, was a clear-cut, bit- 
ter and exciting contest between President Adams 
and Richard Rush of Pennsylvania on one side and 
Jackson and Calhoun 011 the other. It was culture 
and the Northeast against uncouth vigor and the 
South and "West. The result was that out of 201 
electoral votes Jackson received 178, Calhoun 171, 
and Adams and Rush S3 each. Jackson was not 
particularly skilled in the arts of the politician, but 
he was the material out of which to construct 
an ideal leader in those times, and served as the 
nucleus of a new party, the Democracy. This or- 
ganization really dates from Jackson's accession to 
power. During that first term of Jackson the abor- 
tive nullification movement in South Carolina oc- 
curred. It was countenanced by Calhoun and 
crushed by Jackson, and thus was the former ren- 
dered unavailable as a national candidate for any 
office, while the latter was immensely strengthened 
by it. 

In 1832 Jackson was re-elected, receiving 210 out 
of 288 electoral votes. With him was elected to the 
vice-presidency Martin Van Buren of New York. 
There were several opposing candidates, Clay, W il- 
liam Wirt and John Floyd, but "Old Hickory," as 
his friends delighted to call him, was invincible. 



59° 



PRESIDENTS AND PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS. 



Iii 1S36 Van Buren was the candidate of the 
Democratic party, with Richard M. Johnson of 
Kentucky on the ticket with him for Vice-President. 
The opposition was still fragmentary. William II. 
Harrison of Ohio, Daniel Webster of Massachusetts, 
W. P. Mangum of North Carolina, and Hugh L. 
"White of Tennessee, were all in the field, but Van Bu- 
ren received 170 out of 294 electoral votes. Johnson 
was elected Vice-President by the Senate, no choice 
for that office having been made by the electors. 

The importance of political organization was now 
so well established that in 1S40 the opposition, 
which had gradually come to be known as Whigs, 
held a national convention. In the meanwhile the 
panic and hard times of 1837 had occurred. Van 
Buren and Johnson were the nominees of the De- 
mocracv. Tlu Whigs chose as their candidates Gen- 
eral Harrison and John Tyler of Virginia. The 
campaign was very exciting. It resulted in a bril- 
liant Whig victory. Out of 294 votes cast, Harrison 
and Tyler received 224. Harrison died almost im- 
mediately, and April John Tyler became acting 
President. That was the first time in the history 
of the country that the Angel of Death elected the 
President. 

In 1844 the Democrats nominated James K. 
Polk of Tennessee, and George M. Dallas of Penn- 
sylvania, as their standard-bearers; the AVhigs 
selected Henry Clay and Theodore Frelinghuysen of 
New Jersey. Out of 275 votes cast, Polk and Dallas 
received 170. The Abolitionists had by this time 
become something of a power in the North, just 
enough to draw from the Whigs sufficient votes to 
give the victory to the Democracy. 

Before the next or sixteenth election, the Mexican 
war had been fought and gold discovered in Cali- 
fornia. The Whigs chose as their presidential can- 
didate General Zachary Taylor, nominally of Louis- 
iana, but really a soldier with no civil life. He had 
never voted in his life. On the ticket with him was 
Millard Fillmore of New York. The Democratic 
candidates were Lewis Cass of Michigan and Win. 
0. Butler of Kentucky. " Old Rough and Ready " 
was the popular name for Taylor, and he swept the 
country, aided by the fact that Martin Van Buren, 
out of hatred for Cass, ran as Free-soil candidate, 
drawing off votes enough to give Taylor the state of 
New York. The vote stood : Taylor and Fillmore, 
163 ; Cass and Butler, 127. 



The seventeenth presidential election (1852) 
found both parties eagerly disavowing anti-slavery 
sentiments and vying in subserviency to the South. 
The Democratic candidates were Franklin Pierce of 
New Hampshire and William R. King of Alabama. 
The Whig candidates were General Winfield Scott, 
(if military renown, and William A. Graham of 
North Carolina. The disparity in the popular vote 
was not very great, but in the electoral vote the 
Democratic ticket stood 254, the Whig 42. There 
were, by that time, 31 states, the latest being Cali- 
fornia. 

In 1850 the slavery question became more promi- 
nent than ever, owing to the repeal of the Missouri 
Compromise. The Whig party died with the defeat 
of Scott. The modern Republican party came into 
existence, as a national organization, June 17, 1856, 
at Philadelphia, at which time John C. Fremont of 
California, and William M. Dayton of New Jersey, 
were nominated for President and Vice-President. 
Fifteen days before, the Democrats had put in the 
field James Buchanan of Pennsylvania, and John 
C. Breckenridge of Kentucky. The " Know-Noth- 
ing," or American, party had a ticket in the field, 
headed by ex-President Fillmore. The latter had 
8 electoral votes ; Fremont, 114 ; Buchanan, 1 74. 
Fillmore's votes came from Maryland, Fremont's 
from the North, he being the first candidate of any 
prominence to furnish the occasion of sharply de- 
fined sectionalism. 

In 1860 there were four candidates, if we include 
the insignificant candidacy of Bell and Everett 
(American party). The Democrats were divided in 
their support between Stephen A. Douglas and 
John C. Breckenridge. The Rejuublicans put in the 
field Abraham Lincoln of Illinois, and Hannibal 
Hamlin of Maine. The contest was fierce and close. 
The popular vote of the two wings of the Democ- 
racy were several hundred thousand in excess of 
the Republican vote, but being divided, the result 
was that Lincoln had 180 votes; Douglas, 12; 
Breckenridge, 72 and Bell 39. Douglas had sub- 
stantially the same popular vote as Breckenridge 
and Bell combined. 

The twentieth election occurred during the civil 
war, and was the triumph of the war party at the 
North. The Republicans re-nominated Abraham 
Lincoln, and placed Andrew Johnson of Tennessee 
upon the ticket with him. The Democrats ran 



71 



Sv*" 



PRESIDENTS AND PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS, 



591 



General George B. MeClellan on his military record 
with George H. Pendleton of Ohio second upon the 
ticket. The vote stood, Lincoln, 212 ; McClellan, 
21. In little over a month after his second inaugu- 
ration Mr. Lincoln was assassinated, and Andrew 
Johnson came to the presidency in his place. John- 
son became so very unpopular that he was finally 
impeached, and only by one vote escaped conviction. 
Had lie been convicted, B. F. Wade of Ohio would 
have filled out the balance of the second Lincoln term. 

In 1868 occurred the twenty-first national elec- 
tion. The candidates were Ulysses S. Grant of Illi- 
nois and Schuyler Colfax of Indiana, on the Repub- 
lican side ; Horatio Seymour of New York and 
Frank P. Blair of Missouri, on the Democratic side. 
Three states, Virginia, Texas, and Mississippi, had 
not been restored to the Union, and took no part in 
the election. Grant received 214 votes ; Seymour, 80. 
Grant's popular majority was about half a million. 

By 1872 a great deal of disaffection had developed 
within the Republican party, owing to long contin- 
uance in power. This discontent found expression 
in the assembling of the National Liberal Conven- 
tion in Cincinnati which nominated Horace Greeley 
of New York for the presidency, and B. Gratz 
Brown of Missouri for the vice-presidency. The 
Democrats in their national convention put the 
same ticket in the field. The Republicans re-nom- 
inated General Grant, putting Henry Wilson of 
.Massachusetts upon the ticket with him. The Re- 
publicans carried 280 electoral votes, the opposition 
only 47. Mr. Greeley died between the popular 



election and the meeting of the electoral colleges. 
Vice-President Wilson died during his term of office. 
The Liberal movement was abandoned and the 
Democracy returned to ite trendies and general line 
of battle. 

The centennial, or twenty-third, presidential cam- 
paign was peculiar in the fact that it was continued 
almost to the very day of inauguration. The Re- 
publican candidates were Rutherford B. Hayes of 
Ohio, and William A. Wheeler of New York; the 
Democratic candidates were Samuel J. Tilden of 
New York, and Thomas A. Hendricks of Indiana, 
all, except Wheeler, being governors of their respec- 
tive states. No other candidates received any elec- 
toral votes. It was conceded. that Tilden had 184 
votes out of a total of 369. The votes of South 
Carolina, Florida and Louisiana, especially the lat- 
ter, were stoutly claimed by both parties. Finally, 
it became necessary for the conservative element in 
both parties to agree upon a plan of arbitration. A 
bill was passed which created an Electoral Commis- 
sion to decide the matter in dispute. The result 
was that Hayes received 185 votes and was duly de- 
clared elected. 

The last election held was the twenty -fourth, in 
1880. James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur 
were the nominees of the Republican party ; General 
Winfield S. Hancock, of the regular army, and 
William II. English -of Indiana, were the nominees 
of the Democracy. The vote stood, Garfield, 214 ; 
Hancock, 155, and the validity of the election was 
not questioned.* 



*Note, Latest Edition.— The twenty-fourth election was held in 1*80. James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur were the nominees 
of the Republican party; Gen. Winfield S. Hancock of the regular army, and William H. English, of Indiana, were the nominees of 
the Democracy. The vote stood, Garfield :.'14; Hancock 155, and the validity of the election was not questioned.. 

The last Presidential election up to date was held in 1884. The Republicans were the first in the field, nominating James < :. Blaine 
and John A. Logan for President ami Vice-President. The Convention was held in Chicago, ami a tew weeks later the Democratic 
National Convention met in the same city, and nominated Grocer Cleveland, the Governor of -New York, and Thomas A. Hendricks, 
of Indiana. It was tin- first Presidential election under the census of 1880, and the total Electoral College vote was 41)1, of which Cleve- 
land received 2111; Blaine, 182. The popular vote st 1, Cleveland, 4,911,017; Blaine, 4,848,334. The pivotal state was New York, with its 

electoral votes, and Cleveland's pleuralitv over Blaine was 1,047. Close as was this vote, and uncertain as it was tor several days, there 
was no question as to the finality of the result, a remarkable evidence of the ability of the American people to govern themselves. 






03' ^C^C^jC^j, 




~f 





THE STATES AND TERRITORIES 

OF THE 

UNITED STATES. 








CHAPTER LXXXVI. 

The Scope of this Chapter— The States and Territories in their Alphabetical Order— 
The Original Thirteen States, from the Bate of their Emergence from Colonies 
into Independent Commonwealths— Productions, Resources and other Features of 
each State, and Territory, Actual and Prospective. 



AAaA 

:p-l 




4 




HE United States consists 
of thirty-eight states, eight 
territories and two dis- 
tricts, the latter being 
Alaska and the District of 
Columbia. It is proposed 
in this connection to give 
the more important and interest- 
ing facts, historical and actual, 
about each state and territory, 
taking them up in their alphabet- 
ical order, omitting such informa- 
tion as may be found either in 
preceding chapters or in subse- 
quent statistical tables. In giving 
longitudes and latitudes it will be 
unnecessary to add "north" to one 
and " west from Greenwich " to 
the other, this being understood as a matter of course. 
The seal of each state will be given. The states are 
older than the United States. There is no limit 
fixed to the number of states which may be admitted 
by Congress. No provision is made for dividing a 
state, except in the ea^e of Texas, which, it. is con- 
templated, may eventually be several states; but 
any instance occurring of an attempt of that kind 
could be decided upon its merits. 




ALABAMA. 

Alabama was the twenty-second state in the order 
of its admission to the Union. The name is Creek 
(Indian) for "Here we rest." It is situated between 
latitudes 30° 15' and 35, and longitudes 84° 
56' and 88° 48'. It is 336 miles long and from 148 
to 200 miles wide. The soil is easily tilled and quite 
productive. Its principal rivers are, the Tennessee, 
the Mobile, Tombigbee, Alabama, Coosa, Black 
Warrior. Perdido and Chattahoochee. The north- 
ern portion of the state is somewhat mountainous, 
and the farther south you go the lower is the aver, 
age level. It is a great cotton-growing state. It 
has one good seaport, and only one, Mobile. The 
bay of that name is about 30 miles long and from 
three to four miles wide. The main manufacturing 
industry carried cm there has iron for its base; but 
some cotton cloth is made. For a long time it 
raised more cotton than any other state in the 
Union. With the exception of Mobile, the state can 



(592) 



wr 



J- 



STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



593 



hardly be said to have a city, and its prosperity is 
almost wholly industrial rather than commercial. 

In 1819 the territory of Alabama was organized, 
and two years later the state, having a population of 
127,901, was admitted into the Union. It was at 
Montgomery, the capital of Alabama, that the 
Southern Confederacy was organized. It remained 
the Confederate capital until the July following, 
about six months. Several battles were fought 
within the borders of that state during the civil 
war, the naval action in Mobile Bay, August, 1864, 
being the chief. The land engagements were com- 
paratively trivial. After the close of the war, June, 
1865, President Johnson appointed a provisional 
governor. The state rescinded the ordinance of 
secession in September following and sought re- 
admission to representation in Congress. It was not 
reconstructed until 1868. It was Republican in poli- 
tics for several years, but with nearly all political 
disabilities removed, it reverted to the Democracy. 
It suffered less probably from the ravages of war 
than any other Confederate state. 

ALASKA. 

Alaska was known as Russian -America until the 
United States purchased it from Russia in 1867. 
The price paid was 87/200,000. Wm. H. Seward 
was Secretary of State at that time, and was very 
eager for the acquisition. Some very absurd reports 
were widely circulated representing the country to 
have some agricultural value. It may possibly have 
some valuable mines, but the soil isfrostbound and 
sterile. It extends north as far as the Arctic Ocean, 
between latitudes 54° 40' and 71° "33'. Behring 
Strait, separates it from Asia. Its only intrinsic 
value lies in its seal fisheries. From these the gov- 
ernment derives some revenue and the world some 
furs. The peninsula, sometimes known as Sitka, 
is about 350 miles long and 25 miles wide on an 
average. It is a strip of land between British Colum- 
bia and the main body of Alaska, having Mt. Saint 
Elias on the north. New Archangel, the capital 
of Alaska, if capital it may be said to have, is 
on an island which virtually forms a part of 
this peninsula. The United States does not main- 
tain a regular territorial government there. The 
population consists mostly of Esquimaux. It forms 
a collection district for the protection of the gov- 
ern ment interest in the seals. Alaska has a vol- 



cano of grand proportions, Mount Saint Elias. It 
has others of less altitude. St. Elias is about 18,000 
feet in height. 




ARKANSAS. 

Arkansas was organized as a territory in 1819. 
It had once formed a part of Louisiana. Its first 
settlement was by the French in 1670, at or near 
the point where the St. Francis River empties into 
the Mississippi. In 1812, when Louisiana became a 
state, Arkansas was made a part of Missouri. It 
had a long territorial existence, not having been ad- 
mitted to the Union until 1836. Its growth was 
slow until 1S50, when Southern planters began to 
go there in large numbers, attracted by its rich soil 
and adaptability to cotton raising. It was in full 
sympathy with secession and passed the ordinance, 
taking itself out of the Union on the very day 
that Lincoln was inaugurated. As early as January, 
1864, steps were taken in the direction of restoration 
to the Union, but it was not until the summer of 
1868 that Congress passed the bill for its restoration 
to representation, and it was not until 1874 that 
the state had rest from reconstruction. 

Arkansas has several kinds of mineral wealth. 
Its zinc ore is said to be equal to that of Silesia. 
Copper, manganese, iron and coal are abundant, es- 
pecially the latter. The most remarkable feature 
of the state is its cluster of hot springs, widely 
famed for healing properties. Rheumatism yields 
more readily to those waters than to drugs. Hot 
Springs, the town, is about 60 miles southwest of 
Little Rock, the capital. The state is admirably 
adapted to grazing. Its hay crop is important. Its 
area of arable land is very large. It is a fine country 
for fruit. The navigable waters of the state exceed 
3,000 miles in length. Its principal rivers are the 
Arkansas, the St. Francis, the White and the Oua- 
chita (pronounced Washitaw). In the order of its 
admission Arkansas is the twenty-fifth state in the 
Union. The climate is fine. The mean tempera- 
ture for the year is about 62°, and except in the 
malarial marshes the state is remarkably healthful. 



~i>\'v 



4 



594 



STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



ARIZONA. 

Arizona Territory was organized from New Mex- 
ico early in 1863. Tucson is the capital. That city 
is the center of quite an important mining region. 
This territory is at once old and new, having a com- 
paratively remote past, and yet in its actual devel- 
opment and attitude! toward civilization it is almost 
entirely prospective rather than retrospective. It 
is highly probable that New Spain, as established by 
Cortez, took in, definitely, the most of Arizona. 
Certain it is that there were Jesuit missionaries and 
other Spaniards in that vicinity, as permanent set- 




CALIFORNIA. 

California may be called the reward of demerit. 
The United States waged a war with Mexico which 
had in it no redeeming feature. It was a strong 
nation, taking mean advantage of a weak neighbor 




VIEW OP SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA. 



tiers, as early as 1600. Imposing and interesting 
ruins attest the zeal of those propagandists of the 
faith. There are many mines there which were 
worked two hundred years ago, and abandoned 
from the lack of machinery requisite to deep min- 
ing. There is not much tillage, nor hardly any 
possible, except by irrigation. Other minerals be- 
sides gold and silver are found there in great 
abundance. High mountains and deep canons 
prevail. It has immense tracts of good grazing land 
which arc largely occupied by vast herds of cattle. 
The flourishing mining town of Tombstone, so 
named on account of the natural aspect of the 
immediate country, is in this territory. That por- 
tion of the mineral belt is largely peopled, and 
developed by enterprise from the Pacific Slope. 



iu a cause which was bad in itself. But the result 
was an acquisition (if incalculably greater value to 
the country than any one could have anticipated. 
California was the chief, but by no means the sole, 
territorial acquisition of the United States from 
Mexico. 

As early as the sixteenth century, that great 
English navigator. Sir Francis Drake, coasted along 
the Pacific Slope. In 1579 he landed in California 
and took possession in the name of the British sover- 
eign, calling the land Xew Albion. But the English 
never attempted to establish their claim. The bay of 
San Francisco was discovered in 1769. A Jesuit mis- 
sion was founded there in 1776. For fifty years quite 
extensive missions were maintained in that vicinity 
by the Franciscan monks. When Mexico became 



STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



595 



independent the missions declined, and in 1845 the 
government confiscated the Franciscan property. 
When the country fell into the hands of the United 
States it was almost a virgin wilderness, for practi- 
cal purposes. 
Except that 
some tracts of 
land are held 
under old Mex- 
ican titles, Cal- 
ifornia hardly 
has a vital 
trace of Span- 
ish occupancy. 
It can hardly 
be said to have 
had a territori- 
al existence at 
all. There were 
military gover- 
nors, martial 
law, lynch law 
and no law at 
all in those 
early days, but 
hardly had the 
tide set in 
when Califor- 
nia found it- 
self with a pop- 
ulation amply 
entitling it to 
admission into 
the Union. It 
was admitted 
in 1850. 

California is 
7U0 miles long, 
and lias an 
average width 
of 200 miles. 
Beside its gold, 
it is a very rich 
state agriculturally. The corn and wheat, the 
wool and fruit, the wine and cattle, yield more real 
wealth than the mines, many times over. Southern 
California is especially favorable to grape and orange 
raising. The climate is delightful. The gold prod- 
uct of the st;ate during the first quarter-century 



10 




of its development was $990,000,000. The most 
prolific year was 1853, $65,000,000. 

San Francisco is, and always has been, the chief 
city of California. There are, however, several 

other cities of 
very consider- 
able import- 
ance, Sacra- 
mento, the cap- 
ital. Stockton, 
Los Angeles, 
Oakland, San 
Uiego, Marys- 
ville and San- 
ta Cruz. The 
great misfort- 
une of the 
state is thai its 
great proper- 
ties are largely 
held by a 
few monopo- 
lists who spend 
their money 
elsewhere. An- 
other misfort- 
une is the class 
of menial la- 
borers, the Chi- 
nese. From the 
standpoint of 
economy, Mon- 
golian labor is 
beneficent, but 
the very gen- 
eral opinion of 
the people is 
that the state 
would have 
been better off 
if no Asiatic 
had ever cross- 
ed t he Pacific. 
California lias many natural curiosities. The 
Yosemite Valley is the most remarkable valley in 
the world for grandeur. Lake Tahoe is a marvel of 
purity and transparency. Nowhere else does the 
pine reach such stupendous proportions. There are 
several groves in which may be found many trees 



T 



■k 



59 6 



STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



over 100 feet in circumference. The most notable 
wild beast of that region is the bear — grizzly, brown 
and black. 




COLORADO. 

Colorado receives its name from the Uio Colorado 
river and its Grand Canon between longtitudes 113° 

and 115", where the 

river flows for three 
hundred miles be- 
tween perpendicular 
walls of rock, some- 
times 6,000 feethigh, 
forming one of the 
greatest natural cu- 
riosities. The state 
itself, the thirty- 
eighth member of 
the Union, lies be- 
tween latitudes 3T. tf 
and 41° and longi 
tudes 102° and 109°. 
Like Arizona, it is 
one mighty treasure- 
house of gold and 
silver, with no a- 
daptation to agricul- 
ture, except as the 
land is irrigated. The 
valleys and plateaus 
yield nutritive grass 
sparcely, but abund- 
antly for the encour- 
agement of grazing 
as an industry. The 
state lias these two 
industries — mining 
and herding— which 
furnish its exports. 
It is comparatively 
easy to irrigate the 
land and secure bountiful harvests, but the state 
is too far from the seaboard to raise main for 




THE GRAND CANON OF THE COLORADO. 



the general market. Besides, the home prices are 
high, making the profits of agriculture satisfactory. 
The discovery of gold in paying quantities was made 
in 1858, and the next year the reports of rich mines 
of free gold near Pike's Peak created a perfect furor. 
Thousands of people rushed thither, expecting to 
find a second California. A great deal of suffering 
ensued and disappointment. Still the report had a 
substantial basis. By 1861, when the territory was 
formed, the population was 35,000. It was admitted 
as a state in 1876. Denver is the capital and chief 
city. Colorado is a great resort for invalids, 
especially those affected with pulmonary diseases 

! and throat troubles. 

Leadville sprang up 
about the time the 
territory became a 
state. It was born 
of anew-mining dis- 
covery of very great 
richness. It is far- 
ther south and high- 
er than Denver. The 
air is rarified and 
light. The area of 
mineral development 
is steadily enlarging, 
and the business now 
rests upon a legiti- 
mate basis. TheGun- 
nison country and 
the San Juan coun- 
try are terms used 
to designate distinct 
and important min- 
eral regions in the 
southern portion of 
the state. In its 
yield of gold and 
silver, Colorado is 
the leading state in 
the union. It has 
three colleges, all 
small, but fraught 
with happy omen 
for the future of the 
state. The meremin- 
ing camp of territorial days is fast giving place to 
villages and cities filled with families. 



pi 



-. a 



STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



597 




CONNECTICUT. 

Connecticut is the first of the old thirteen colo- 
nies to come before us in this connection. It had 
won some renown as a colony, by its preservation of 
its royal charter and the strictness of its religious ob- 
servances. In the Revolutionary War its most illus- 
trious soldier 
was General Is- 
rael Putnam. 
He was born in 
1718, and was 
rather old for 
the service when 
the war began, 
but he entered 
upon it with 
greatenthusiasiu 
Roger Sherman 
was the most 
conspicuous rep- 
resentative of 
that colony in 
the Continental 
Congress. Gov- 
ernor Jonathan 
Trumbull was a 

trusted counselor and devoted friend of General 
Washington, who was accustomed to address him 
as "Uncle Jonathan."' since then the typical name 
for the American people. 

The war of 1812 found Connecticut largely en- 
gaged in commerce, much more so than it is at the 
present time. That war was a great calamity to its 
commerce, and although the state did its part fully 
in the way of supplying men and means, the pol- 
icy of peace-at-any-price had a great many ardent 
advocates there. A convention was held at Hart- 
ford for the purpose of denouncing the war just be- 
fore the news of the battle of New Orleans was re- 
ceived, which became historic from its unpopularity, 
as soon as the good news came. The especial pride 
of Connecticut is Yale College, one of the truly 




YALE COLLEGE. NEW HAVEN. CONNECTICUT. 



great universities of the world. It was founded as 
early as 1701. It is located at New Haven. Orig- 
inally a college only in the restricted sense of the 
term, it is now an institution fullv equipped for all 
higher educational purpose. There are other col- 
leges of some importance in the state, but they are 
not to be compared to Yale. 

Insurance, fire and life, is a very prominent feat- 
ure of Connecticut business. In no other state is 
there so much surplus capital devoted to underwrit- 
ing. New Haven and Hartfoid are the chief cities 
of the state, and insurance tiieir chief business. 
There are, however, a great many branches of man. 

ufacturmg car- 
ried on exten- 
sively in the 
state. It is the 
native soil of- 
" Yankee no- 
tions." Besides 
raising the farm 
products com- 
monto the north- 
ern part of the 
country, it raises 
large quantities 
of excellent to- 
bacco. The low- 
er valley of the 
Connecticut Riv- 
er is admirably 
adapted to this 
plant. The state 
had two capitals, New Haven and Hartford, for 
a long time, but now Hartford alone has that 
honor. Connecticut laid claim under its colonial 
charter to a tract of land nearly 60 miles wide and 
extending to the Pacific Ocean. After the Revolu- 
tion that claim wasquieted and disposed of by grant- 
ing to the state the fee simple as rjroperty (but not 
the political control) of a large tract of land in the 
vicinity of Lake Erie. It was called "' The Western 
Reserve." Most of it is now in the State of Ohio. 
The proceeds of that land form the basis of the 
public school fund of Connecticut. It it due to the 
good name of this state to add that its reputation 
for exceptional austerity is unjust, resting upon a lit- 
eraryfraud perpetrated bya clergyman named Peters. 
who published a bogus volume of "Blue Laws." 



-?- 



Lk- 



598 



STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



DAKOTA TERRITORY. 

Dakota Territory is the most populous of all the 
territories, and the largest iu area. It was organized 
in 1861. The census of 1880 showed a population 
of over 130,000, and later enumerations and esti- 
mates place the population in 1883 at 294,048. The 
cities of Yankton and Sioux Falls, the largest in 
the territory, have each a population <>f 5,000. The 
number of the cattle has increased, it is estimated, 
800 per cent during the last two years. The yield 
of gold bullion for 1882 was $5,500,000 ; of silver, 
$5,000,000, taken from the famous Black Hills 
mines. The territory is also rich in copper, lead, 
mica, coal and gypsum. But wheat is the supreme 
source of wealth in Dakota. It may be called a con- 
tinuation, in this regard, of Minnesota. The popu- 
lation is largely made up of Swedes and Norwegians. 
with a very considerable population drawn from the 
native population of the North. It is expected that 
the territory will be divided, and the southern por- 
tion admitted into the Union as the State of Dako- 
ta, and the northern portion organized as a separate 
territory. 




DELAWARE. 

From the great Territory of Dakota to the little 
State of Delaware there is a long stride. This least 
important of all the states is one of the original 
thirteen. It was being governed as a part of Penn- 
sylvania at the time the war for independence was 
declared, but promptly demanded recognition as a 
" sovereign " state. Pennsylvania consented, and the 
" three lower countries on tho Delaware" became an 
independent political unity. In the war then in prog- 
ress for national freedom the citizens of Delaware 
won distinction for bravery, and on account of the 
peculiar flag of the state were known as "The Blue 
Hen's Chickens." When the war was over aud in 
the progress of political events there was a tie vote 
between Jefferson and Burr, it was Delaware (a 
strongly Federal state) which decided the matter, its 
leading senator, James A. Bayard, preferring Jeffer- 



son as the less of two evils. The present Senator 
Bayard is a grandson of the elector of Jefferson. 
The senatorship seems to be an heirloom in that 
family. James A. Bayard, Jr., was for many years 
a senator. When it is added that Delaware is 
famous for its peaches and its garden products, in- 
cluding berries, the entire record of interest is dis- 
closed. It is singularly lacking in enterprise. The 
people do not push westward nor establish skilled 
industries to any considerable extent. Dover, 
the capital, is a sleepy inland village, and Wilming- 
ton, its chief seaport, has only a very small com- 
merce. The state is divided into three counties, 
Kent, New Castle and Sussex. Before the war there 
were a few slaves there. A majority of the people 
were friendly to the Union. Delaware furnished 
10,000 volunteers to the Union army. 




FLORIDA. 

The chief interest of Florida belongs to its colo- 
nial history. Apart from that, it presents very few 
points of attraction. It was ceded to the United 
States by Spain in 1820. The first census taken was 
in 1830, and at that time the population was only 
34,730. By the census of 1860 the population was 
140,424, about one-half of the number being slaves. 
The first territorial governor was General Jackson. 
He acquired much of his popularity, especially in 
the South, by his successful warfare upon the blood- 
thirsty Seminole Indians, who were finally eradicated 
from the territory, with a few exceptions, and trans- 
planted in Indian Territory. Those still remaining 
are peaceable. Florida was admitted as a state in 
in 1845. It seceded in January, 1861, and was read- 
mitted in June, 1868. The peninsula portion is 
nearly 400 miles long. The soil is very largely either 
sandy or swampy. Its rivers and lakes are many 
and well supplied with a great variety of fishes and 
reptiles. The forests abound in timber which would 
be of great value if it could be marketed. The 
chief attraction of Florida, and its great source of 
wealth, is its vast extent of orange orchards. It also 



I — 



STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



599 



produces rice and a fine quality of tobacco. It is 
a favorite resort in winter for invalids and others 
from the North. Jacksonville is the largest city. 
Tallahassee is the capital. Key West, on the island 
of the same name, is strongly fortified, and is a 
United States naval station. St. Augustine, the 
oldest city in the United States, was founded by 
the Spanish freebooter Menendez. in 1565. 




GEORGIA. 

Georgia is well called the Empire State of the 
South. It was one of the original thirteen states. 
Its colonial history is indeed brief, but it is, as has 
been seen, exceptionally creditable. Its extent north 
and south is 320 miles, and its extreme breadth east 
andwest 254 miles. From its colonial birth to the 
present time it lias been exceptionally prosperous. It 
did suffer, and that severely, it is true, from British 
soldiers during the Revolution, and from Northern 
soldiers, especially those under General Sherman, in 
the late war between the states, but it has shown 
great recuperative powers. It combines in its soil 
and climate the advantages of the North and South, 
producing with equal prodigality cereals and cotton. 
It is also rich in iron, which is being mined on a 
large and profitable scale. 

Georgia has several flourishing cities. Savannah 
was long the chief town in the state. Atlanta is 
now the most flourishing. It is the capital. It has 
been called, and with reason, the Chicago of the 
South. Augusta, Milledgeville, Macon, Columbus 
and Athens are among its more important centers 
of population and capital. It has several fairly 
good institutions of learning. 

IDAHO TERRITORY. 

Idaho Territory is the least thrifty of all the ter- 
ritories of the United States. It has Wyoming and 
Montana on the east; British Columbia on the 
north ; Washington Territory and Oregon on the 
west, and Nevada and Utah on the south. Gold was 
first found there in any considerable quantities in 



1860. The next year there was quite a large influx 
of miners from both the East and the West. The 
placer-diggings, or free gold, yielded richly. The ter- 
ritory was organized in 1863 and re-organized in 
1864. In a few years the rich gold-bearing sand had 
been washed and the population fell off. The diffi- 
culty of reaching the quartz mines with adequate 
machinery has delayed the development of those re- 
sources. The country is well adapted to grazing, 
and vast herds of cattle and flocks of sheep roam 
over the plains and valleys of the territory. It lies 
between the 42° and the 40° of latitudes, lying 
mainly in the basin of the Upper Columbia River. 
The climate is delightful, and eventually Idaho will 
be a prosperous state. 




ILLINOIS. 

The first white settlement in Illinois dates back to 
the seventeenth century. The first settlement in 
distinction from Jesuit missions, was made by the 
French at Kaskaskia in 1700. But in the present 
development of Illinois the French can hardly be 
said to have taken an appreciable part. It requires 
the skill and patience of the antiquary to discover 
even the faintest trace of the first settlers. The ter- 
ritory of Illinois was organized in 1809, when a ter- 
ritory of that name was cut off from Indiana. The 
southern part of the state was settled first, the course 
of pioneer enterprise being along rivers, especially 
down the Ohio and up the Mississippi. Then, too, 
the Indians of the north were particularly trouble- 
some. A military post was early established at the 
mouth of the Chicago River on the site of the pres- 
ent city of that name. It was called Fort Dearborn. 
In 1812 the fort was taken by the Indians and the 
whites cruelly massacred. This massacre led to the 
expulsion of the Indians from the vicinity, and 
prepared the way for the permanent settlement of 
the northern portion of the territory. 

Illinois was admitted into the Union in 1818. 
The population at that time was 35,220. Nearly all 
of it is level and arable. It is the " Prairie State," 



7H 



6oo 



STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



most emphatically. The soil is rich and easily tilled. 
The coal area is estimated at 45,000 square miles. 
This inexhanstable supply of fuel is bituminous. 
Illinois can boast more miles of railroad than any 
other state in the Union, and the coal-fields have 
had much to do with the development of this in- 
terest. Illinois has several large cities, the chief 
being Chicago, with a population of over 500,000, 
according to the census of 1880. It is the com- 
mercial capital of the West, or Interior, more proper- 
ly speaking. It became a city in 1837. Early in 



A. Douglas was the first Illinoisan to reach eminence, 
and Abraham Lincoln, General Grant and Robert 
G. Ingersoll followed, each in his way the foremost 
man of the nation — one as statesman, one as soldier, 
and one as orator. The state adopted in 1870 a 
new constitution containing many radical changes, 
and which proved to be a landmark in the constitu- 
tional history of the country, many states, since 
then, having adopted its more important features, 
the chief being the restriction of the power of muni- 
cipalities to incur debts, and of railways to make un- 




STATE STREET. CHICAGO. 



By ,.. 



the evening of October 8, 1871, a fire broke out in 
the southwestern part of the city, and raged with 
increasing and ungovernable fury that night and 
the next day, sweeping over 2,124 square acres, in- 
cluding the heart of the city, and leaving only shape- 
less ruins in its track. It is more particularly refer- 
red to in the chapter on The Present United States. 
Springfield is the capital. It is a thrifty inland 
city, ranking nexttoQuincy on the Mississippi River, 
and Peoria on the Illinois River, in size. The latter 
has long been famous for its highwines, being in the 
very heart of the corn belt. Cairo became somewhat 
famous during the war. The state has more occa- 
sion to be proud of its men than its cities. Stephen 



just transportation charges. It was a test case from 
Illiiniis which secured from the supreme court of 
the United States a decision to the effect that a 
railway is a highway, and that railroad companies 
are subject to all the limitations, as to uniformity of 
charges, of other common carriers. 

Illinois contains about three hundred rivers and 
creeks, not counting the mere streams. Drouths 
are almost unknown, of late years, in nearly the 
entire state. It is the foremost commonwealth in 
the Union in the production of corn, wheat, rye 
and oats, also in the number of its horses, the man- 
ufacture of highwines and agricultural machinery 
and utensils. 



^rr 



STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



60 1 




INDIANA. 

Indiana is i urrounded by Illinois, Kentucky, Ohio 
Like all the prairie states, it has no 



and Michigan 



Liunul scale. The state was greatly depressed by the 
reaction, and cannot be said to have recovered from 
it until the prosperity of the war period brought re- 
lief. The capital, Indianapolis, is the principal city 
in the state, and second only to Chicago as a West- 
ern railway center. Evansville, Terre Haute, Fort 
Wayne, South Bend, New Albany, Jeffersonville and 
Vincennes are all prosperous towns. The state 
furnished the third Republican Vice-President, 
Schuyler Colfax, and, in the person of Senator Mor- 




INDIANAPOLIS FROM THE COURT HOUSE. 



mountains nor any under-ground wealth except coal. 
It has a greater variety of valuable lumber than Illi- 
nois. It was admitted into the Union in 1816. A 
French settlement had been effected at Vincennes 
as early as 1702, which nourished and withered away, 
much as the Kaskaskia settlement did. Early in 
the third decade of this century an era of wild spec- 
ulation was inaugurated in Indiana, culminating in 
the crash of 1837. No other state in the Union was 
so deeply affected by that revulsion. Railroads and 
canals, especially the latter, were projected and un- 
der process of construction on a grand and irra- 



fcon, the greatest parliamentary leader in the senate 
since the days of Douglas. 

INDIAN TERRITORY. 

Indian Territory is not a territory at all, in the 
ordinary sense of the term. It is not dependent 
upon the national government, but is a nation with- 
in a nation. It has been considered in a previous 
chapter in connection with the American Indians, 
and it is enough to add in this connection that it 
dates from 1833, and is one of the best portions of 
the continent for grazing and grain-raising. 



\a- 



602 



STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



-9 J- 




IOWA. 

Iowa lies between the two great rivers, the Miss- 
issippi and the Missouri, with Minnesota on the 
north and Missouri on the south, extending north 
and south about 200 miles, and east and west, 300 
miles. There is hardly a foot of waste land within 
its border. Its agricultural capacity is almost incal- 
culable. It has no important river or lake. Its 
cities are comparatively small, Chicago being the 
great center for the entire state. The capital, Des 
Moines, is a thrifty inland city, and so is Iowa City- 
Several river towns of some importance are found 
along the Mississippi, Dubuque, Muscatine, Daven- 
port, Burlington and Keokuk, also Sioux City on 
the Missouri. Iowa was created a territory in 1838, 
and admitted into the Union as a state in 1846. Its 
growth has been uninterrupted and prodigious, but 
almost exclusively agricultural. It has very little 
timber, a great deal of coal, and some lead in the 
vicinity of Dubuque, as Illinois has across the Miss- 
issippi near Galena. It also has some gypsum, and 
is beginning to manifest manufacturing enterprise 
to a very considerable degree. 




KANSAS. 

Kansas is a striking example of the advantages of 
advertising. The politics of the country, as has been 
seen, served to make the public familiar with the 
name and interested in the settlement of Kansas. 
This territory and Nebraska were organized in 1854. 
Almost immediately the North and South started 
on a race for the ascendancy in Kansas. It was not 
long before there were people enough to justify its 
admission as a state. A majority came from the 
North and were utterly opposed to slavery, and re- 



peatedly framed and adopted constitutions prohibi- 
tory of it. The Southern influence in Congress pre- 
vented its admission. A constitution framed by a 
minority convention held inLecompton in 1857 pro- 
tected slavery. It received only 2,000 votes. Mr. 
Douglas favored the admission of Kansas as a free 
state, that being the practical outcome of his favorite 
doctrine of " squatter sovereignty," and that position 
made him obnoxious to a large party of the Democra- 
cy, and caused the schism in favor of Breckenridge 
for the Presidency in 1800. It was in January, 1861, 
that Kansas was admitted. In the period from 1824 
to 1861 the territory had amply earned the title of 
•' Bleeding Kansas." During the four years of war 
it was the scene of much bloodshed and destruction. 
Lawrence was twice burned, and several other towns 
partially destroyed by border ruffians, or guerillas. 
After the war the influx of population was without 
parallel in pioneer history, and that notwithstand- 
ing drouth and grasshoppers conspired to discourage 
immigration. The soil is rich, and the people pros- 
perous. Topeka is the capital, and the chief city of 
the state. Leavenworth and Lawrence have not 
fulfilled the promise of their infancy. Across the 
state line in Missouri is the commercial capital of 
the state, Kansas City, which is almost wholly in- 
debted to the State of Kansas for its great prosper- 
ity. At the present time Kansas has the most 
stringent prohibitory liquor law of any state in the 
Union. The coal field of the state is supposed to 
have an area of over 22,000 square miles. It is tl . • 
most central state of the Union, having Missouri 
on the east, Indian Territory on the south, Colorado 
on the west and Nebraska on the north. It has no 
lakes of any magnitude nor any considerable rivers. 
Its railway system is extensive, secured at the cost 
of enormous municipal indebtedness. The princi- 
pal institution of learning is the University of Kan- 
sas, at Lawrence, but the chief educational facilities 
afforded are an admirable system of public schools 
for elementary instruction. The western portion of 
the state has suffered much from drouth, but every 
year is adding to the volume of rainfall, and grad- 
ually the " desert," as it was once supposed to be, 
is being brought into subjugation to the plow. 
Herding is carried oil upon a large scale, both 
cattle and sheep. The state has a great variety of 
vegetation, not less than twelve hundred species of 
plants being indigenous to its soil. 



STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



603 




"7T5 



KENTUCKY. 

Kentucky traces its origin to Daniel Boone, a 
famous hunter who established himself at what is 
now Boonesboro' in 1769. It was then a part of 
Virginia, and so remained until 1790, when it was 
created into a separate territory. For fourteen years 
it had been the County of Kentucky. In 1792 it 
was admitted as a state, having a population of 
75,000. It was the " out west " of Virginia for 
many years. It formed for a long time the extreme 
southwest of the United States, boundaries between 
French and Spanish America and the United States 
being vague. It was supposed that Aaron Burr 
contemplated seizing the region in dispute and erect- 
ing there a Southwest Empire. That was the " trea- 
son " for which Burr and Blennerhasset were tried. 
The evidence of guilt was strong but insufficient 
for conviction. Kentucky suffered seriously from 
hostile Indians in the early day, and the people have 
always been noted for their martial spirit. From 
1861 to 1865 it furnished, as has been aptly said, 
its quota for both armies. Politically it was a 
stronghold of the Whig party during the period of 
that organization. Since then it has been over- 
whelmingly Democratic. It is noted for the chivalry 
of its men, the beauty of its women, the excellence 
and abundance of its whisky and horses. It 
has only one citv of any considerable magnitude — 
Louisville. 

Frankfort is the capital. The eastern portion of 
the state is mountainous, the western a rich table- 
land. The soil is adapted to grain and tobacco. Its 
famous blue-grass is the finest of pasturage. There 
is some iron and a great deal of coal in Kentucky. 
Of its mineral wealth, mostly undeveloped as yet, 
Professor Shaler says: "The coal resources of Ken- 
tucky are only exceeded by those of Pennsylvania, 
and the quantity of iron ore is probably not exceeded 
by any American state." The state contains twelve 
colleges and universities, none of which are heavily 
endowed. The chief of these is Kentucky University, 
located at Lexington. 



75 




LOUISIANA. 

Louisiana originally included not only the present 
state of that name, but Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, 
Minnesota, Dakota, Nebraska, the greater part of 
Kansas, Indian Territory, a small part of Colorado, 
all of Montana, Oregon and Idaho, and the greater 
part of Wyoming. That vast region was first 
penetrated by European adventure in 1541, when 
De Soto, a Spaniard, discovered the Mississippi 
River. The first actual settlement was made by 
the French in 1099. For over a century it was, 
in effect, a part of New France. In 1803, the 
United States, through President Jefferson, bought 
that imperial area of Napoleon Bonaparte, while 
he was First Consul of France, for $15,000,000, 
including what are known as " French Spoliation 
Claims." The next year the southern portion was 
organized as the Territory of Orleans. Original 
Louisiana did not include, however, that portion of 
the state between the Mississippi, Amite and Pearl 
Rivers. That was ceded to the United States in 1810 
by Spain in exchange for undisputed title to Florida. 
In 1812 Orleans was admitted to the Union as a 
state under the name of Louisiana. The local customs 
and state laws have never ceased to tear the marks 
of France, and the Code Napoleon may almost be 
said to form the common law of the commonwealth. 
The state seceded in December, 1860, but the ordi- 
nance was adopted by the close vote of 117 to 113. 
Louisiana was restored to the Union in the summer 
of 1868. The great staple of Louisiana is sugar. 
Cotton is also raised to good advantage. About 
one-fifth of the state is beneath the high-water level 
of the Mississippi River, and has to be protected from 
inundation by levees, maintained at great cost by 
the state government. There are about 1,500 miles 
of levees within its border. It would require an 
annual expenditure upon them of $1,000,000 to 
afford thorough protection. New Orleans, with 
a population of over 200,000, is the one city of 
any magnitude in the state. It is also the political 
capital. 



"3 \ 



604 



STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



K~ 




MAINE. 

Before and during the Revolutionary War the 
northern boundary of Massachusetts was uncertain. 
By the treaty of peace with England it was fixed so 
as to include the State of Maine, long known as "the 
District of Maine." From the first Maine demanded 
independence, but it remained a "district" until 1830. 
During that period a great deal of ill feeling existed 
between Massachusetts proper and Maine. The 
treaty of 1783 had not, as it proved, settled the 
boundary question with precision, and it remained 
an occasion of diplomatic controversy until 1842, 
when, by the terms of the Ashburton treaty, the St. 
Johns and St. Francis Rivers were agreed upon as 
the northern and northeastern boundaries between 
the Province of Quebec and the State of Maine. The 
state is largely covered with pine-trees, and most of 
the soil is almost worthless for cultivation. A very 
considerable revenue is derived from granite quar- 
ries on the seaboard. There are a good many Cana- 
dian French in the State, and a colony of Scandi- 
navians occupy a tract by themselves. The Indian 
population has not wholly disappeared. The woods 
still abound in game, and many of the streams are 
still well-stocked with fish. Portland, the chief city, 
is an important seaport. Augusta, the capital, is 
little more than a village. The state has reason to be 
proud of one great statesman to whom it gave birth, 
Pitt Fessenden, and a still greater, who is a native 
of Pennsylvania, but for many years a citizen of 
Maine. James G. Blaine, the fourth great parliamen- 
tary leader the United States has produced, Clay, 
Douglas and Thaddeus Stevens being the other 
members of the quartet. It gave birth and educa- 
tion to America's laureate, Henry Wadsworth Long- 
fellow. Bowdoin College, from which he graduated, 
was founded in 1704, and has long ranked among 
the more illustrious higher institutions of learning 
in the country. It is in the forests of Maine that 
the moose must be sought. That state became fa- 
mous in 1851 for its stringent prohibitory liquor law, 
to which it has tenaciously held ever since. 




MARYLAND. 

The early history of Maryland belongs to the colo- 
nial period. The boundary line between that colo- 
ny and Pennsylvania, run in 1750 by the two com- 
missioners, Mason and Dixon, settled a long and 
troublesome dispute. The term " Mason and Dix- 
on's line " came afterwards to be used to designate 
the boundary between the free and slave terri- 
tory throughout the Unfed States. In the war for 
independence the " Maryland line" bore conspicuous 
and effective part. In the late war the state would 
doubtless have cast in its lot with the South had not its 
chief city, Baltimore, been placed under military su- 
pervision. Many of its sons joined the Confederate 
army. The great battle of Antietam was fought on 
the soil of .Maryland. Slavery was abolished by 
constitutional law in 1864. Baltimore is a very im- 
portant seaport, not only for this state, but for the 
South and West. The Baltimore & Ohio railroad, 
one of the great trunk lines of the country, has that 
city for its eastern terminus. A little more than 
one-half the state is under cultivation, grain and 
tobacco being the chief productions. Bituminous 
coal is found in the northwestern portion of the 
state, and in small quantities gold and silver. The 
climate is delightfully mild. The oysters of the 
Chesapeake Bay form an important source of reve- 
nue. Annapolis is the capital. 




MASSACHUSETTS. 

Of all the states in the Union none has had greater 
prominence in American history than Massachu- 
setts. The early American chapters were largely 
occupied with its establishment and growth. From 
its first settlement to date its importance has been 
maintained. Beginning this record with the emer- 



-<-\e 



jfc 



r*!^ 



STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



605 



ueuce of the state from its colonial dependence we 
find that its first governor was John Hancock, elect- 
ed in 1780. From 1775 to 1780 the executive de- 
partment of the state was in the hands of The 
Council. 

That small vet great commonwealth has several 
important rivers, the Connecticut, Merrimack, IIou- 
satonic and Hoosic being the chief. Along its 
streams of sufficient magnitude to form water-pow- 



merce and wealth, but in the higher ranges of activ- 
ity there has been no falling back. Among the 
other cities of the state may be named Worcester, 
Lowell, Cambridge, Lawrence, Lynn, Springfield 
and Fall River. Harvard College dates back to 
163G; Williams College to 1793; Amherst to 1827; 
Andover Theological Seminary to 1808, and Tuft's 
College to 185-2. It has a highly creditable list of 
institutions for special education, such as schools for 




er, mills of almost every conceivable kind are found, 
the manufacturing interest being largely in excess 
of the agricultural. Its great achievement in en- 
gineering is the Hoosic Tunnel, begun in 1855, com- 
pleted in 187-1, at a cost of $13,000,000. But the 
proudest achievements of the state have been in the 
line of political and intellectual superiority. In the 
cause of human rights and mental improvement it 
has always been foremost. Its list of statesmen, from 
Winthrop to Sumner, is long, and of its authors and 
inventors is still longer and more creditable. Bos- 
ton has indeed been eclipsed by New York in com- 



niE CITY AND HARBOR OP BOSTON. 

deaf mutes, the blind, idiots and young criminals. 
This home of the Puritans is gradually becoming 
the home of the foreigner. The bleak and rocky 
farms of Massachusetts are being deserted by the 
Yankees, and going into the hands of Irishmen and 
Canadians to an almost revolutionary extent. There 
are a few of the original Indians left in the state — 
not far from two thousand, including the niulattoes 
with whom they have intermarried. " Shay's Rebell- 
ion" was a Massachusetts episode. It occurred in 
1800. It was a popular uprising against the "boss 
system" in state polities and high taxes. 



-^ 



606 



STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 




MICHIGAN. 

The name of Michigan was derived from the Indian 
words meaning Lake Region. The first settlement 
was a Jesuit mis- 
sion at the falls 
of the St. Mary, 
1641. Detroit was 
founded by the 
French in 1701. 
The silver and 
copper mineswere 
discovered and 
worked as early as 
1772. Michigan 
was regarded as a 
part of Canada university 

during the Revolutionary War. Its status after peace 
had been declared was uncertain until 1796, when 
England ceded it to the United States, and it 



held that position and was also military command- 
er when, eaily in the war of 1812, the British 
demanded the surrender of Detroit, to which he 
yielded, for which he was severely censured, and 
from which the city was rescued by the victory of 
Lake Erie (Commodore Perry), in 1813. General 
Lewis Cass was soon after appointed governor of the 
territory. Michigan was admitted into the Union in 
1837. Lake Michigan and the Straits of Mackinaw 
divide the state into two peninsulas, the lower and 

the upper. The 
latter comprises 
about one-third of 
the state, and is 
rich in copper, 
lead, iron and 
timber; the for- 
mer is devoted 
to agriculture. 
Michigan is not 
a prairie state. It 
was made arable 
of Michigan. by the same hard 

process as the Eastern States. Forests had to be felled 
and roots of trees grubbed out. The farms arc usual- 
' ly small and carefully tilled. The farmers raise a 




7M 




VIEW OP GRAND RAPIDS 

formed a part of the Northwest Territory from 
that time until 1800, when it was included in In- 
diana. Michigan Territory was organised in 1805, 
and General Hull appointed first governor. He 



great variety of products, and in the aggregate real- 
ize handsome returns for their industry. Lansing 
is the capital, and Detroit and Grand Rapids are its 
chief cities. The State University, at Ann Arbor, 



ah-* 



STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



607 



ranks with Yale, Harvard, and Cornell, as a really 
great seat of learning. It has several flourishing 
denominational colleges also. It has furnished one 
poet of very considerable reputation, Will M. Carle- 
ton. 




MINNESOTA. 

Minnesota is very largely peopled by Scandina- 
vians, and in view of its great staple might well 



in 1823. A Swiss settlement was effected near there 
a short time after. The territory was organized by 
Congress in 1849, with Alexander Ramsey, who was 
Secretary of War under President Hayes, as first 
governor. It was admitted to the Union as a state 
in 1858. 

In 1862 occurred the horrible Sioux massa- 
cre, in which not less than 1,000 whites, mostly 
women and children, were killed. The Sioux were 
removed from the state, and no trouble has since 
been experienced from the aborigines. There are 
many friendly Chippewas still in Minnesota. St. 
Paul and Minneapolis, only a few miles apart, are 
both large and rapidly growing cities, the former 
being more commercial, and the latter more devoted 




VIEW OF 

have been called Wheatland. Its name was bor- 
rowed from that of one of the rivers which drain 
the southwest portion of it. Minnesota has a navi- 
gable water-line of about 15,000 miles. It abounds 
in beautiful lakes. The state has a length from 
north to south of 380 miles, and a width of 337 
miles, extending from Iowa to Canada one way, and 
from the Mississippi to the Missouri the other. The 
Falls of St. Anthony, to which Minneapolis with its 
flouring mills and saw mills is indebted for its 
growth, were discovered by Hennepin, a French 
Jesuit, in 1680. A fur-trading post was established 
there, but the traders gradually lapsed into the 
surrounding barbarism. The first steamboat ascend- 
ed the Mississippi as far as the Falls of St. Anthony 



ST. PAUL. 

to manufactures. Duluth has great expectations. 
St. Paul is the capital. 




MISSISSIPPI. 

That part of Mississippi now known as the Great 
Yazoo Bottoms was visited by De Soto in 1539. 
He is supposed to have remained there about a year. 
That region is still largely undeveloped. A territory 
bearing the name of Mississippi was organized in 



-T- 



J « 

r 



6o8 



STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



1798, but it was by no means the pi esent state bear- 
ing that name. Its boundaries were fixed as now in 
1817, when it was admitted as a state. It was one 
of the first states to secede, and did not regain state 
rights until 1870. Nearly all of its area is capable 
of cultivation, but only a small part is actually im- 
proved. It is densely wooded. Cotton is the great 
staple. The state is well adapted to general farm 
products, including livestock. Jackson is the cap- 
ital and Vicksburg the chief city. It has produced 



south, stretches the great State of Missouri. Its 
chief city, St. Louis, grew out of a fur-trading post, 
and as early as 1775 had acquired considerable prom- 
inence. After the Louisiana purchase and the or- 
ganization of the Territory of Orleans the unorgan- 

o JO 

ized portion of the purchased possession was known 
as the District of Louisiana, and in 1805 as the Ter- 
ritory of Louisiana, with St. Louis as its capital. 
The name was changed to Missouri in 1812. It ap- 
plied for admission to the Union as early as 1817. 





• 









VIEW OF ST. LOITIR. 



only one man of great note, Jefferson Davis, the first 
and only President of the Southern Confederacy. 




MISSOURI. 

With Illinois on the east, Kansas and Nebraska 
on the west. Iowa on the north, and Arkansas on the 



The contest over slavery to which that application 
led is already known to the reader. Like Kansas, it 
occasioned controversy and conflict, but unlike its 
border state, it was not the actual field of conflict. 
Immigration came in accordance with the nat- 
ural progress of events, and there was no clashing 
between the representatives of different sections. 
The Southern element predominated and Missouri 
became a slave state, without, however, being wholly 
dependent upon slave-labor. On the contrary, the 
state was always indebted to free white labor for its 
development. When the civil war came, the people 
were very nearly evenly divided in sympathy. It 



+± 



STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



609 



never seceded, but many of its citizens were to be 
found in botli armies. For the most part Missouri 
is very rich soil. The iron deposits are of incalcula- 
ble value. Copper is found, but not in quantities to 
compete with the Lake Superior Region. The coal 
supply is abundant. Lead is mined in immense 
quantities. The timber of the state is excellent and 
abundant. The products of the state embrace the 
usual cereals, also tobacco and grapes. The latter are 
raised in large quantities and the wine manufactured 



by Wyoming and Idaho, and on the west by Idaho. 
It is well named, but its mountains abound in nutri- 
tious grasses and rich beds of gold and silver. The cli- 
mate is milder than that in the states further east 
and on the same lines of latitude. The placer-dig- 
gings have yielded richly, and the quartz mines arc 
now being developed to great profit. The territory 
was organized in 1804. Virginia City is the capital, 
but Helena is the chief city. Fort Benton, the head 
of navigation on the Missouri River, is in Montana. 




forms a prominent brand in the market. Jefferson 
City is the capital. Kansas City is often called a 
second Chicago. It is greatly prosperous. Missouri 
has a good common school system, but gangs of 
rough outlaws infest the western part of the state 
and commit train robberies with impunity, shel- 
tered by the dense forests and the barbarism of 
the sparse settlers. The only great name in the an- 
nals of Missouri is that of Thomas II. Benton, 
thirty years senator from that state. 

MONTANA TERRITORY. 

Montana Territory is bounded on the north by 
British America, on the east by Dakota, on the south 



VIEW OF OMAHA 

I 



In its sheltered valleys immense herds of cattle and 
flocks of sheejj are grazed the year round, and to 
much profit. What was formerly a hunting-ground 
for trappers and hunters is now about equally di- 
vided between mining and herding. 




NEBRASKA. 

By the terms of the Missouri Compromise, slavery 
could have been extended to Kansas, but not to 



4- 



6io 



STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



Nebraska. The latter was therefore the bone of 
contention upon the original reopening of the ques- 
tion of "squatter sovereignty." In the progress of 
events, however, it was almost lost sight of, and has 
never shared in the benefits derived by Kansas from 
political notoriety. In the far West the rainfall is 
inadequate, but the quantity is gradually increasing. 
The majestic Platte and Niabrara are its chief 
rivers, and there are numerous streams. The live- 
stock of Nebraska is the main reliance of the far- 
mers for income. The cost of marketing grain in its 
natural form is such as to render it impracticable to 
rely upon grain-raising alone. The territory was 
created at the same time that Kansas was, 1854, 
but it was not admitted into the Union until 1867. 
Lincoln is the capital, and Omaha its principal city. 
There are several Indian reservations in the State. 
There is some coal in the State, but the strata for 
the most part are too thin to be worked with profit. 




NEVADA. 

Nevada is an offshot from California. It is a 
rugged mining region with Oregon and Idaho on 
the north, Utah and Arizona on the east, and Cali- 
fornia on the west. The State is wedge-shaped 
running to a peak in the south. Of all the states in 
the Union Nevada is most dependent upon its gold 
and silver resources for wealth. There is alittle good 
agricultural land within its border, but not much. 
The silver and gold are found together, the former 
in great abundance. The famous Comstock lode, or 
vein, is in Nevada. From it was taken in one year as 
high as $22,000,000. The Sutro Tumiel penetrates 
that vein. Virginia City and Gold Hill are mining 
camps grown into cities above the Comstock, and 
in consequence of it. Nevada was organized as a 
territory in 1861, and admitted as a state in 1864. 
In population it is the least of all the states. Carson 
City is the capital. From the standpoints of church 
and school, Nevada cannot be said to make a favor- 
able exhibit. From the standpoint of crime, how- 
ever, the exhibit is highly favorable to the miners. 




NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

The first settlement within New Hampshire was 
made at Portsmouth in 1623. Its growth was slow. 
In 1714 it only had eight towns, and they were very 
small. Colonially it had a varied political expe- 
rience. Much of the time it was a part of Massa- 
chusetts; later it belonged to New York, and final- 
ly it was a separate colony. When it separated from 
New York the region now comprising Vermont was 
in dispute and was known as the " New Hampshire 
Grants." Concord was made the capital in 1807, 
and so remains. Manchester is the largest city in 
the state ; Portsmouth its only seaboard. Its most 
notable features are Mount Washington, or the White 
Mountains, and Dartmouth College. The grand 
and sublime scenery of its mountains attract sum- 
mer tourists from all parts of tiie country, and 
Dartmouth, established in 1770, is in reality a uni- 
versity, am pie in all its educational provisions. The 
land of the state is poor, much of it absolutely worth- 
less. About three-fifths of the state is included in 
farm lands. The climate is very cold. Some iron 
is found in paying quantities ; also mica, isinglass 
and graphite. Building granite is an important 
source of revenue. There are several thrifty manu- 
facturing towns in New Hampshire. The state has 
given birth to several great men, the most famous 
of her sons being Daniel Webster. 




NEW JERSEY. 

New Jersey has the Atlantic Ocean on the east and 
the States of New York, Pennsylvania and Delaware 
on its north, west and south. In the southeast are 
large marshes, and so there are on the Jersey side 
of the Hudson River. Three mountain ranges traverse 
the state. But there is a very considerable area of ex- 



Sv~ 



STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



611 



eellent agricultural land. It is under a high state 
of cultivation. There are several important manu- 
facturing towns, Newark, Jersey City, and Pater- 
son being the chief. Trenton is the capital. The 
state is largely a suburb of New York City. Its 
early history as New Sweden belongs to the colonial 
period. New Jersey, as a distinct colony bearing 
that name, dates from 1708. Its first royal gov- 
ernor was Louis Morris, and its last, William Frank- 
lin, natural son of Benjamin Franklin, and a pro- 
nounced Tory. He was appointed in 1763. A 
state constitution was adopted July 'i, 1776, under 
which the state was 



governed until 1844. 
Gov. Franklin was 
deposed and sent with- 
in the British lines. 
During the Revolu- 
tionary war New Jer- 
sey suffered severely, 
but its patriotism nev- 
er faltered. Female 
suffrage prevailed 
there until 1807. The 
state has numerous 
higher schools of 
learning, two of which 
were founded in the 
eighteenth century, 
namely, the College of 
New Jersey, at Prince- 
ton, 1740, and Rutgers 
College, New Bruns- 
wick, 1770. Both are now universities, and the 
former is very richly endowed. 

NEW MEXICO. 

New Mexico was visited by the devastating Span- 
iards before the middle of the sixteenth century. It 
had quite an advanced native civilization, Aztec or 
Toltec. The destroying visitors cared only for gold 
and silver, and that region abounds in both. Aban- 
doned mines attest the operations of long ago. 
When the republic of Mexico ceded a large part of 
its territory to the United States, New Mexico was 
included. It had been conquered by Gen. Kearney 
in 1848. He raised the American flag over Santa 
Fe, then as now its chief town. The territory was 
organized in 1850. Slavery was recognized and 




PRINCETON COLLEGE. 



protected in 1859, but in 1861 it was abolished, and 
with it peonage, a modified system of slavery which 
had existed there for two and a half centuries. The 
population is still mainly Indian and Mexican. 
The language employed in legislative debate is the 
Spanish. Gradually the influx of miners and cat- 
tle-men from the North and East is Americanizing 
the territory. The herding business is carried on 
upon a large scale, and very rich mines have been 
so far developed as to establish their high grade. 
The climate varies widely. In the vicinity of Santa 
Fe the great altitude renders the winters severe. 

Very little rain falls 
in that region. The 
Apache Indians hin- 
der development l>\ 
their cruel hostilities ; 
but the Pueblos are a 
jjeaceable and some- 
what civilized people. 
Theymaintain schools 
and have been de- 
cided by the courts to 
be citizens of the 
United States. They 
are not disposed to 
avail themselves of 
the rights of citizens, 
preferring to adhere 
closely to their tradi- 
tional tribal or village 
form of government. 
The Pueblos are less 



in the way of civilization, in that remote region, 
than are the Mexicans, called " Greasers." 




NEW YORK. 

New York is the Empire State of the Union, first 
in population and wealth, but it is not much over 
one-third the size of New Mexico. It has a small 
strip of Canada on the north, but for the most part, 
its north and west boundaries are the St. Lawrence 
River and Lake Ontario with Lake Champlain. and 



7 6 



6l2 



STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



the States of Vermont, Massachusetts, and Con- 
necticut along the east, and New Jersey and 
Pennsylvania along the south. With the excep- 
tion of the John Brown tract of the Adirondacks the 
greater part of the state is capable of and actually 
under a high state of cultivation. In the northeast 
iron ore is found in paying quantities, and lumber- 
ing is conducted upon a large scale. 

It is a great dairying state. It has two col- 
leges dating back to the eighteenth century, 
Columbia, formerly King's College, New York 
City, 1754, and Union College, Schenectady, 1795; 
but it was not until Cornell University was estab- 
lished, 1868, that the state could boast a really great 



from 1G14. Its first name was New Amsterdam. 
Originally a sleepy Dutch town, it had only about 
00,000 inhabitants when this century began. It now 
lias more Irish than Dublin and more Yankees than 
Boston. It has a history which is, in the main, 
highly creditable. But in 1872 there was disclosed 
a condition of corruption in its government unpar- 
alleled in municipal politics anywhere or at any 
time. That was known as the " Tweed Ring." After 
years of persistent effort reform was effected, the 
leader of the ring brought to justice, and a reign of 
comparative integrity established. 
/Brooklyn is the second city in size. It is just 
across the river from New York, of which it is a 




VIEW OF NEW YORK CITY A.NTD HARBOR. 



university. The great name in the history of New 
York is Clinton. It appears among the list of roy- 
al governors (1743-1753) and twice among the state 
governors. The great Clinton was De Witt, the 
father of the Erie Canal. He was governor of the 
state sixteen years. His prescience and energy 
secured for New York City a connection with the 
Northwest, by a canal from Lake Erie to the Hud- 
son River, which gave it a pre-eminence over Bos- 
ton, Philadelphia, and all other possible rivals. 
Among its statesmen of renown were also Hamilton, 
Jay, Van Buren, Marcy and Seward, the least of 
them all, Van Buren, being the only one to realize 
the great goal of American ambition. 

This great state is noted for its prosperous cities. 
Its greatest city bearing the same name as the state, 
is the commercial and financial capital of the New 
World, surely destined to rival London. It dates 



suburb. It is almost entirely composed of resi- 
dences, the men of Brooklyn being occupied in New 
York during the day. It is sometimes called The 
City of Churches. Its most popular preacher is 
Henry Ward Beecher, but it has many great preach- 
ers and large and well-filled houses of worship/Buff- 
alo, the head of lake navigation, has been an import- 
ant city ever since the Erie Canal was constructed. It 
is opulent and beautiful. Rochester owes its existence 
to inexhaustible water-power, the richness of the Gen- 
esee Valley, and the Erie Canal. Of late years it has 
been famous for the excellence of its adjacent seed 
farms and nurseries. The soil and climate of that 
portion of New York are admirably adapted to both 
vegetable raising and fruit growing. Syracuse owes its 
existence and prosperity to its salt-works which 
yield at least 7,000,000 bushels yearly. The other 
manufactures of that city are numerous and prosper- 



** 



STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



613 



ous. Albany, the capital of the state, is an old and 
populous city, the head of navigation on the Hud- 
son River. Five miles above it is Troy, which is a 
great center for stove manufactures and lumber. 
I'tiia, Lockport, Binghamton, Elmira, Auburn, 
Poughkeepsie, Oswego, Saratoga Springs, Ogdens- 
burg, Yonkers, Newburg, Schenectady, Rome, East 
New York, Kingston, Cohoes and Flushing are 
thrifty minor cities. But with all its urban splendor, 
the State of New York is greatest and best as 
the home of a vast and highly intelligent agricult- 
ural population. 




NORTH CAROLINA. 

North Carolina claims to have sounded the key- 
note of American Independence, and the claim has 
foundation. The Mecklenburg Declaration of Inde- 
pendence dates back more than a year prior to the 
declaration adopted by the Continental Congress. 
It was in effect a petition to Congress in favor of 
nationality. The action of Congress was ratified 
by North Carolina in less than a month. A state 
organization was effected in December following. 
The constitution of the United States was rejected 
by North Carolina once, but later it concurred in its 
ratification. The secession movement found the 
" Old North" much divided in sympathy, and it re- 
quired several efforts to secure a vote in favor of 
secession. The ordinance was passed in May, 1861. 
The state was restored to the Union in the summer 
of 1868. Its principal city is Wilmington on the 
seaboard. Raleigh is the capital. Before the war 
th~ University of North Carolina, founded at Chapel 
Hill, in 1793, was a flourishing institution, but it 
lias been feeble ever since. It was closed from the 
outbreak of the war until 1875. The state produces 
rice, tobacco, cotton, peanuts, tar and turpen- 
tine. Before the discovery of the California mines 
its gold-mines were worked to a considerable ex- 
tent. Coal and iron are abuudant in some por 
tions of the state, also mica of the best quality, the 
latter being in great demand. 




ORECON. 

Oregon is the most remote state of the Union, and 
the least frequented. It is between the parallels of 
42° and 46° 18' of latitude, and longitudes 116° 33' 
and 124° 25'. The voyage from San Francisco to 
Portland, its commercial capital, as Salem is its po- 
litical, is long and dangerous. The state has three 
well-defined divisions, the western, middle and east- 
ern. The western or coast division is well watered 
and arable ; the middle division is arid and uninvit- 
ing, and the eastern abounds in high mountains and 
fertile valleys. The best part of the state is the de- 
lightful Willamette Valley. Considerable gold has 
been washed from the sands of Oregon and some 
quartz-mining carried on. It is an excellent coun- 
try for wheat and livestock. It has several colleges, 
the Pacific being the oldest and the Willamette the 
largest. The Territory of Oregon was organized in 
1849, including then the present Territory of Wash- 
ington. Ten years later it was admitted as a state. 
The war with the Modoc Indians in 1872 was fought 
within the limits of Oregon. 




OHIO. 

Ohio was once peopled by Indians possessing some 
civilization. They lived by bread, rather than game, 
and cultivated the soil in preference to following the 
trail. They built mounds which still attest their 
skill in engineering and the largeness of their con- 
ceptions. But by the time the region began to be 
settled by white pioneers the inhabitants were sav- 
ages, with only faint traces of civilization. The first 
settlement was made at Marietta in 1788 by a colony 
from New England. Cincinnati was founded later in 
the same year. Virginia, Massachusetts, New York 
and Connecticut all laid claim to the country, the for- 



IK 



^ 



614 



STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



Lk. 



mer having the best claim, the latter the least. They 
all surrendered their claims, except Connecticut, which 
held on, partially, to the northwest corner of Ohio, 
known as the Western Reserve. The Northwest Ter- 
ritory was organized in 1788, with General St. Clair 
who had been President of the Continental 
Congress, as first governor. The ordinance es- 
tablishing the Territory forever prohibited slavery, 
and set apart for educational purposes a portion of 
the public domain, on a policy which has always been 



dependence of the people. In some portions of the 
state grapes are raised in immense quantities, espe- 
cially iii the vicinity of lake Erie. There is a great 
deal of manufacturing industry. The large cities, 
Cincinnati and Cleveland especially, are extensively 
engaged in all sorts of manufactures using iron and 
wood. The state has a very large number of col- 
leges, most of them merely academies, Oberlin and 
Antioch being test known. The state has produced 
some eminent men, Thomas Corwin, the great ora- 




VIEW OP CINCINNATI. 



adhered to in the organization of territories. The 
state, under the name of Ohio, was admitted to the 
Union in 1803. Prom a geographical point of view 
Kansas is the central state of the Union, but in 
practical matters Ohio is really the central state. 
It is rich and prosperous in a pre-eminent degree. 
It has no mountains, neither is it a prairie state. It 
is a rolling tableland, admirably adapted, for the 
most part, to agriculture. It abounds in coal, and 
in the southern part are found immense deposits of 
iron. Petroleum has also been found in large quan- 
tities. Wheat, corn and livestock are the main 



tor, Salmon P. Chase, statesman and jurist, Joshua 
R. Giddings, statesman, and James A. Garfield, sol- 
dier and statesman. It is also the home of Ex-Presi- 
dent Hayes and the birthplace of the three great 
soldiers of the Union, Grant, Sherman and Sheridan. 
Columbus is the capital. Politically it is almost 
evenly divided, but generally goes Republican. The 
native American element is largely composed of 
New Englauders, or descendants of the Puritans. 
Between this part of the population and the large 
German element there is a sharp antagonism on 
sumptuary and Sabbatic legislation. 



"7« 



**? 



-^k 



4. 



STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



615 




PENNSYLVANIA. 

In importance, historical and actual/the great State 
of Pennsylvania is the peer of Virginia, Massachu- 
setts and New York. Ir has a large area and the re- 
gions not adapted to agriculture abound in coal, plati- 



is the capital. The Wyoming Valley is picturesque, 
fertile and populous. Philadelphia was, for the 
most part, the capital of the country during the 
period of struggle with England. The great battle 
of Gettysburg was fought on the soil of Pennsyl- 
vania. The state is more famous for its prominence 
in public affairs and for its wealth than for its influ- 
ence upon the intellectual development of the nation. 
In the domain, however, of professional treatises, 
legal and medical, especially the latter, it has excelled. 
Girard College, the munificent gift of Stephen Gi- 
rard, is the most notable of its institutions. It has 




GIRARD AVENUE BRIDGE. PHILADELPHIA. 



num or irou, which greatly enhance the value of the 
surrounding arable land. Nearly 70 per cent, of the 
entire land area of the state is under cultivation, 
including the fenced woodland. Anthracite coal is 
a Pennsylvania monopoly. From twenty-five to 
thirty millions of tons are consumed every year, all 
from a few eastern counties. In Western Pennsyl- 
vania bituminous coal is found and mined. Petro- 
leum is found in a few places in Ohio, and a little 
in New York, but the supply nearly all comes from 
Western Pennsylvania. Philadelphia, once the most 
important city on the continent, is now second only 
to New York. It is largely devoted to manufactur- 
ing now. Pittsburgh in the western portion of the 
state is the iron capital of the country. Harrisburg 



an endowment, including the cost of the buildings, 
of $3,000,000. The oldest college in the state is 
the University of Pennsylvania, which dates from 
1749. Like Girard College, it is located at Phila- 
delphia. When the Revolutionary War began, that 
city was an important center of scientific research, 
David Ritteuhouse being hardly less famous at that 
time for his astronomical observations and calcula- 
tions than Franklin for his experiments in electricity. 
Political and military exigencies arrested scientific 
progress. There are sections of the country where 
the inhabitants speak only German, although their 
ancestors came to this country several generations 
ago. They are called Dunkers. They are simple in 
habits and singularly free from vice and indigence. 






e ^. 



_- s 



616 



STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 




RHODE ISLAND. 

Rhode Island is the smallest state in the Union, 
but Narragansett Bay extends in such a way as to 
give the state a water frontage of 350 miles. The 
soil is not very good. About one-fourth of it is still 
covered with forests. The state is largely devoted 
to manufactures, more especially cotton, woolen 
and worsted goods, also jewelry. Providence is its 
leading city. Newport is famous as a summer resort 
for the wealthy of New York, Boston and other parts 
of the country. Its villas are noted for their elegance 
and luxury. Newport aspired, a century ago, to rivalry 
in commercial importance with Boston and New 
York. The commodore appointed by the Continental 
Congress to take charge of the American navy was 
Hopkins of Rhode Island. Paul Jones was a Rhode 
Islander. So too was General Greene, one of the 
bravest and ablest of the Revolutionary generals. 
The state was the last of the thirteen to accept the 
national constitution, not coming into the Union 
until May 29, 1790. In the war of 1812 a Rhode 
Islander won renown, Commodore Perry, and most 
of his men were from the same state. In both wars 
with England Rhode Island privateers rendered im- 
portant service. The constitution of the state re- 
stricts suffrage to property holders and tax payers or 
those who may have performed military service dur- 
ing the year. The legislature meets twice a year. 
Brown University is the only college in the state. 
It dates from 1765. It is under the auspices of the 
Baptist denomination, and is liberally endowed and 
largely patronized. 




SOUTH CAROLINA. 

South Carolina is triangular in shape, lying be- 
tween North Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee and the 



Atlantic Ocean. It has au area of 30,570 square 
miles. It is well adapted to grain-raising and cot- 
ton-planting. The islands along the coast are nu- 
merous and produce peculiarly good cotton. Rice 
is raised on a very large scale in the lowlands of the 
state. The palmetto, a species of the palm, is the 
distinguishing tree of the state. There are three 
ports of entry in South Carolina, Charleston, Beau- 
fort and Georgetown. The former was once a more 
important city than Philadelphia or New York, 
but it lost its pre-eminence long ago. Columbia 
is the capital, and it is there that the State 
University, the only prosperous higher institution of 
learning in the state, is located. South Carolina 
was effective in support of the patriot cause in the 
Revolutionary War, prompt to ratify the constitu- 
tion and join in cementing the Union, but it was the 
first state to secede. In 1833 it attempted to break 
up theUnion and on the very day that President Lin- 
coln was elected the governor of the state issued a 
call for a meeting of the legislature for the purpose 
of seceding. The ordinance of secession was passed 
December 20, 1800, and in June, 1868, the state was 
restored to the Union. 




TENNESSEE. 

Tennessee first comes to view as Washington 
County, North Carolina, in the Revolutionary period. 
In 1785 the settlers concluded to organize as a state 
under the name of Franklin. North Carolina re- 
fused to sanction this movement, but in 1789 it 
ceded the region to the United States, and the next 
year the Territory of Tennessee was organized. In 
1796 it was admitted into the Union as a state. 
Knoxville was the first capital. The state seceded 
in May, 1861. It was restored to the Union in 
1866. The state is well supplied with coal, iron 
and marble. The latter is black, gray, red and 
variegated, very beautiful and abundant, but diffi- 
cult of access. The country is uneven, often mount- 
ainous, but the soil is usually good and the crops 
liberal. Memphis, on the Mississippi River, is the 



ikL 



STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



617 



largest city in the state, and Nashville, the capital, 
ranks next. The principal seat of learning is Van- 
derbilt University at Nashville, founded by Ootn- 



tried to prevent the secession of the state, but failed. 
It wont out of the Union in 1861 and did not 
get back again until nine years later. During the 




modore Vanderbilt in 1875. 
come of 142,000. 



It has an annual in- 




TEXAS. 

From 182? to 1829 Sain Houston was governor 
of Tennessee. He then pushed off into the wilds of 
the Southwest and was lost sight of. But in 1836 
he came to the front as President of the Republic of 
Texas. The year before he had been appointed 
commander of the little army raised in Texas to 
achieve independence of Mexico. The decisive bat- 
tle was fought at San Jacinto in the spring of 1836, 
Santa Anna being taken prisoner. He purchased 
liberty by signing a treaty acknowledging the in- 
dependence of the revolting republic. The Lone 
Star, as it was called, remained independent until 
1846, when it was admitted into the Union as a 
state, with the privilege of forming five states. It 
has an area of 274,365 square miles. Gen. Hous- 
ton represented the state in the Senate many years, 
and then in 1850 was elected governor. He held 
the office when the confederacy was organized, and 



last decade the state has made wonderful jjrogress 
in population. Texas and Kansas may fairly claim 
unrivaled pre-eminence in this regard. The state 
is especially well adapted to herding. Austin is the 
capital and Galveston the chief port on the Gulf of 
Mexico. San Antonio is a prosperous town. The 
state has an immense amount of land at its dis- 
posal, and recently contracted for the erection of a 
Capitol, to be paid for in land. 




UTAH TERRITORY. 

Utah Territory has Arizona on its south, Col- 
orado on the east, Nevada on the west, Idaho and 
Wyoming on the north, lying mainly in the Wah- 
sate.h basin, between the Rocky Mountains and the 
Sierra Nevada. It has numerous lakes, none of 
which have any apparent outlet, although fed h\ 
very considerable rivers. One of the bodies of water 
contains twenty-two per cent, of pure salt, and is 
known as Salt Lake. No fish can live in it. It is 
100 miles long and fifty miles wide. But this natural 
phenomenon is less remarkable than the people 



ihL 



618 



STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



who constitute the main body of the inhabitants. 
They are Mormons, or "Latter-day Saints,'" be- 
lieving in polygamy as a divine institution and 
Joseph Smith, a native of Vermont, as an inspired 
guide. They have a bible which they received 
through him. He attempted to establish a commu- 
nity in Nauvoo, Illinois, which should be a theocracy 
within a state. He was killed in 1844, and his fol- 
lowers driven out of the state. They crossed the 
Mississippi and pushed westward to Council Bluffs, 
opposite Omaha, intending to establish themselves 
there, remote from white settlements. But after de- 
liberation and investigation it was decided to leave 
the United States and found a theocracy in the 
wilds of Northern Mexico. The valley about Salt 
Lake was chosen as their retreat, and in 1847 they 
took up their residence there. Hardly had they 
done so before the region became a part of the 
United States, and Congress organized the Terri- 
tory of Utah. That 
was in 1850. Brig- 
ham Young, the suc- 
cessor of Smith, was 
made governor. He 
held the office four 
years. Since then the 
government has ap- 
pointed "gentile'' gov- 
ernors. Congress has 
passed several laws 
against polygamy, the 
latest, known as the 
Edmund's bill, being 
now before the Su- 
preme Court of the 
United States with a 
view to testing its 
constitutionality. An 
election has been held 
under it. The enemies 
of the Mormons pre- 
dicted that the people would resist the law, but on 
the contrary it is being faithfully observed pending 
the trial of its validity. The Territory derives its 
name from the Ute tribe of Indians. Salt Lake 
City, the capital, is a thrifty city. It contains the 
great tabernacle of the Mormons, with a seating 
capacity of 7,000 or 8,000. Utah is very rich in 
precious minerals, but the Mormons confine their 



industry to agriculture. The land has to be irri- 
gated. The Mormons are very anxious to be 
admitted as a state, and certainly Utah has ample 
population. It has applied for admission as 
Deseret. Women are allowed to vote in that 
territory. The church maintains missionaries in 
foreign lands, through whose efforts laboring peo- 
ple are induced to swell their ranks. 




VERMONT. 

Vermont deserved to be one of the original thir- 
teen states, but was not admitted to the Union until 

March, 1791. It be- 




SALT LAKE CITY— Mormon Temple on the Right 



gan to be settled im- 
mediately after the 
French war of 1755 
-58, by pioneers from 
New Hampshire. In 
a few years there were 
settlements from New 
York, also from Mas- 
sachusetts. From 1777 
until admitted to the 
Union, Vermont may 
be said to have been 
entirely independent. 
The people were de- 
voted patriots. Ethan 
Allen and Seth War- 
ner with their "Green 
Mountain Boys," dis- 
tinguished themselves 
at Ticonderoga. The 
battle of Bennington 
also attests the bravery of the Vermouters. The 
state is almost wholly given to agriculture ; man- 
ufacturing being little cultivated. The Green 
Mountains constitute its backbone. The state 
has two colleges of some standing among the higher 
institutions of learning, the University of Vermont 
at Burlington, and Middlebury College, Middlebury. 
Rutland, St. Albans and St. Johnsbury are the 



7p 



srr 



STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



619 



At- 



principal towns of the state, and Alontpelier the cap- 
ital. It has the honor of being represented in the 
Senate of the United States by Geo. F. Edmunds. 
It was the birthplace of the poet Saxe. 




VIRGINIA. 

If no specific mention were made in this connec- 
tion of Virginia, or the "Old Dominion," it would 



of breaking the political solidity of the South. When 
Richmond ceased to be the capital of the Confed- 
eracy, and Lee gave up his sword, Virginia sub- 
sided. On the 17th of April, 1861, it seceded, and 
it did not regain its foothold in the Union as an in- 
dependent, self-governing state until January, 1870. 
Richmond is the state capital and the chief city of 
the state, with Norfolk and Petersburg next. As 
early as 1693, the college of William and Mary was 
founded; Washington and Lee University in 1749; 
Hampden .Sidney in 1775, and University of Vir- 
ginia in L825. The state has always taken com- 
mendable interest in education. The plantations 
were so large and the population so scattered as to 
render impracticable the common school system 




still fill a large place in the American department of 
this volume, so prominent was it in Colonial and 
Revolutionary days, and during the first century of 
the Republic. From 1607, when the first perma- 
nent English settlement was made on American 
soil upon the banks of the James River, until the 
close of the war between the North and the South, 
nearly two hundred and sixty years later, Virginia 
was almost constantly at the front. Since that time 
it has not been specially prominent, except as made 
conspicuous in politics by the "Readjusters," led by 
Senator Mahone, who is urged forward in the hope 



of the North, but as the land is being divided, and 
the negroes are now a part of " the people," public 
schools are beginning to flourish. The state contains 
some coal and iron. The soil is generally good, and 
the climate mild. Tobacco has always been the 
leading staple of the state. General farming can 
be carried on to advantage, as nearly all grains and 
grasses thrive there. Gold has been discovered in 
rich quartz within the limits of the state; but, thus 
far, the mines have never been worked to advantage. 
Virginia is very proud of its record, and justly so. 
It is familiarly known as "The Old Dominion." 



~m 



77 



,L 



6io 



STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



WASHINGTON TERRITORY. 

Washington Territory is the extreme northwest 
(except Alaska) of the United States, having Brit- 
ish Columbia on the north, Idaho on. the east, Ore- 
gon on the south and the Pacific Ocean on the west. 
It was once known as the Puget Sound Region. It- 
was visited by Lewis and Clark in 1815. The Hud- 
son Bay Company tried to seize and appropriate it 
in 1828. The territory was organized in 1853. Its 
present boundaries were fixed ten years later. It 
contains some gold and a great deal of coal, but its 
chief attractions are its fertile wheat-lands and broad 
pastures. The climate on the coast is softened by 
warm sea breezes. Olvmpia is the capital. With 
the Northern Pacific railroad completed, it is ex- 
pected that Washington Territory, thus far slow to 
develop, will rapidly fill up with agriculturists. 



people in the mountainous northwest portion of the 
state remained loyal to the Union. They had long 
wanted to escape from Virginia and form a separate 
state, and the opportunity was then afforded for do- 
ing so. In June, 1861, steps were taken for effect- 
ing a state organization, and two years later West 
Virginia came into the Union. Nearly two-thirds 
of the state is covered with the original forest. 
Wheeling, the capital and chief city, is a great cen- 
ter for iron works. The state is largely indebted to 
its iron and coal for its prosperity. The state of Vir- 
ginia insists that West Virginia should assume its 
proportion of the old state debt, but West Virginia 
is not disposed to entertain the proposition, and there 
is no way to compel the state to pay any part of that 
obligation, nor is there the slightest prospect of any 
chauge of opinion on the subject. 




WEST VIRGINIA. 

West Virginia is an offshoot from Virginia. When 
the latter joined the Confederacy a majority of the 



WISCONSIN. 

As early as 1636 a white settlement was made at 
Green Bay. That was the beginning of civilization 



ivr 



^^ 



STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



62 1 



in Wisconsin. But no present connection can be 
traced between the French missions of the 17th 
century and the modern state. The territory was 
organized in 1846, and included the extreme north- 
west, in a somewhat vague way. Two years later 
Wisconsin was admitted to the Union with its pres- 
ent boundaries. It has Illinois on the south, Lake 
Michigan and the State of Michigan on the east, 
Lake Superior on the north, and Minnesota and 
Iowa on the west. The state is very uneven in the 
character of its soil, having much good farming 
land and some barren sand-fields. The lumber 
tracts are extensive and very valuable. Milwaukee, 
once a rival of Chicago and still an important city, is 
the principal center of business in the state. Madi- 
son is the capital. The population, originally, was 
composed of pioneers from New England and New 
York. Of late years a great many Scandinavians 
and Germans have settled in the state. Lakes of 
great beauty abound. The country is rolling. The 
state has at its capital a university under state con- 
trol which ranks among the great institutions of 
learning. Wisconsin has several important rivers, 
which have been and are still of great advantage 
for milling and commercial purposes. The chief of 
these are the Wisconsin, the Chippewa, and the 
Fox. The former and latter are connected by a 
canal. Immense quantities of pine logs are floated 
down these rivers and manufactured into lumber 
upon their banks. 



WYOMING TERRITORY. 

Wyoming Territory is at the foot of the list of 
states and territories in every respect. With an area 
of nearly 100,000 square miles, it has almost no laud 
at all adapted to agriculture. The sparse bunch- 
grass of its plains affords pasturage for cattle. Chey- 
enne, its capital, is the only town within its limits of 
any considerable magnitude. It is a great center 
for the cattle trade and shipment of the plains. 
The territory was organized in 1868. There is some 
coal along and near the Union Pacific railroad. The 
National Park forms the extreme northwest corner 
of Wyoming. That is the region of geysers so 
wonderful that Congress by specific legislation 
reserved the tract as a public domain forever. It 
comprises an area of 3,575 square miles. No 
other equal area contains so many natural phenom- 
ena of interest. " There are more hot springs and 
geysers in this area," says Hayden, "than in all the 
remainder of the world besides." 



Having now considered alphabetically the several 
states and territories of the United States, it only 
remains to add that the combining of so many es- 
sentially independent commonwealths in one nation 
is no longer an experiment, and every vestige of hos- 
tility to the union of the states has disappeared, be- 
longing exclusively to historical, in distinction from 
actual America. 




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^INVENTIONS AND^ 




INVENTORS. 



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CHAPTER LXXXVII. 

The Constitution and Patent Rights— The Patent System in England— Colonial Patent* 
—Steamships and Robert Fulton— The Patent Office— Whitney and the Cotton Gin— 
"Assembling'" and the American Watch — Jethro Wood and the Plow — The First 
Locomotive and Peter Cooper— The Lathe — Guns and Revolvers— Fire Engines and 
Alarm— Air-Brake— American Presses— Scales and Safes— Electricity— The Sewing 
Machine— Mowers and Reapers— Goodyear and India-Rubber— An.esthetics — John 
Ericsson— Kahs and the St. Louis Bridge— The Bom- \ 'kimper— The Steam Rammer — 
The Brass Clock— poison and His Inventions. 

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HE constitution of the Uni- 
ted States provides that "the 
Congress shall have power 
to promote the progress of 
science and useful arts, by 
securing, for limited times, 
to authors and inventors 
the exclusive right to their respect- 
ive writings and discoveries." To 
that recognition of the right of 
projierty in ideas is the United 
States very largely indebted for its 
present pre-eminence among the 
nations of the earth. 

Mr. Charles Reade was not ro- 
mancing, but stating moderately a 
great fact, when he said, " Europe 
teems with the material products 
of American genius. American patents print En- 
glish newspapers and sew Englishmen's shirts. A 
Briton goes to his work by American clocks and is 
warmed by American stoves. In a word, America 
is the leading nation in all matters of material in- 
vention and construction, anil no other nation rivals 
or approaches it." The reference here is solely to 
the United States, and the same, it may be added, 



will be true throughout the current chapters. 
The patent system is very old. Faint traces of 
it are to be found in ancient history, but so very 
faint as to be almost indistinguishable. In modern 
times it is first found in England. Tne common 
law grants to the sovereign the right to issue letters 
patent for monopolies in inventions and other 
things. What is called in the written law of En- 
gland the " Statute of Monopolies," designed to 
check abuses of a grievous nature in the exercise of 
the royal prerogative herein, is regarded as the basis 
of patent law in this country also. The earliest 
recorded patent in the world goes back to the times 
of Edward III. That king granted a patent to 
" two friars and two aldermen " for a philosopher's 
stone. Thus curiously blended are the absurd con- 
ceits of the past with the solid acquisitions of the 
present. 

The earliest patent in America was issued hi 1641 
by the General Court of the Colony of Massachusetts. 
It granted to Samuel Winslow the exclusive right 
for teu years to use a certain specified process 
in making salt. The next patent was eleven years 
later. One John Clark was allowed a royalty of ten 
shillings from every family which should use his 
method of " savins; wood and warming houses at 



v - 



(622) 



AMERICAN INVENTIONS AND INVENTORS. 



623 



k~ 



little cost." Governor Winthrop'a sou, John, took 
out in 1656 a patent for a process for making salt. 

Connecticut has a very creditable patent record. 
In 1672 that colony passed a law that, " there shall 
be no monopolies granted among us but of such 
new inventions as shall be judged profitable and for 
the benefit of the country, and for such time as the 
General Court shall judge meet." Under this law 
a monopoly in steel-making was granted to two per- 
sons in 1728. Very little attention was paid to pat- 
ents, however, during the colonial period, and the 
only great American inventor of 
that period, Franklin, never 
sought any monopoly on his light- 
ning rod. 

The first patent of the United 
States, under the first law based 
on the constitutional provision 
quoted, bears date of July 31, 
1790, the same year in which the 
law itself was enacted. It ran to 
Samuel Hopkins, and related to 
making pot and pearl ashes. 
There were two other patents, also 
of trivial importance, granted 
that year. At the present time 
the issue is at the rate of more 
than 20,000 per annum. It is 
in 1701, that we are afforded a 
glimpse of the great future in 
store for American ingenuity. 
The number of patents granted 
rose to thirty-one, and included six patents to 
James Rumsay and one to John Fitch of Philadel- 
phia, relative to steam-engines and steamships. 
From that point dates, properly, America's entry 
upon the field of steam utilization. We find in a 
reference book issued by the Scientific American a 
brief statement of the history of the steam-engine 
which may well find place here. It is as follows: 

" Papin, of France, was the first (in 1690) to oper- 
ate a piston by steam, which acted only on one side 
of the piston. He also invented the safety-valve. 
He was born 1650, died 1710. Savery, 1697, first 
employed steam power in doing useful work. His 
piston, like Papin's, took steam on one side only, 
the pressure of the atmosphere being admitted to 
the other side. James Watt was the first to make 
the complete steam-engine, or the existing forms in 




YOUNG FRANKLIN 



which steam acts on both sides of the piston. He 
also made the steam-condenser, the governor, the 
walking-beam, applied the fly-wheel, and nearly all 
the parts of the modern engine. He was born 1736, 
died 1819. He made a rotary steam-engine in 1782. 
and patented a locomotive engine in 1784. In 1801, 
Trevithick and Vivian ojierated a locomotive which 
traveled five miles an hour, with a load of ten tons. 
Cook, in 1808, used fixed engines with ropes to draw 
railway-ears. Blachett and Hedley, in 1813, discov- 
ered that smooth locomotive wheels might be used 
011 railways, instead of toothed 
wheels and toothed rails before 
required. George Stevenson, 1825, 
made railway locomotion success- 
ful by adapting the locomotive to 
variable speeds and loads, by 
means of his blast-pipe, and by 
introducing the tubular boiler, 
which latter was suggested to him 
ami invented by Booth, 1829. 
October 6, 1829, the famous com- 
petitive trial of locomotives on 
the Liverpool and Manchester 
railway took place, which estab- 
lished the superiority of Steven- 
son's locomotives, and inaugu- 
rated the art of railway commu- 
nication. The first steamboat 
actually employed in business was 
a small vessel built by John Fitch 
of Pennsylvania, 1790, worked 
on the Delaware ; speed, 7J miles per hour. Robert 
Fulton's steamboat, the Clermont, made her first 
trip from New York to Albany, August, 1801 ; 
speed, five miles per hour." 
The first steam-vessel to cross 
the Atlantic was the Savan- 
nah, in 1819, from Savannah ^ 
to Liverpool, 26 days. Robert J 

Fulton was the first to dem- 

j. i-i „ ,. .^(-;„.,K;i;f,. fplton's steamboat. 
onstrate toe practicability 

of the idea. He was the introducer rather than the 

inventor of steam navigation. Fulton was born at 

Little Britain, Pennsylvania in 1765,and died in 1 825. 

His early life was spent at the easel and the brush. 

His last achievement was the construction of the 

first steam war-vessel. 

In those primitive days of the republic the peti- 




+*-• 



624 



AMERICAN INVENTIONS AND INVENTORS. 



tioii for a patent was made to the Secretary of 
State, the Secretary of War, or the Attorney-Gen- 
eral, and the patent could be issued by the Presi- 
dent upon the recommendation of two of the three 
officers named. The State Department came to be 
the patent office of the government, in effect, until 
after the creation of the Interior Department, when, 
in 1849. Congress transferred the Patent Bureau to 
the new department, where it has developed from a 
beginning so small as to be almost beneath notice 
into one of the most impor- 
tant branches of the nation- 
al government employing 
many hundred clerks, who 
are, or must become, ex- 
perts in mechanism and 
chemistry, for patents ex- 
tend to medicines and other 
ingredients which involve 
chemical science no less 
than to mechanism. The 
models on file in the Patent 
office form a very interest- 
ing collection, and afford 
an ample field for study. 

The first great American 
invention in mechanism was 
Eli Whitney's cotton gin, 
which dates from 1793. 
Whitney was a Yankee 
schoolmaster at the South. 
By a simple process, the use 
of teeth and slats, he con- 
trived to separate the seeds 
from the cotton, which 
before his day had to be 
done by hand. He trebled the value of all cotton 
lands, yet realized nothing from this invention, so 
easily and generally was his right infringed. He 
afterwards acquired a fortune in the manufacture 
of improved firearms. Whitney was born in West- 
borough, Massachusetts, December 8, 1765, and died 
in New Haven, Connecticut, December 8, 1825. 

Sir Richard Arkwright, an English barber, orig- 
inally, is justly regarded as the founder of the fac- 
tory system, if not the inventor of the spinning- 
jenny. Others had invented machinery for weaving, 
but he utilized the mule spinner and the various ap- 
pliances for converting raw cotton into cloth. It 




was not, however, until the cotton mills of Waltham, 
Massachusetts, were set up (1813) that machines for 
all the processes which convert the raw cotton into 
cloth were combined in one establishment. The 
mechanism for weaving,dyeing,and the like, received 
a great many improvements from time to time from 
American artisans. 

What is called the system of " assembling " is a 
conspicuous feature of American ingenuity. Knight 
defines it as " the system of making the component 
parts of a machine or imple- 
ment in distinct pieces of 
fixed shape and dimensions, 
so that corresponding parts 
are interchangeable." The 
first watch made in this 
country was the "American" 
of Waltham, Massachusetts, 
and in regard to it Knight 
observes, " The American 
system of watch-making, by 
gathering all the operations 
under one roof, making the 
parts as largely as possible 
by machines, each part 
being made in quantities by 
gauge and pattern, and 
pieces afterwards ' assem- 
bled,' dates back to 1852." 
A. L. Denison is the name 
associated with the pioneer 
operations in this line. 

The plow early engaged 
the attention of American 
talent. President Jefferson 
devoted a great deal of 
thought to its construction, and so did Timothy 
Pickering, another leading statesman of the re- 
public in its infancy. But the inventor of the 
modern plow was Jethro Wood, of Scipio, New 
York, of whom Wm. H. Seward once wrote, " No 
citizen of the United States has conferred greater 
economical benefits on his country than Jethro 
Wood — none of her benefactors have been more 
inadequately rewarded." Mr. Wood's great in- 
vention dates from 1819. It was the beginning of 
a new era in husbandry. This great benefactor not 
only realized no profit from his invention, but lost a 
fortune in trying to secure his rights. His only re- 






AMERICAN INVENTIONS AND INVENTORS. 



625 



ward was the consciousness of having lightened the 
toil of the farmer and increased the productiveness 
of the soil tilled. Wood, like Whitney, was a native 
of Massachusetts. He was born at Dartmouth, 
March 16, 1774 Ho died in 1834. 

The first locomotive used outside of England was 
manufactured in that country for use in this coun- 
try iu 1829. It was not suited to the purpose, and 
Mr. Peter Cooper, the venerable philanthropist of 
New York City, then a young man, devised and 
constructed an engine which met the requirements 
of the case. That was in 1S30. Mr. Cooper thus 
belongs in the list of great 
inventors. He was born 
in 1791. This noble phil- 
anthropist must rank 
among the best products 
of American civilization. 
In 1876 he was the Green- 
back candidate for Presi- 
dent, and as late as 1880 
took an active interest in 
politics. Cooper Institute, 
New York, with its munif- 
icent endowment, is a mon- 
ument of his goodness. 

One of the grand and 
fundamental improve- 
ments of modern times is 
the lathe, the invention of 
Thomas Blanchard. He 
was born at Sutton, Mas- 
sachusetts, in 1788. He 

survived until 1804. His inventions were somewhat 
numerous, the first being a tack machine in 1806. 
It was in 1843 that he patented the lathe, now in 
almost universal use the world over for turning 
every sort of wooden device, from an axe-helve to 
a gunstock. 

Although this country has been engaged but little 
in war during the century since independence was 
achieved, and its standing army is trivial in the ex- 
treme, it has excelled in firearms, from pocket- 
pieces to siege guns. The pistol is old, but the revol- 
ver is American and modern. Its inventor was Sam- 
uel Colt, bom at Hartford, Connecticut, July 19, 
1814. The principle itself was not wholly unknown, 
but its application and introduction are attributable 
to Colt. He made an immense fortune out of the 




manufacture of these arms, expending 011 his works, 
including cottages for the workmen, not less than 
$3,000,000. He died January 10, 18G2. 

Speaking of ii rearms in general, an eminent 
authority remarks, " With a single exception, the 
main features of all the prominent military rifles 
originated in the United States." That exception is 
the needle-gun. Fire engines, both water and chemi- 
cal, attest the superior ingenuity of the American 
mind. The system of fire-alarms is also American. 
The atmospheric brake for railroad cars is one of 
the great American inventions. The most impor- 
tant of the numerous de- 
vices in that line is the 
Westinghouse air-brake, 
which has proved im- 
mensely profitable and of 
incalculable benefit in 
lessening the perils of 
travel by rail. Air is 
used in operating the 
brake. Knight attempts 
to make the brake intelli- 
gible to the general read- 
is o 

er by the following de- 
scription : "Air is con- 
densed to the required 
extent into a reservoir by 
a steam-pump upon the 
locomotive. From the 
reservoir it is conducted 
back beneath the cars of 
the train by pipes con- 
nected beneath the train by flexible tubes and valve- 
couplings. Under each car is a cylinder to which 
the compressed air is admitted forward of a piston, 
the stem of which is connected with a bell-crank 
attached to the brake levers by rods, so that when 
air is admitted by the engineer to the pipes connect- 
ed to the cylinders under each car, the brakes of 
each are simultaneously applied." This explana- 
tion has been given because the mere observer of 
this brake can really see nothing, while an inspection 
in the case of ordinary inventions is to some extent 
instructive. 

In the art of printing, especially press-work, this 
country can also claim pre-eminence. Franklin 
made some improvements in presses, but the Hoe, 
Adams, Potter, Campbell, and several other recent 



7- 



"■» B 



»& 



626 



AMERICAN INVENTIONS AND INVENTORS. 



setts, April 20, 1791. 



presses in use, whereon printing is done, testify most 
eloquently to the skill of 
America in devising 
and executing mechan- 
ical plans. 

The substitution of 
scales for steelyards was 
the invention of Thad- 
deus Fairbanks. From 
the same rural town of 
Brimfield. Massachusetts, 
came two highly impor- 
tant contributions to 
modern civilization, Fair- 
banks' scales and Her- 
ring's safes. The Fair- 
banks brothers, Thad- 
deus and Frastus, estab- 
lished their factory, how- 
ever, at St. Johnsbury, 
Vermont. Frastus was 
governor of the slate 
at two widely different 
times. The American 
safe has no equal any- 
where, and the American 
scales no competitors. 

In electricity this 
country stands unrivaled. 
lightning; Morse made it 
our errand-boy; Gray, Bell 
and Edison may be said to 
have imparted to it the pow- 
er of speech. The lightning- 
rod robbed the thunderbolt 
of its terrors ; the telegraph 
almost annihilates distance 
as a barrier to communica- 
tion, and the telephone trans- 
mits the voice itself. With 
Franklin. Morse. Edison, 
Gray, and Boll ranks also 
Cyrus W. Field, who. if he 
did not invent submarine 
telegraphy, achieved that 
marvel of all ages, the suc- 
cessful laving of a cable 
across the Atlantic ocean. 
S. F. B. Morse was bom in Charlestown, Massachu- , out his patent in 1846, 




Franklin tamed the 




He was an artist and a lec- 
turer on the literature 
of art. In 1832 he de- 
vised and put into prim- 
itive use the system 
of telegraphy. Eleven 
years later Congress 
made an appropriation 
for an experimental 
line from Washington 
to Baltimore. The same 
year he suggests 1 a 
marine cable. He re- 
alized a fortune from 
his invention, and sur- 
vived to see a bronze 
statue of himself erect- 
ed in Central Park. 
New York. He died 
in 1872. 

We turn now to the 
sewing machine. That 
was the invention of 
Elias Howe. Some ap- 
proaches were made to 
the discovery of the 
principle of this won- 
derful and revolution- 
iry piece of mechanism by Thomas Saint of En- 
gland in 1790, and Themon- 
nier of Paris in 1830, Adams 
and Dodge of Vermont in 
1818, Greenough of New 
York in 1842, and Walter 
Hunt in 1832-35, contributed 
to the invention. Howe does 
not appear to have had any 
acquaintance with these ex- 
periments which hovored 
upon the verge of success. 
He was born in Spencer, 
Massachusetts, in 1819. The 
use of two threads, a shuttle 
ami a curved needle with the 
eye near the point, especially 
the latter, were the solution 
of the problem over which he 
pondered for years. He took 
For eight years he suffered 



AMERICAN INVENTIONS AND INVENTORS. 



627 



the most extreme poverty, being en 
to introduce his machines or 
defend his patent rights. A 
decision of the court in 1854 
established Howe's claim to 
priority, and from that time 
until his death, 1867, he was 
in the enjoyment of a prince- 
ly revenue from the royalty 
on his patent. Not much if 
any less than 3,000 sewing- 
machine patents have been 
taken out in this country, but 
until the expiration of his 
monopoly Howe received a 
royalty on every machine 
made, his patent being funda- 
mental. He was an ardent 
patriot, and in 1861 enlisted 
as a common soldier in de- 
fense of the Union. 

The use of horse power 
and mechanism in mowing, 
harvesting and husbandry generally may be set down 
as an American idea. The 
mowing machine exhibit- 
ed by Cyrus H. McCor- 
mick of Chicago at the 
World's Fair, London, in 
1851, was one of the more 
attractive features of that 
exposition. It brought to 
the attention of mankind 
a substitute for the scythe 
and snath, and marked a 
new era in farming. Mr. 
McCormick was born in 
Virginia in 1809. His first 
machine was constructed 
as early as 1831. Of a 
kindred nature are the 
harvesters of the country, 
almost endless in variety 
and inestimable in value. 
The plow of Jethro Wood 
needed to be supplement- 
ed by machinery for put- 
ting in and taking off the 
crop 





S. C. HERRrNG. 

There was also need of horse power machin- | a Swede by birth, an American 



ery for separating seed from straw, and American 
ingenuity fully supplied the 
demands of the case, includ- 
ing elevators for storage. 
The elevator system is indis- 
pensable to the proper hand- 
ling of grain, and for it the 
world is indebted to the Uni- 
ted States. 

In 1800 was born at New 
Haven, Connecticut, Charles 
Goodyear to whom mankind 
owes the vulcanization of 
India rubber and the con- 
version of that material into 
numberless practical uses. 
It was a discovery by accident 
rather than an invention, 
properly speaking, but the 
details of the idea were 
worked out only by long and 
patient toil. For six years 
Goodyear experimented until 
at last he ascertained the right way to vulcanize 
rubber, namely by mixing 
with it sulphur, and treat- 
ing them properly. The 
uses of this material are 
constantly widening. Mr. 
Goodyear died in 1860. 

The use of ether as an 
anaesthetic was introduced 
by two Boston physicians, 
Drs. Jackson and Morton, 
in 1846. Chloroform was 
discovered by Dr. Simp- 
son the year following. 
The use of anaesthetics in 
surgical and dental opera- 
tions and in obstetrics 
has lessened the volume 
of human agony incalcu- 
lably. Mechanical dentis- 
try, it may be added, is 
one of the prominent glo- 
ries of American skill. 

One of the greatest of 

inventors is John Ericsson, 

by citizenship and 



7 8 



628 



AMERICAN INVENTIONS AND INVENTORS. 




<, 



S. F. B. MORSE. 



long residence. He was born in 1803. He made 
many improvements in steamers and railway loco- 
motives, but his greatest 
achievements were naval. 
He may be said to have rev- 
olutionized the navies of 
the world. The ironclads 
which he invented and built 
for the United States navy 
s. in the late war proved the 
"^aP beginning of a radical 
^4 change in naval architect- 
ure. He is said to have 
recently invented a new and 
almost invulnerable war ship which is likely to effect 

still another rev- 
olution in the 
navies of the 
world. 

The bridge 
which spans the 
Mississippi river 
at St. Louis is 
pronounced by 
competent judg- 
es the grandest 
structure in the 
world of a strict- 
ly practical na- 
ture. It was 
planned and 
built by James 
B. Eads, who was born in 1820, and who had 
been second only to Ericsson in usefulness to the 




ELIA3 HOWE. 



United States in naval construction from 1861 to 
1865. The St. Louis bridge has three spans, one is 
515, and the other two 497 feet, each. Its middle 
arch has only one companion piece of work, the one 
of Kuilingburg, Holland. The boot crimper, in- 
vented by Moore iu 1812, proved a great help in the 
manufacture of boots, as did the pegging machine 
invented by Gal- 
lahue in 1858. 
The steam ham- 
mer dates from 
1838, ten years 
after t lie planing 
machine invent- 
ed by Wood- 
worth. The 
first brass clock 
was invented in 
America by 
Chauncey Je- 
rome, and prov- 
ed a benefit to 
the entire civi- 
lized world. 

The inventive 
Edison has expended a groat deal of time in solv- 
ing the Electric Light problem. Success has at last 
been achieved. The great difficulties in the way 
were threefold : first, division of the electric cur- 
rent ; second, safeguards against injury in the use of 
electricity for illumination ; and third, cheapness 
It now remains only to introduce and perfect in de- 
tail what inventive genius has placed within com- 
mercial reach of the public. 




CYRUS H. M'COBMICK. 




KAIl.KoAD BRIDGE ACROSS THE MISSISSIPPI KIVEK AT ST. LOUIS. 



"5T 



LkU 




General, Facts — Agriculture — Fisheries— Silk Culture — Cotton, Infant and King — Iron 
and Steel — Wool and Woolens — Manufactures, 1880 — American Cereals— Mineral Pro- 
ductions — Beef, Livestock and Provisions— Railroads and Shipping — Insurance— Ameri- 
can Monet; Historical and Actual — American Art and Artists. 




NVENTION and industry, 
if not absolutely insepara- 
ble, are certainly greatly 
helpful to each other. It 
would be impossible to pre- 
sent, whether in detail or 
in a general way, American 
inventions without throw- 
ing much light upon the industrial de- 
velopment of the country ; but such 
incidental information serves rather to 
sharpen than to satisfy the appetite, 
and it is proposed in this chapter to 
set forth the beginnings of the lead- 
ing skilled industries of America, and 
the present condition of the country 
from the standpoint of industry, as 
shown by the census of 1880. It would 
be tedious to follow the development itself step by 
step, for each footprint is a column of statistics, and 
at best this chapter will be burdened with figures. 

Agriculture is the great industry of the world, 
more especially of America. It is the foundation of 
all prosperity, audit is the employment of the great 
bulk of the population. Lord Beaconsfield was ac- 
customed to insist that land owning was the only 
basis of a genuine aristocracy, and he might have 
added that when tillage and ownership were com- 



bined the highest ideal of aggregate life was real- 
ized. Herein the United States leads the world. 
This country has no peasant class, unless it be the 
negroes who work the plantations at the South. 
The American farmer is at once a laborer and in its 
best sense an aristocrat. In the area of cereal cul- 
tivation Russia alone can equal the United States, 
and in agriculture as a whole America has no rival. 

It may be said that fishing was the first industry 
of this country. Our English ancestors made a 
business of catching cod before they even attempted 
to settle upon the continent. The cod is unknown 
in the Mediterranean sea, and several choice varieties 
are peculiar to the American coast. The English 
and the Dutch found the cod-fisheries near Holland. 
Scotland, Norway and Iceland profitable as early as 
the fourteenth century, but the fisheries off New- 
foundland and New England yielded more bounti- 
fully. Although this industry has greatly declined, 
there are several thousand vessels engaged in the 
business at the present time, and to Maine and 
Massachusetts this is still a prominent and profita- 
ble industry. The American rwpulation supported 
by fishing is said to be about 1,000,000. Whaling, 
which was once a flourishing business, has almost 
disappeared. 

The first land industry contemplated, not count- 
ing tobacco-raising, (the prominence of which was 



- 



(629) 



jpr 



6.3° 



AMERICAN INDUSTRY AND ART. 



brought out in connection with colonial history) 
was silk culture. The founders of Virginia 
thought tnat, the mulberry and the silk-worm 
would flourish on this continent, and that the 
great staple of luxurious clothing, then confined as 
a production to the far East, and to the northern 
coast of the Mediterranean as ;i manufacture, could 
be produced hi America. In 1623 the legislature 
of Virginia passed a statute directing all settlers to 
plant mulberry trees. At one time a mania for silk 



The mania referred to dates from 1829 to 1840. 
During that period the feasibility of silk-raising on 
this continent was thoroughly tested, and received 
fatal discouragement. Some revival of the interest 
in this industry was shown in 1872, but in its maim 
facture rather than its cultivation. The domestic 
fabric, at first quite inferior, is now an excellent 
article, and the manufacture is thrifty. Paterson, 
New Jersey, is the great center of this industry. 
The Indians discovered by Columbus were clothed 




COTTON PICKING. 



culture took possession of the people. It may be 
traced as far south as Louisiana, as far west as Illinois, 
and as far north as Vermont. Repeated failures at- 
test perseverance. The first export of raw silk to Eu- 
rope was a small consignment of cocoons raised in 
Georgia and taken to England by Governor Ogle- 
thorpe in 1734. Thirteen years later Governor Law 
of Connecticut had a suit of clothes made from silk 
raised, spun and woven in that colony. That was a 
year before the first bale of cotton was exported 
from this country. In 1792 dress silk was first pro- 
duced in this country. It was a strictly domestic 
industry for several years. In 1810 machine-made 
silk was produced in Connecticut on a small scale. 



sparsely with cotton cloth it is claimed, but the cot- 
ton industry may be traced to the first seed sown on 
the soil of Virginia in 1621, although the first ex- 
port was in 1748, and as late as 1784 eight bales ex- 
ported to England were confiscated on the ground 
that " so much cotton could not be produced in the 
United States." The cotton-gin of the previous 
chapter may be said to have given this industry its 
real start. The first cotton-mill of the country was 
erected at Beverley, Massachusetts, in 1788. The 
consumption of raw cotton in the United States in 
1880 was 911,000.000 pounds. During the last de- 
cade cotton was the textile industry which developed 
the most rapidly in this country. 



\k 



AMERICAN INDUSTRY AND ART. 



6 S3 



Iron is an industry which dates, so far us concerns 
America, from 1020. Bog iron-ore, found near 
Jamestown, was used. In 1643 bog-iron was util- 
ized in Massachusetts. The manufacture of iron 
received quite an impetus in 1(353, and now this 
country makes one-fourth of the steel and one- 
fourth of the iron of the whole world. The iron 
production of 1880 in this country, including 
steel, exceeded 7,205,000 tons. The United States 
is second only to Great Britain in this great branch 
of industry. Our ore beds are so rich that bog iron 
is almost as obsolete as hand-made cloth. 

Sheep were introduced into New York in 1625, 
and into Massachusetts in 1633. In 1777 the mak- 
ing of wool-card teeth by machinery instead of by 
hand, was invented by Oliver Evans. These three 
beginnings may be called the foundation of the 
woolen interest in America. The clip of 1879 in the 
United States amounted to 105,000,000 pounds, and 
the textile production of 1880 was 258,000,000 
pounds. 

The foregoing are the great staples of manufac- 
ture. In a discussion of the balance-sheet of this 
country, Mulhall says, " It would be impossible to 
find in history a parallel to the progress of the Uni- 
ted States in the last ten years," referring to the de- 
cade from 1870 to 1880. The aggregate of indus- 
tries was in round numbers $10,020,000,000 during 
the year 1880. Of this amount $-1,440,000,000 must 
be set down to the credit of manufactures, while 
agriculture can claim $2,625,000,000, leaving the 
remainder to be divided between commerce, mining, 
transportation, banking and sundries. 

Of agriculture Mulhall observes that it has not 
kept pace with population, as regards value, but in 
amount of production it has increased more rapidly 
than population. The grain of 1880 was 2,390,000,- 
000 bushels; the hay, 24,150,000,000,000 tons; the 
cotton, 2,773,000,000 pounds. The census of that 
year gave the number of farming stock thus : 
horses, 12,550,000 ; cows, 33,600,000 ; sheep, 38,000,- 
000; hogs, 35,000,000, making a grand total of 
119,150,000 head, or 2.39 head per inhabitant. This 
is surely a very satisfactory showing. 

The mineral production makes a very favorable 
showing for the same year, namely : iron ore, 
9,500,000 tons ; copper, 20,300 tons ; coal, 55,000,- 
000 tons ; petroleum, 860,000,000 gallons. As for 
gold and silver, one-half of the world's supply came 



from this country. Of all the mining industries of 
the world, this country represents thirty-six percent. 
Great Britain conies next and represents thirty-three 
percent. During the ten years ending with 1880 
the United States coined nearly one-fourth of the 
gold and one-sixth of the silver turned out by all 
the mints of the world. 

The shipment of American fresh beef to England 
began in 1875, and has become a great branch of 
commerce ; but for the most part, American meats 
are exjiorted cured or cooked. Pork is salted and 
the hams smoked, but the beef is cooked and then 
canned. This industry has its chief center in Chi- 
cago, the central point for cattle shipments from 
the whole West. In 1880 the meat supply of the 
country was reported thus : cattle slaughtered. 
5,600,000; sheep slaughtered, 12,666,000; hogs, 
14.480,000, making the following tons of meat: 
beef, 2,100,000 ; mutton, 424,100 ; pork, 1,291,560. 
It is estimated that the American people, who are 
the best fed of all the peoples of the earth, consume 
on an average 125 pounds of meat per inhabitant 
a year. The total production is 3,815,660 ; the total 
home consumption is 2,740,000 tons, leaving 1,076,- 
000 tons for export. 

Turning now to railroads, it may be observed, upon 
the threshold, that the first railroad charter was 
given in this country to the Mohawk and Hudson 
River Company, the parent of the New York Cen- 
tral trunk line of the Vauderbilt combination and 
monopoly. The first railroad in the land was 
built to transport from Quiney the granite used in 
the erection of Bunker Hill monument. That 
was in 1827. It was a horse railroad, originally. 
The first spadeful of dirt in the grading of the Bal- 
timore and Ohio railroad was thrown up, with great 
ceremony, July 4, 1824, by Charles Carroll of Car- 
rollton, who proved to be the last survivor of the 
signers of the Declaration of Independence. The 
mileage of railroads in the country is constantly in- 
creasing, and is now about 100,000 miles. The increase 
during the last decade was 41,883 miles, or more 
than that of all Europe combined, and an average of 
twelve miles a day. It is a moderate estimate to 
say that during the first two years of the current 
decade the increase was 10,000. During the last 
decade many railroads became bankrupt, the total 
number being 128, and their aggregate mileage, 13,- 
120, representing a cost of about $1,150,000,000. 



634 



AMERICAN INDUSTRY AND ART. 



Since the more prosperous times which followed the 
resumption of specie payments (1879) the stock 
and bond; of these roads have greatly increased in 
value. The total cost of the railroads built up to 
1880 were $5,000,000,000. Many of the roads built 
have penetrated the prairies in advance of home- 
seeking enterprises, and the locomotive has been 
" the voice of one crying in the wilderness." The 
shipping interest has steadily declined ever since 
1860, except as regards shipping on the lakes and 
great rivers, and even there, especially on the rivers, 
rail competition has been de- 
pressing, and often absolute- 
ly destructive. The total 
traffic of the country for 1880 
was 310,000,000 tons, of 
which 210,000,000 went by 
railways, 80,000,000 by in- 
land water ; 34,000,000 tons 
by coast traffic, and the re- 
mainder, 10,000,000, is set 
down as "entirely by sea." 

An important branch of 
business, one interwoven with 
every industry and all sec- 
tions of the country, is insur- 
ance. The first American 
insurance was marine. It 
was inaugurated at Philadel- 
phia by John Copson in 1721. 
Fire insurance dates from 
1752. Benjamin Franklin 
was the President of the first 
company. Its headquarters 
were Philadelphia. That cor- 
poration was organized on the mutual plan and is 
still in existence. Marine insurance did not really 
flourish until the latter half of the eighteenth cen- 
tury. Philadelphia also took the lead in life insur- 
ance. Franklin was prominent in its promotion. 
It began business in 1709. That was confined to 
Episcopal clergymen. The first general life insur- 
ance company was the Philadelphia of 1812. For 
a long time there was a superstitious prejudice 
against all insurance, as resistance to the will of 
Providence. Insurance against accident dates from 
1864, and was started at Hartford, Connecticut, 
then and now specially devoted to insurance. 

The banking system of the United States rests 




upon a solid foundation, and no country can boast 
so convenient and complete a medium of exchange 
as this country. The history and present condition 
of American money will serve to conclude this in- 
dustrial survey of America. 

Alexander Hamilton has many claims to the per- 
petual gratitude of the American people, but his 
chief claim is the service he rendered in organizing 
the national treasury and establishing American 
finances upon a substantial basis. The present 
monetary system of this country is, in its funda- 
mental principle, whatever 
may be said of its details, 
Hamiltonian. 

The year 1090 witnessed 
the establishment of the first 
American newspaper, the 
first paper-mill and the issue 
of the first paper money. 
The colony of Massachusetts 
issued bills of credit to the 
amount of £40,000 in pay- 
ment for an expedition to 
Quebec. Pennsylvania issued 
£45,000 of paper money in 
1722, and Maryland followed 
the same example in 1773, 
greatly to its disadvantage 
Paper money is so easily 
made that it is very difficult 
to prevent an over-issue. In 
the Revolutionary War the 
Continental Congress put so 
much paper money in circu- 
lation that it depreciated and 
finally became worthless. During the latter part 
of the Revolutionary War the system of banks 
and bank notes was inaugurated. The first ex- 
periment was tried in Philadelphia under Con- 
gressional auspices. The Bank of Pennsylvania 
was chartered early in 1780, the Bank of North 
America, also a Philadelphia institution, was started 
early in 1782, and proved of great usefulness. 
It is still in existence, changed into a national 
bank. Others followed and gradually filled the 
land with bank-notes. Every considerable town 
had its bank with its bills redeemable in coin on de- 
mand. For the greater part of its existence this 
republic has done business upon a bank-note basis, 



A 



AMERICAN INDUSTRY AND ART. 



635 







"7 



4, 



AMERICAN INDUSTRY AND ART. 



6 37 



no other medium of exchange being much em- 
ployed. The system was very objectionable, for the 
reason that many bills were never redeemed at all, 
and entailed loss upon the holder. But no substi- 
tute was devised until military necessity, during the 
late civil war, compelled the government to issue 
notes of its own, a legal tender for all payments 
except duties on imports, and interest on the public 
debt. These greenbacks, as they came to be called, 
were supplemented by a system of national banks, 
under which the holder of bank-notes is absolutely 
protected from loss, even if the bank itself should 
fail, and so for about twenty years the industries of 
tins country lnne had as a medium of exchange the 
best system of paper 
money the world has 
everseeu. Since 1879 
all this paper money 
has been equal in pur- 
chasing power to its 
face in coin. Industri- 
al stability and pros- 
perity demands mon- 
etary stability and a 
convenient medium of 
exchange. 

The outlook for the 
material thrift of 
America, from what- 
ever point viewed, is 
most encouraging. 

The record of American art is brief. In the long 
list of famous painters the first American name is 
John S. Copley, a historical painter, born in Boston 
in 1738. His work attracted attention in England 
as early as 1760. The greater part of his life was 
spent in London, where he died at the age of seven- 
ty-eight. Benjamin West, a Pennsylvania Quaker, 
is better known. He was born in 1738, and studied 
his profession in Rome, the first American painter 
enrolled as a student in the Italian school. In 1792 
he was elected to succeed Sir Joshua Reynolds as 
president of the Royal Academy, London. In his life- 
time West was ranked among the foremost artists of 
all time, but his posthumous reputation is somewhat 
less conspicuous. Gilbert C. Stuart, a native of 
Rhode Island, born in 1756, was a great portrait 
painter. He painted three portraits of Washington, 




LayiOiy.o>a xi eJcSi s 



and t lie standard portraits of many of the eminent 
men of that period have came down to us from his 
easel. Stuart died in Boston in 1828. 

John Trumbull of Connecticut, was born in 1 756. 
lie was the sou of Governor Trumbull, " Uncle 
Jonathan." Many of his paintings are commemo- 
rative of American independence and the strug- 
gle through which it was achieved. Trumbull did 
much for art in connection with his alma mater, Yale 
College. He died in 1843. In 1777 Edward G. 
Malbone first saw the light of day. This famous 
miniature painter was a native of Newport, Rhode 
Island. As a colorist he was especially excellent. 
He died at the early age of thirty. Another name 

is conspicuous in the 
annals of American 
ait, Washington All- 
ston, a native of South 
Carolina, where he 
was born in 1779. 
Allston was a charm- 
ing poet and a bril- 
liant artist. He was 
most at home in delin- 
eating biblical scenes. 
Allston died in 1843. 
He deserves special 
consideration as a 
happy blending of art 
and literature. His 
manhood home was 
in Cambridge, and he was a conspicuous illustra- 
tion of " Boston culture." Among modern paint- 
ers of fame on both sides of the Atlantic may 
be mentioned Church, Beard, Hart, Healy, Bier- 
stadt, Shirlaw, Dyer, Hope. 

In sculpture, Hiram Powers and W. W. Story, 
both New Englanders long resident in Rome, are 
unsurpassed in the use of the chisel. Powers was 
born in Vermont in 1805. His "' Greek Slave," fin- 
ished at Rome in 1843, secured for the sculptor a 
rank among the master workers in marble. Storey, 
a son of the great American jurist, Justice Story of 
the Supreme Bench, was born in Boston in 1819. 
He early took up his residence in Rome, where he 
did not fail to acquire recognition not only as a 
poet, but as an artist of rare accomplishments 
and power. 



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• AMERICAN LITERATURE. * 



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'f/iiiw^ 





CHAPTER LXXXIX. 

English Literature and America — First American Author — Eliot and His Indian Bible — 
First Authoress in America — John Woolman — Jonathan Edwards — Cotton Mather — 
Benjamin Franklin and Poor Richard — Revolutionary Literature — Common Sense and 
the Crisis — Poetry op the Period — The Federalist— Madison State Paters — A Sterile 
Aob — Minor Poems — Poe and Dana— Cooper and nis Novels— N. P, Willis and G. P. 
Morris — "Fanny Forrester," Mrs. Sigourney and Mrs. Willard — Washington Irving — 
Jared Sparks — Margaret Fuller and R. W. Emerson — Kent and Story — Webster 
and Worcester— Theological Controversy— Great American Historians — The Scientists 
—The Journalists — The Great Poets— American Humor — Hawthorne and Others — The 
Noted Writers now at their Desks— Pulpit Literature. 




N r GLISH literature, iii the 
broad sense of the term, is 
something more than the 
literature of England, and 
includes the literary pro- 
duction of all the English- 
speaking peoples ; but the 
writings of American authors form so 
important a branch of this greatest of 
all literatures that it may well be hon- 
ored with a distinct classification. 

The first literary effort in the En- 
glish language in the new world, apart 
from mere reports, was a translation of 
Ovid's Metamorphosis by George San- 
dys, in 1621. Dryden was greatly 
pleased with the versification. Sandys was treasurer 
of the Virginia colony. Several publications de- 
signed to stimulate emigration from England to 
America appeared about that time, penned by colo- 
nists, but they had no special merits. The first 
printing press in the colonies was set up in the house 
of the president of Harvard College in 1639, and the 
first book printed in this country was the " Bay 



Psalm Book" (1640) prepared for use in Puritan 
churches by John Eliot and others. 

The first really great literary work in America 
was performed by Eliot in reducing the language 
spoken by the Indians of Massachusetts to writing. 
He not only made a translation of the Bible in the 
language of the Mohegans, but a grammar, besides 
translating several religious books of high repute in 
that day. Eliot's Bible was printed on the Har- 
vard press in 1658-63, and was the first Bible printed 
in America. 

The first strictly American authoress was Mrs. 
Anne Bradstreet, wife of Governor Bradstreet, 
of Massachusetts. She was born in 1612 and died in 
1672. "The Tenth Muse" was an appellation be- 
stowed upon her. From her the Danas, to be men- 
tioned later, were descended. The most illustrious 
name in the literary annals of America in the sev- 
enteenth century was Mather, father, son, grandson 
and great grandson, the third, Cotton Mather, being 
the chief. He was a man of many wonderful gifts. 
His Magnolia Christi Americana was a historical and 
biographical memorial of primitive New England, 
a book showing fine powers of characterization. But 



(6 3 8) 



5v~ 



AMERICAN LITERATURE. 



639 



he was greater as a man and a preacher than he was 
as an author. His account of witchcraft in Salem 
and Boston has proved a monument to his own dis- 
honor, giving him more prominence in that disrep- 
utable episode of colonial history than he actually 
deserves. 

The first American book of real genius came from 
the pen of a native of New Jersey and a member of 
the Society of Friends, to whom Charles Lamb paid 
this high tribute, " Get the writings of John Wool- 
man by heart, and learn to love the early Quaker." 
The best of his writings is his Journal. Wool- 
man was born 
in Burlington 
County, New 
Jersey, 1720, 
and died of 
the small-pox, 
in York, En- 
gland, whither 
he had gone to 
attend a quar- 
terly meeting, 
in 1772. Con- 
temporaneous 
withWoolman, 
equally relig- 
| ious, but other- 
wise widely dif- 
ferent from 
him, was Jona- 
than Edwards, 
who was born in East Windsor, Connecticut, 1703, 
and died, also of small-pox, at Princeton, New 
Jersey, 1758. Edwards was at the time of his 
death president of Princeton College. He was 
a metaphysician of wondrous powers of logic. 
Accepting the dogmas of Calvinism, he carried 
them to their logical conclusions with a clear- 
ness and thoroughness baffling refutation, if only 
his premises are conceded. His treatise on the 
Will and the History of Redemption are still standard 
text-books of orthodoxy. "The English Calvinists," 
wrote Sir James Mackintosh, " have written noth- 
ing to be put in competition with it" [the treatise 
on the Will] Jonathan Edwards is the only colo- 
nial author to achieve and maintain a place among 
the great authors of the world. 

The next name of note in American literature is 




JONATHAN EDWARDS. 



Benjamin Franklin. He too attracted attention 
upon the other side of the Atlantic, and was ac- 
corded rank among the best intellects of the period. 
But his fame rested upon his discoveries in science 
rather than upon his merits as a writer. His pen 
was plodding and commonplace. He wrote much 
and wisely, with good taste, but not brilliantly. 
Born at Boston in 1706, his manhood home was in 
Philadelphia, where he died in 1790. He was a man 
of science and politics, writing with a view to practi- 
cal results. With theology he never meddled. 
Without any polemical disposition, he was purely 
and uniformly secular. Many of his wise sayings 
have passed into proverbs. For many years 
he publish- 
ed " Poor 
Richard's 
Almanac," 
an annual 
so full of 
homely wis- 
dom as to 
acquire a 
great hold 
upon the 
public. For 
a long time 
he publish- 
ed and edit- 
edthe Penn- 
sylvania Ga- 
zette, the 

most influential journal in all the colonies. He did 
more by his pen for the promotion of colonial union 
and resistance to English despotism than any other 
man. His Autobiography is the best of his literary 
remains, and will always be valued as a storehouse of 
history and sage observations. Mirabeau paid this 
deserved tribute to Franklin : " Antiquity would 
have raised altars to this mighty genius, who, to the 
advantage of mankind, compassing in his mind the 
heavens and the earth, was able to restrain alike 
thunderbolts and tyrants." 

Franklin's great reputation made him especially 
available as a representative of the colonies at the 
British court. If the authorities were contemptuous 
of the colonies as such, they would surely listen to 
the great Dr. Franklin on any subject. For this 
reason he was much abroad, both in England before 




THOMAS PAINE. 



•fW 



W 



640 



AMERICAN LITERATURE. 



the conflict actually begun, and in France during 
the progress of the war. While in England he 
formed the acquaintance of Thomas Paine, the son 
of a Quaker, a stay-maker, a sailor and a reve- 
nue official In a small way. The quick eye of Frank- 
lin saw the genius of the man, and advised him to 
cast his fortunes with the American colonies. He 
emigrated to this country in 1774, in the forty- 
fourth year of his age. He had shown facility with 
the pen in a pamphlet criticising the service with 
which he was connected. That pamphlet cost him 
his office and served to introduce him to Franklin. 
In this country he wrote several publications of some 
merit. His claim to recognition in this connec- 
tion rests upon the series of short papers issued 
at irregular intervals during the Revolutionary 
War, entitled Common Sense and the Crisis. The 
appeals of the former series for union and republi- 
canism produced a great effect upon the thought 
and purpose of the people. The Crisis served to 
stimulate the patriotism of the country, and was 
almost universally read, both by the fireside and in 
the camp. They were issued as the cause of inde- 
pendence required. Two subsequent works from 
the same pen, Ihe Rights of Man, and the Age of 
Reason, can hardly be classed as a part of American 
literature. Paine died at Rochelle, New York, in 
1809. 

Thomas Jefferson wrote much, as the posthumous 
publication of his writings attest, and wrote admir- 
ably well, but his life was one of activity, and apart 
from state papers (including the Declaration of In- 
dependence) he never contributed much to the cur- 
rent thought of his day. The Revolutionary period 
may be said to have had its laureate, Philip Freneau, 
a thorough Frenchman in style and temperament, 
having that honor. He was born in New York, 
1752, and perished in a New Jersey snowstorm at 
the age of eighty-two. Joel Barlow, of Connecticut, 
attempted to be a poet, and for a time passed for 
one, but he was long since pronounced a failure. 

The Federalist, which was for the most part the 
joint product of Alexander Hamilton, John Jay and 
James Madison, consists of a series of essays in advo- 
cacy of the Constitution of the United States. It 
did much to secure its adoption, and will always be 
of value in its interpretation to statesmen and jurists. 
Madison also rendered the country highly impor- 
tant literary service by making extended reports of 



the debates in the convention which framed the 
constitution. Those reports, known as the " Madi- 
son State Papers," were not made public until after 
the distinguished reporter's death. 

There was a long period of barrenness in Ameri- 
can literature. A few theologians rose to eminence 
as writers on subjects connected with their profes- 
sion, notably Samuel Hopkins, Dr. Emmons, Dr. 
Bellamy and Moses Stuart, but none of them could 
at all compare with Jonathan Edwards, or be said to 
have contributed any really new element to theolog- 
ical thought. Their published works are merely elab- 
orately drawn out doctrinal sermons. They never 
passed beyond the range of professional text-books. 

Edgar A. Poe was really the pioneer poet of 
America, and Washington Irving the pioneer of 
American prose, as a recognized feature of the belle 
lettres literature of theEnglish language. Before their 
day were composed a few stray bits of poetry which 
are justly treasured and widely read. These are 
" The Star Spangled Banner," by Francis S. Key ; 
" The Old Oaken Bucket," by Samuel Woodworth ; 
and " The Culprit Fay," by Joseph Rodman Drake. 
The " Thanatopsis " of Bryant belonged to that peri- 
od, but the subsequent poetry of the same writer gives 
him rank with the later poets. During this period 
of comparative sterility, one branch of knowledge 
received exception- 
al attention, orni 
thology. Alexander 
Wilson, a native of 
Scotland, and John 
James Audubon, a 
Louisianian (1780- 
1851) made a thor- 
ough study of A- 
merican birds, and 
duly recorded their 
observations. Poe 
was born in 1811 
and died in 1849. 
His was an unhap- 
py lot, a life-strug- 
gle against poverty and all the ills attendant upon in- 
temperance. The less said of his private life the 
better for him. His " Bells," " Raven," and other 
poems are familiar. He is one of the household 
poets, open to criticism, but attractive to the great 
body of readers. 




EDOAR A. POE. 



-4- 



^^r 



AMERICAN LITERATURE. 



64I 



Contemporaneous with Poe may be classed Fitz 
Greene Halleck, who was born in Guilford, Connect- 
icut in 1795, and died there in 1867. His life was 
a pleasant episode. He was admired and courted for 

his person- 
al charms 
no less than 
fur his ex- 
quisite ge- 
nius. He 
was not a 
voluminous 
writer. An- 
other con- 
temporary 
was R. H. 
Dana, the 
elder, born 
in 1787 and 
living until 
1879. Mr. 
Dana be- 
longed to the aristocracy of Boston, and wrote with el- 
egance not only poetry but short stories and critiques. 
He, even more than Poe, might be called tha shadow 




FITZ OREENE HALLECK. 




RICHARD U. DANA 



cast before by coming American literature. His 
Paul Felton is a powerful romance, and his lectures 
on Shakspeare are in refreshing contrast with the 
inane lectures on the same subject by John Quincy 




JAME-* FEMMURE COOPER. 



Adams, delivered when that great statesman was a 
college professor. Dana lived to see the bud of his 
own promise blossom in others. 

James Fenimore Cooper was the first great nov- 
elist of America and the first American writer after 
Franklin and 
Edwards, to 
gain Euro- 
pean recog- 
nition. He 
was a truly 
national nov- 
elist, for he 
wrote of life 
011 the fron- 
tier, of In- 
dians, trap- 
pers and the 
sea. He cast 
a halo about 
the Indian 
characterand 
American scenery. Cooper lived in Cooperstown, 
New York. He was born in 1789 and survived 
until 1851. On much the same plane stands Miss 
Sedgwick (1789-1867), a novelist who enjoyed a wide 
popularity in her day. Neither is much read at 
the present time. 

In his day N. 
P. Willis was a 
noted member of 
the literary guild. 
He was a journal- 
ist and poet of 
the more esthet- 
ic character. He 
was born in 180G, 
and died in 1867. 
I hiring his early 
manhood he was 
a great pet with ffi 
a large class of 
readers. His best 
work was done on the New York Mirror and the 
Home Journal, two fireside weeklies of large circula- 
tion. He wrote nothing which deserves to be men- 
tioned specifically. His friend, George P. Morris, 
wrote less and generally not as well ; but his " Wood- 
man, Spare that Tree," is a gem of rare beauty. 




N. P. WILLIS. 



642 



AMERICAN LITERATURE. 



Mrs. Sigouriiey also stood very high as a poetess in 
her time. She was a prolific writer of verse, being 
often called upon, to grace special occasions. She 
was born in Connecticut in 1791 and died in 1865. 
Washington Irving is the supreme landmark in 
American prose. He was born in New York in 1783 
and died in 1859. He began his literary career as 
the anonymous writer of a comic history of New 
York under the primitive Dutch. It was a very 
brilliant success. That was in 1809, when he was 
young and rich. lie wrote simply as a recreation. 




WASHINGTON IRVING. 



But about ten years later his fortune disappeared, 
and he took up literature as his life-work. Others 
had made it a trade : he took it up as a profession. 
He was not a literary artisan, but an artist. His 
sketches and tales attracted the attention of Sir 
Walter Scott and others in the old world. It was 
then admitted by the British critics that perhaps 
some good tiling could come out of republican 
America. He wrote several elaborate histories, his 
Columbus being the first and his Washington the 
last. His fine style could invest any subject with 
interest. Irving was a very fortunate man in his 
temperament. For many years he was the most 
popular man in the country, always praised and 
never dazed by adulation. 

As a historian Irving lacked the critical faculty 
which is necessary to the very highest merit in that 



department of literature. But America can justly 
boast of her contributions to historical literature. 
Several names present themselves in this connection. 
.Tared Sparks (1791-1866) did a great work in bring- 
ing out twenty-five volumes of American biography. 
Several of the volumes were from his own pen and 
all were under his editorial supervision. Sparks 
was followed by John G. Palfrey and several minor 
historians. But it was not until a later period that 
the great galaxy of American historians appeared 
in the heavens. 

Two other names come to the front at this point 
of our sketch, 
Margaret Ful- 
ler and Kalph 
Waldo Emer- 
son. The for- 
mer was horn 
in 1810 and 
was lost at sea 
in 1850, while 
the latter, born 
in 1803, died 
in 1882. In life 
they were warn' 
friends. Mar- 
garet Fuller 
(for the Mar 
chioness I »'< »-- 
soli is best 
known by her 
maiden name) was a brilliant critic. Her young 
life had in it the promise of a great future. She 
is remembered more for what she was than for 
what she had already accomplished. Emerson 
combines the philosopher, poet and critic. Edu- 
cated for the ministry, he was adapted rather to 
the life of a student untrammeled by any pro- 
fessional obligations. He did a very great work in 
elevating the general tone of American literature. 
Writers and readers were alike lifted by his genius 
into higher ranges of thought. Without ridiculing 
or condemning the vapid jjroductions which held 
the field in his younger days, he set about the culti- 
vation of better ideals and tastes. Therein was his 
chief work. Emerson may be said to have not only 
introduced Thomas Carlyle to America, but to his 
own countrymen. He long ago won recognition the 
world over as one of the QTeat thinkers of our age- 




RALPH WALDO EMERSON. 



»«T 



AMERICAN LITERATURE. 



6 43 




Chancellor Kent of, New York (1763-1847), de- 
serves prominent mention for his great legal work 
on American law. He is the Blackstone of the 
United States. His commentaries have been a text 
book with law students for fifty years and have lost 

none of their 
value. Judge 
Story, of the 
Supremebench 
of the United 
States (1779- 
1845) ) produced 
a work on 
the constitu- 
tion which is 
an indispensa- 
ble manual for 
every states- 
man in this re- 
public. A good 
many valuable 
noah webster. legal treatises 

have been produced hi this country, but Kent and 
Story are the only really great and immortal names 
in Ihe annals of American law literature. The 
name of Abbott deserves honorable mention. There 
were two brothers of note, Jacob, the author of the 
" Rollo Books" and a long list of works designed to 
instruct and entertain the young, and John S. C. 
Abbott, two years younger, 
whose histories of Napoleon 
and other famous characters 
were received with favor. 

In lexicography America 
has two great names, Noah 
Webster "(1758-1843) and 
Joseph E. Worcester (1784- 
1865). Either is good au- 
thority on both spelling and 
pronunciation, and that not 
only in America, but wher- 
ever the English language is 
spoken. Webster began as the mere maker of a 
spelling-book for the school-room. He was a grad- 
uate of Yale College, and so, too, was Worcester. 
They were independent workers in the great 
field of lexicography, but not rivals in any in- 
vidious sense. Webster's great work first appear- 
ed in 1838, Worcester's in 1860. Each has passed 




E. WOKCE-TEU 




GEORGE BANCROFT. 



through numerous editions, and been improved 
and enlarged many times. America has brought 
the art of preparing text-books for the school-room 
to a degree of perfection unknown in the old world, 
and in that line Noah Webster was the pioneer. 
He may be called 
thefather of Amer- 
ican school books. 

In the first half 
of this century 
there arose a tem- 
pestuous contro- 
versy in Massachu- 
setts over the doc- 
trine of the trinity. 
On one side were 
Prof. Moses Stuart 
and his compeers 
of Andover The- 
ological Seminary, 
and the orthodox 
ministers of the 
Congregational church generally, and on the other 
side were Dr. Channing (1780-1842) and the Wares, 
Henry and William, with their Unitarian sympa- 
thizers. This controversy was mainly carried on 
in the pulpit and 
through the jour- 
nalistic press, but 
some of the litera- 
ture forms a part of 
a great intellectual 
contest. The most 
illustrious product 
of it, however, was 
Theodore Parker, 
who was so very 
liberal that even 
Unitarians could 
not tolerate him. 
Parker's works are 

not widelv read, john loturop motley. 

but they have been highly praised for their literary 
merits. 

The historians of America besides those already 
named, and who are really second to none in any 
land or time, are Prescott, Hildreth, Bancroft, Mot- 
ley and Parkman, all natives of Massachusetts and 
graduates of Harvard College. Wit. H. Prescott 




^^ 



b 4 4 



AMERICAN LITERATURE. 



was born in 1796 and died in 1859. He wrote the 
history of Ferdinand and Isabella, also of the con- 
quests of Mexico and Peru. They were at once rec- 
ognized as the productions of a genius. Richard 
Hildreth (1807-1865) was the author of an elaborate 
history of the United States, which has only one 
rival, and that is the great work of George Bancroft. 
Mr. Bancroft was born m 1800 and still survives. 
He was Secretary of the Navy in 1845, and he held 
several other high positions under the government. 
Fifty years ago he began his history of the United 
States, and a new volume has been hailed from time 
to time as an event. His style, however, is heavy 
and his volumes dull. John Lothrop Motley was 

born in 1814 and died 
in 1877. He devoted 
his life to the Rise and 
Fall of the, Dutch Re- 
public, and in that field 
never had a peer. His 
style is elegant ar.d 
fascinating. Mr. Mot- 
ley wrote several dis- 
tinct yet kindred vol- 
umes. He represented 
the United States at the 
Austrian court under 
Mr. Lincoln, and at the 
English court under a 
part of General Grant's 
ie was not a success, but 
in history he won the admiration of Europe and 
America. Francis Parkin an was born 1823. The 
field which he has cultivated with a success which 
gives him rank with Prescott and Motley, is New 
France and the early settlement of the "West. 

In scientific literature this country can boast sev- 
eral names of note, Silliman, Hitchcock, Agassiz, 
Dana, Winchell, Gray, Bache, Maury' and Draper, 
besides those early lights of America, Dr. Franklin 
and Count Rumford (1753-1814). The latter was a 
great natural philosopher who did much good work 
in his department of thought, but being a Tory in 
the Revolutionary period, he had to leave the coun- 
try and was almost lost sight of. Of these latter- 
day scientists, Benjamin Silliman (1779-1864) is 
best known as the founder of Silliman's Journal of 
Science anil Art. lie was professor of chemistry, 
mineralogy and geology in Yale College from 1804 




LOUIS AGASSIZ. 



first term. In diplomacy 



to 1855. Edward Hitchcock was born in 1793 and 
died in 1864. He was professor of geology in Am- 
herst College for many years, and later President of 
that institution. He was among the greatest geol- 
ogists of his day. Louis Agassiz was a native of 
Switzerland, born in 1807. He came to this coun- 
try in his early manhood and became connected with 
Harvard College. Zoology was the branch of sci- 
ence to which his life was devoted. He died in 
1873. James D. Dana, born in 1813, ranks very 
high as a geologist and mineralogist. His writings 
gave him a high reputation among scientists. Prof. 
Alexander Winchell, born in 1824. may be said to 
have brought geol- 
ogy down to date. 
The venerable Pro- 
fessor Asa Gray, of 
Harvard College, 
has long ranked as 
the foremost botan- 
ist in America. He 
has written much 
upon the flora of 
this country. He 
was born in 1810. | 
AlexanderD. Bache, I 
who was born in 
1806 and died in 
1867, was a grand- 
son of Benjamin 
Franklin. His great achievement was the super- 
intendence of the United States Coast Survey, 
which position he held for nearly a quarter of 
a century. His annual reports on the Coast Sur- 
vey constitute a treasury of scientific information. 
Commodore Maury, who was born in Virginia in 
1806, was an eminent physicist. He is known the 
world over by his "Wind and Current Charts," and 
his " Physical Geography of the Sea." Dr. J. W. 
Draper (1811-1881) is equally famous as a scientist 
and a historian. He was master of a remarkably ele- 
gant style of composition and profoundly learned in 
natural history. He was a native of England, but 
was educated in this country. For many years 
Dr. Draper was professor of chemistry in the Uni- 
versity of New York. 

In the department of journalism America can 
boast some great names besides Franklin. The high- 
est rank is now generally given to Horace Greeley, 




UK. J. W. URAPEK. 



. aij - 



a V 



l:L 



AMERICAN LITERATURE. 



645 



Mr. Greelev 



the founder of the New York Tribune, 
was a native of New 
Hampshire, born in 
1811. His ideal of a 
newspaper was one 
which should exert a 
great and wholesome 
influence. The more 
typical journalist of 
his time was James 
Gordon Bennett (1800- 
1872) whose only am- 
bition was to furnish 
the latest and fullest 
news. Herein his jour- 
nal, the New York 
Herald, became the 
model of journalistic 
enterprise. TheAmer- 
ican press, as a whole, 
is more enterprising 
and versatile than that 
of any other country, 
and the American 
people devote more 
attention to newspa- 
per reading than do 
any other people. The 

absolute freedom of the American press has favored 
the enlargement of its sphere. 
Closely allied to the newspaper 
press, yst not by any means 
confined to it, was Bayard Tay- 
lor. This remarkable man be- 
gan his career of eminence as a 
traveler. He went from land to 
land, contributing his observa- 
tions to the New York Tribum 
and diffusing knowledge among 
the people, becoming one of the 
best known of our countrymen. 
Later he achieved success as a 
novelist, and latest as a poet. 
At the time of his death he 
was the representative of the 
United States at the German 
capital. Born in 1825, he died 
in 1878. His translation of 
Faust is the most enduring monument of his genius. 





American literature has a galaxy of poets worthy 

to be classed among 
the classics of the 
world, Longfellow, 
Bryant,TVliittier, Low- 
ell and Holmes. The 
first and second have 
ceased from their la- 
bors, and the three 
others cannot long 
survive. Mr. Long- 
fellow, born in 1807, 
died early in 1882, 
and was mourned by 
the nation as the lau- 
reate of the people. 
Descended from an 
old New England 
family, nurtured in 
luxury, and cultured 
to the last degree, he 
seemed the veryimper- 
sonation of all which 
is tender, beautiful 
and pure. There was 
in his genius no sug- 
gestion of the organ, 
but rather of the 
The merest touch brought a melodious re- 
sponse. Mr. Bryant, who was 
born in 1794 and died in 1878, 
retained his mental faculties to 
the last, and did some of his 
best work in the winter of 
his days. But his masterpiece, 
Thanatovds, was written when 
he was only eighteen years of 
age. William Cullen Bryant 
was the poet of nature in her 
more tranquil moods. John G. 
Whittier, born in 1807, spent 
his early days on a farm, amid 
the calm of a Quaker house- 
hold, with no encouragements 
to the cultivation of poetry. 
They belong, however, to much 
the same school of poets, being 
exquisitely refined and artistic 
in every touch and tone. Whittier wrote much in 



piano. 



77 



-» 8V 



6 4 6 



AMERICAN LITERATURE. 



the interest of the anti-slavery cause, but he is 
none the less a notable example of the highe ' 



ican humor ever received such high praise in Ei 




K2 



HENRY W. LONGFELLOW. 

art in poetry. .Tames R. Lowell, now American 

minister at 
the English 
court, be- 
came first 
known as 
a writer 
i if grotesque 
and humor- 
ous poetry 
in the Tall- 
in kee dialect. 
S|l That was 
i| at the time 
of the Mex- 
icanwar. He 
signed him- 
self as "Ho- 
sea Biglow." 
Those pa- 
pers were 

strongly anti-slavery in sentiment and gave the 
author great reputation as a humorist. No Anier- 




J. G. WHITTIER. 



WILLIAM Cl'LLEN BRYANT, 

gland as the "Biglow Paper?." But Lowell is some- 
thing more 
than a humor- 
ist. His poet- 
ry is beautiful 
and pathetic. 
In prose he 
excels as a 
critic. His es- 
says, published 
originally in 
the North A- 
mericanRevie/iv, 
on literary top- 
ics, attracted 
wide and ad- 
miring atten- 
tion in En- 
gland. As an 
essayist he has 
only one equal 
in the country, E. P. "Whipple, of Boston. Dr. 
Oliver Wendell Holmes combines prose and poetry 




JAM!-- RUSSELL LOWELL. 



AMERICAN LITERATURE. 



647 



While Longfellow and Whittier never venture out- 
side of verse, and Lowell only entered the smaller 
field of criticism, Dr. Holmes boldly launched out 
U230U the broad ocean of 
romance and the exceed- 
ingly perilous gulf of pro- 
fessional wit. His Elsie 
Termor is an admirable 
story, and his Autocrat of 
the Breakfast Table is a 
well of wit untainted by 
any coarseness. Holmes 
has the greatest versatil- 
ity of genius of any Amer- 
ican author. This prince 
of magazinists was born 
in 1809. What Goethe 
and Schiller and their 
compeers were to the court 
of Weimar, are Longfel- 
low, Whittier, Lowell and 
Holmes to the literary 
capital of America, Bos- 
ton, and its immediate 
vicinity. There are bril- 
liant and somewhat illustrious representatives of 
the younger and more active school, or set of mag- 
azinists, but their glory fades and pales in compar- 
ison with the 
poets who have 
lifted American 
literature from 
the dust of con- 
tempt and made 
this country the 
companion in 
literary renown 
of Greece, En- 
gland, Germany 
and France. 

On a recent 
occasion an En- 
glish lecturer in 
this country in- 
quired, "Whydo 
all American journalists try to be humorists?" As 
compared with any other country American writers 
with reputations to make are especially given to 
humor. Some attempts in this line have met with 





signal success. The Mrs. Partington and her son Ike, 
of Benjamin P. Shillaber, dates from 1847. Now 
and then a new joke would come out and gain wide 
circulation until at length 
'• Mrs. Partington " has 
come to have a distinct 
place in the thought of 
the reading public. John 
G. Saxe, a poet of rare 
gifts, was so very humor- 
ously inclined that his 
verse sparkles with laugh- 
ter-provoking wit. C. F. 
Browne, as " Artemus 
Ward," may be set down 
as the first of our native 
humorists who aimed sole- 
ly at the ludicrous. He 
has no underlying pur- 
pose. His preposterous 
spelling and grotesque con- 
ceits were more highly ap- 
preciated after his death 
(1867) than during his 
life. "Mark Twain," Mr. 
Clemens, began as a journalist upon the Pacific 
Coast. But ever since his " Innocents Abroad " 
(1868) he has been a resident of the East, and 
has been 
recognized 
as the 
greatest of 
American 
humorists. 
Under his 
cap and 
bells may 
be general- 
ly discern- 
ed an ear- 
nest and '-. 
commend- 
able pur- 
pose. He 
has been 

sharply criticised by English critics, but others 
again do not scruple to place him at the head 
of contemporaneous humor not only, but to claim 
for him rank among the immortal wits. 




SAMUEL L. CLEMENS. 



Js2 



iU- 



6 4 8 



AMERICAN LITERATURE. 




If Cooper was the first American novelist to at- 
tract attention abroad, Nathaniel Hawthorne was 

the first to gain 
recognition as a 
great genius. Born 
in 1804, he was not 
swift to make his 
mark upon litera- 
ture. His Twice- 
told Tales were well 
received, but it was 
between the years 
of 1840 and 1852 
that he achieved 
greatness. 1 1 is Scar- 
Letter and other 

natuanihi. UAWTiioHNE. long stories are 

among the few novels deRtined to bo read and ad- 
mired by future generations. Mr. Hawthorne died 
in 1864. His son, Julian, has written some good 
but not great novels. 

Of a very different type is J. T. Ileadley, who was 
born in 1814. He was educated for the ministry, but 
his taste took him to literature as a profession. In 
word-painting he has a most admirable facility. JVa- 
pokon and His Marshals, published in 1840, was an 
exceedingly popularbook,andso too, was Washington 
anil His Generals. Both continue to be in considerable 
demand, especially the former. Mr. Ileadley met a 
popular demand very creditably. His younger 
brother, P. C. Headley, is the author of several 
hardly less well received publications. 

George William Curtis (1824) is a rare combina- 
tion of high talent. During the first half of the 
fifth decade of this century, ho published several 
books which excited high hojies of a brilliant future. 
The best of these was his Potiphar Papers. But he 
abandoned the field of book-making and devoted 
himself to the writing ol brief essays on current 
subjects and to lecturing. lie is a fascinating 
speaker and a charmiug writer. Through the 
Easy Chair of Harper's Monthly and the Editorial 
department of Harper's Weekly he has wrought a 
great work in educating the public mind on polit- 
ical, social and other subjects. Mr. Curtis has been 
and is a great lever for the elevation of public sen- 
timent. 

J. G. Holland, whose sudden death in the fall of 
issi was felt to be a national calamity, was one of 




HOLLAND. 



the few writers who steadily grew in power and favor. 
Born in 1819, 
he first won 
renown as 
the author of 
the immense- 
ly popular 
Timothy Tit- 
comb Letters. 
A few years 
later the mor- 
alizer devel- 
oped into n'- 
poet (Bitter 
Sweet). Still 
a few years 
later, and Dr. 
Holland entered the list as a novelist, and won dis- 
tinction. His Arthur Bonmcastle was well received 
by the most critical readers and very popular with 
the many. 

Walt Whitman is one of America's most remark- 
able men of letters. The Edinburgh Review and 
a very considerable class of British critics, pro- 
nounce him our greatest poet. Many fail to see any 
poetry and much indecency in his Leaves of Grass. 
lie is as defiant of rules as Carlyle. Many of his 
leaves should have been left out, while some of them 
are very tender and will always be green. Whitman 
was born in 181 'J. 

The most widely read book ever pioduced in 
America is Uncle Tom's Cabin, by Mrs. Harriet 
Beecher Stowe. It was accepted as a faithful pen 
picture of African slavery in America, and as such, 
read with the utmost avidity. It was published in 
1852, and had a success absolutely unparalleled in 
all the annals of literature. Millions of copies were 
sold in America and England alone, and translations 
speedily made of it into every language of the world 
which might be said to possess a popular literature. 
Mrs. Stowe is the daughter of the great preacher, 
Lyman Beecher, and sister of the still greater pulpit 
orator, Henry Ward Beecher. She has written sev- 
eral other stories of considerable merit, but her first 
stands upon an elevation of its own. 

There are several American authors of great 
promise now in the midst of their career, Bret Harte 
and Joaquin Miller in poetry, J. D. Howells and 
Henry James, Jr., in romance, who have done much 



T 



AMERICAN LITERATURE. 



649 



and have in them the promise of many years of 
usefulness. 

Mr. Harte combines humor and pathos. He can 
strike with deft fingers the chords of sentiment, or 
he can make the waters dance with ripples of laugh- 
ter. His tribute to Dickens and his " Heathen Chi- 
nee " are conspicuous examples of his splendid pow- 
ers. Joaquin Miller is nearly always the same, 
whether he writes prose or poetry, cuts an intaglio 
or rears a monument, his mood and attitude is ever 
that of a pre-Kapbaelite, more plaintive than joy- 
ous. Miller was never popular in America, but 
attained an enviable reputation in England. Mr. 
Howells has written several stories of great fascina- 
tion, and he is still in the midst of his labors. He 
shares with Henry James, Jr., the lienor of being 
the most conspicuous representative of the latest 
mode in romance. They are exquisitely esthetic 
and are doing much to cultivate in the public mind 
a taste for the purely artistic in literature. 

In no other part of Christendom is the pulpit so 
important a factor and potent an influence as in 
America, for here sermons, rather than rites, are the 
main reliance of the clergy for the accomplishment 
of religious purposes. The success of a discourse 
cannot be measured by a distinctively literary stand- 
ard, and without implying any comparative dispar- 
agement of others, it is proper in this connection to 
refer specifically to three American preachers 
whose every sermon, as soon as preached, becomes a 
part of current literature. These three pulpiteers 
are — Henry Ward Beeeher, T. De Witt Talmage, 
and David Swing. 

Mr. Beeeher was born in 1813, and is one of sev- 
eral brothers who have attained eminence in the 
clerical profession. His collegiate career gave no 
promise of a great future. His first pastorate was 
in a rural town in Indiana. He soon removed to 
the capital of that state, where he built up a flour- 
ishing church and delivered a course of lectures to 
the young which were published and attained a 
wide circulation. Over thirty years ago a small 
church of anti-slavery proclivities was organized in 
Brooklyn as an offshoot from the Church of the 
Pilgrims, Rev. Dr. Storrs pastor, and to that new 
church, called Plymouth, Mr. Beeeher was called- 
He accepted the call, and soon found himself the 
most popular preacher on the continent. The his- 



tory of Plymouth Church is a prominent chapter in 
the history of this country, more especially of the 
anti-slavery movement. For many years his ser- 
mons have been reported in full and published regu- 
larly. He has written several books, including a 
novel of some small merit, but his fame rests upon 
his pulpit elforts. He is still in full vigor, his dis- 
courses betraying no senility. 

Mr. Talmage was born in 1832. His first settle- 
ment was in Belleville, New Jersey, thence to Syra- 
cuse, New York, Philadelphia, and finally to Brook- 
lyn, where lie became and remains pastor of the 
Brooklyn Tabernacle. He has immense audiences 
always, and his sermons are at once published in no 
less thau twenty-three newspapers, exclusive of the 
daily press. These papers may be said to gird the 
globe, issued as they are in New York, London, 
Melbourne, San Francisco, and other great cities of 
the English-speaking world. 

The last name to be mentioned in this list is David 
Swing, a native of Ohio, but for many years a resi- 
dent of Chicago. For ten years and more all of his 
sermons have been published in full, and his regu- 
lar audience upon the Sabbath, large as it always 
is, is yet a mere handful as compared with the mul- 
titudes to whom he preaches through the Monday 
morning press. He is a poet who very rarely writes 
poetry, but whose every prose effort is melodious. 

Since the close of the civil war, the South has 
contributed some brilliant names to American 
literature. Sidney Lanier, a native of Georgia, 
born in 1842, died in 1881, was a true poet; with 
health and length of days and relief from care, 
he might have won a place among the American 
classics. George W. Cable has achieved the largest 
success of any Southern author. As a novelist, 
he has made the reading public familiar with the 
Creole population of New Orleans and vicinity. 
Miss Craddock, writing under the name of " Egbert 
Crandall," has drawn fascinating pictures of back- 
woods life in East Tennessee. In conclusion, 
however, it must be admitted, in all candor, that 
among the younger generation of American wri- 
ters, prose or poetry, can be found none to com- 
pare with Emerson, Longfellow and that genera- 
tion who lifted American literature upon a plane 
so high as to command the admiration of the 
world of letters. 



Js! 



REFERENCE TABLES. 




TATISTICS present facts in 
their most condensed, exact 
and convenient form. 

It is neither exaggeration 
nor boasting to say that in the 
Reference Tables given here- 
with may be found the very 
quintessence of knowledge. 
iuch is the nature of all tabular 
latter. The aim in this connection 
as been to group together such sta- 
tistics as the broad title of the book 
itself called for, glej'ned from many 
sources. Some good tables are as 
common as wise proverbs, while others 
again are covered by copyright. There 
are both classes in the following 
pages. Without going into useless 
details it is sufficient to say on tliis point that 
for its statistics The World, Historical and 
Actual, is under great obligation to "GaskelFs 
Compendium of Forms" and the three great statis- 
ticians, Michael G. Mulhall, F. S. S., John Xichol, 
LL.D., and General Francis A. Walker. 

It will be observed that the historical and the ac- 
tual are accorded about equal space, including in 
the latter the tables of events so recent as to be- 
long really to the present. The several tables are a 
panoramic view of the past. Beginning with Egypt 
when it emerges from the sands of obscurity, the 
Hebrews when they were transformed from slaves 
to citizens of a nation having Jehovah for its king, 
and Greece with the founding of Thebes by Cad- 
mus, all in the fifteenth century before the Christian 
era, the panorama moves on until the year 18S0 is 
reached. In this broad field of nearly twentv-four 
hundred years, embracing all lands, it is believed 
that no great historical event, j>erson or work has 
escaped attention. Each may be found, and be held 

KEYtoSeri I Tables from B.C. 1500 to A.D. '880> As several of the abbreviations used in the two series of tables 
indicated are the same, one key will apply to both. These abhre\ lations are at- follows: — Gr., Greek; 5. Gr., Spartan or Sicilian; Per., Persian; 
Mac, Macedonian; P.C., Phoenician and Carthaginian ; Bom., Roman; Ger., Oerman; Fr., French; Sp., Spanish; Bus., Russian; Prvs , Prussian; 
Scan,, Scandinavian; Eng., English; Scot., Scotch; Ire , Irish; DCch., Dutch ; Port., Portuguese; ^..Italian; Am., American;' Pp.. Pope; Pt., 
Painter; Mu., Musician; A. and S., Architect and Sculptor; Act . Actor; Theo . Theologian; Phit.. Philosopher; His,, Historian. 

When more than one date is given, the meaning intended is, in the case of general facts, commencement and termination; in the case of 
rulers, date of beginning and end of rule; in the case^of eminent persons, birth and death. The Interrogation-point suggests doubt as to the date, 
fi, 6tands for flourished, and one date appended to a name has the same import. In the case of living men, one date indicates the birth. In the case 
of Hebrew prophets, the dates indicate the supposed period of prophesying. With these remarks it is believed that the tables will be intelligible. 



in correlation to other events, persons or works. 
Literature has been given more prominence than 
war or any other feature for the reason that it alone 
is both historical and actual. A good book is in- 
stinct with a life which takes no note of time. Lit- 
erature deserves the prominence given it, and so 
does America deserve the prominence given it in the 
series of modern tables, for, although not so much 
as known until the evening of the fifteenth century 
it is the heir of all Europe, rich in the inheritance 
of its best estate, divested, for the most part, of the 
incumberauces of ancient wrongs and immemorial 
blunders. 

Having taken a historical survey of the globe its 
present condition is presented in tables which are 
distinct and each complete in itself, but which form 
a grand unity. The whole world as it is passes be- 
fore us, and of each country we may note its 
population, area, religion, government, capital, 
debt, standing army and navy, railways, commerce, 
manufactures, mining, agriculture, banking and 
money. Then follows a survey of the world from a 
somewhat different standpoint, with a view to ascer- 
taining the industries, productions, manufactures, 
commerce, etc., of the world, each by itself. In one 
set of tables the country is foremost; in the other, the 
topic is given the preference. It is only by shifting 
the camera and taking several views that a complete 
photograph of an object can be obtained. 

In the later part of the tables much space is de- 
voted to American statistics, for which, certainly, 
no apology is needed. The recent completion of 
the tenth census renders the present a favorable 
time for the issuance of tabular information relat- 
ing to the United States. The more important 
features of the census are herewith presented to the 
public. It will be nearly ten years before these ta- 
bles will be superseded and moved from the ground 
flour of the actual to the attic of the historical. 







(650) 






1 










— s 




1 


TABLES OF ANCIENT LITERATURE AND HISTORY. 65 1 


r 
\ 




TABLES OF ANCIENT LITERATURE AND HISTORY. 

Table 1. B. C. 1500 to B. C. 750. The World Before Rome. By Centuries. 

Note.— The following dates have been assigned to important events or traditions previous to b. c. 1500:— 

Moses, 1571. 
II. ASSYRIA AND EGYPT. ..Babel. Nimrod. Asshur, 2230. Babylon, 2200. Nineveh. Ninus. Serairamis, 2180. Menes, first Egyptian 

King, 2700. Egyptian Thebes founded, 2280. Hyksos in Egypt, 1800-1600. 

III. GREECE Foundation of Sicyori, 2088; of Argus (Inachus), 1856; of Athens (Cecrops), 1556; of Sparta (Lelex) 1516 

Deucalion. 1503. 

IV. PHCENICIA Foundation of Tyre and Sidon, 2750. 




B. c. 
1500 


Egypt and Many Lands. 


Palestine. 


Literature. 


Greece. 






Rameses III., Sesostris, or 
Amnion, 19th Egyptian 

Pharaohs powerful, 

1500-900 


Deaths of Moses, Aaron and Miriam, 

1452-51 




Foundation of Thebes (Cadmus), 

M93 


















1400 


Eglon, King of Moab. 


Ehud, second Judge 1394-1354 

Wars with Amalekites, Jebusites, 
Moabites. 


The Vedas. 

Book of Job. (Ewaki) 

Sanchuniathon. 


War of Erectheus and Eumolpus. 
Perseus. Cyclopes. 












1300 


Assyria and Babylonia 
Conquest of Babylon by the 


Wars with Philistines. 
War with Midianites. 


Mythical Hymnology 

Early Minstrelsy (Orpheus), 
1260 


Calydonian Chase (Atalanta). 
Hercules. 

Argonautic Expedition, 1260-1240 

Seven against Thebes 1220-1210 

Agamemnon. Menelaus. 












1200 


Proteus in Egypt. 

jEneas in Italy. 

Alba Longa Founded... .1151 




Dawn of Religious Epic 


The Trojan War H9«-n83 

Returns of the Chiefs 1183-1170 






Shibboleth of Gilead. 
Wars with Philistines. 












Dorian Migration. Return of 
Melanthufl in Athens 1104 




4 
G 




[ 


4 




81 \ 







65: 



TABLES OF ANCIENT LITERATURE AND HISTORY. 



TABLES OF ANCIENT LITERATURE AND HISTORY.— Continued. 
Table I. B. C. 1500 to B. C. 750- The World Before Rome. By Centuries. 



B.C. 


Egypt and Many Lands. 


Palestine. 


Literature. 


Greece. 


IIOO 


Sidon and Tyre 1095 






Pelasgi on the sea --1077 




Cheops Hit. Pyramid)... 1082 


SAUL (ist King) 1095-1055 








Mycerimia | Egypt). 






Colony from Chalcis to Cum.e, 10 




Sidon subdued by the 












DAVID (kingdom greatly enlarged), 


Psalms of David. 








1055-1015 




Ionic Migration 1044 




Queen of Sheba. 


SOLOMON (greatest extent of the Jewish 




Settlement of Polopounesus, 
War between (huh is and Eretria. 




Tyrb great 1000-586 










Shishak (Egypt) invades 


Building of Temple 




Proverbs of Solomon. 












Revoll <>f Ten Tribes 975 


Song of Solomon. 








JUDAII. ISRAEL. 








Tartessus founded by Tyre. 


Rehoboam, 975-958 


Jeroboam I., 975-954 


HOMER fl. 962-927 






Benhadad I. iDamaseun) al- 




Nadab 954-953 




Alexas in TheBealy. 




lied with Asa. 


Abijah 9s8~95s 


Baasha 953-93° 


Iliad and Odyssey ...940-927 






Benhadad II. 




Elah 930-929 








" besieges Samaria, 












901-892 






Creophylus (Samos). 






Jezabel of Sidou marries 


Jehosaphat. 914-889 










Ahab. 








goo 


CARTHAGE founded by the 


Jehoram ...889-885 


Elijah 910-896 




Phrygians on the sea 891 








Ahaziah .. .897-896 


Jonah (I.) c. 862 








Ahaziah 885-884 


Jehoram 896-884 








Revolt of Arbaces the Medc. 




Hesiod (Ascra) 850 


Settlement of Lacedsemon . 884-776 








Elisha 896-838 








Ilazael attacks Israel 860 


Athaliah ...884-878 










Phoenicia under Benhaded 




Jehu 884-856 








III 840 


Jehoash 878-839 


Jehoahaz 856-839 




Foundation of Rhegium 812 




Syria tributary to Israel. 


Amaziah ...839-810 




Joel (J.) 800 










Jeroboam II. 825-784 




Ionian colonies 794 


8oo 






Interregnum. 


Amos (I.) c. 787 






Egyptians on the sea, 787-751 


Uzziah(orAzariah) 
810-758 




Hosea (I.) ...c. 78c 


Victory of Coroibus 776 




Pul of Assyria invades Israel, 




Zechariah 771 








770 




Shallum 772 


Agias of Troezen 776 


Pandosia and Metapontum 










Stawiuus (Cyprus). 




Etruscans in Campania. .760 




Menahem 772-761 










Jotkain 758-742 




Arctlnue (Miletus)... 775-740 










Pekahiah 761-759 




Miletus powerful. Colonies. .750 




Foundation of ROME... 753 






n. 765 




750 


Ethiopia independent 750 




Pekah 759-739 


Eumelus (Corinth)... 760-730 


Decennial Archons at Athens.. 753 



-^pt 1 



iu 



TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 



6 53 



TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE.-Continued. 

Table II. B. C. 750 to B. C. 500. From Foundation of Rome to Beginning of Roman Republic. By Periods of Twenty- 
Five Years. 



B.O 


Palestine, Asia and Egypt. 


Greece. 


Italy and S 


ICILY. 


Literature and Art. 




Nabonassar (Babylon independ- 
ent) .... -. 747 

Persians besiege Nineveh 747 

Pekaand Rezon of Syria besiege 

Jet Qflalem .. 742 

Aha/,, of Judah .. 742-726 

Tilgath Pilescr destroys Syria, 
and carries 2*4 tribes captive, 

740 
lnti:rn<jiHnn in Isnul. 

Hoshea, of Israel ..730-721 

Shalmaneser (Assyria) invades 

Hezekiaii, of Judah 726-098 
















Micah(J 1 c. 750-710 




First Messenian War _ 743-723 

1 !halcis founds Naxos 735 

( 'nrintliian Colonies — Corcyra._734 
Philolaus of Thebes 728 




I 'limn » 








Romulus and Acron, 1st Spolia 
Opima. 

Syracuse founded 734 

Leontium and Catana founded, 

730 


Isaiah n. 747-698 


7=5 


CAPTTVTTY OP ISUAKL.--.721 


















716-673 






Sennacherib invades Judah 713 


War between Sparta and Argos, 

718 


Religious Laws. 












Tarentum founded (Phalanthus), 
708 


Lesches (Lesbos) -...710 








700 










Simonides (Amorgus).. 693-662 




Babylon subject to Assyria -...680 


Annual ARCHONS at Athens. .683 






TvrtieiiH (Sparta) 685 




Idolatry in Judah 


Second Messenian War 685-068 






Callinus 678 




Esarhaddon colonizes Samaria, 

677 








Terpander (Lesbos) crowned 


675 






TUXLTTS HOSTILIUS.. 


.-_ ..673-640 


Alcman (Sparta) 670 




Colony of Naucratis 665 


Sea-fight, Corinth and Corcyra, 665 






Thaletas (Pyhrric songs). ..670 






Byzantium founded 657 


Destruction of Alba. 


665 


Eucheir and Eugrammus...6oo 




War of Holof ernes (Palestine) 656 't 


Cypselns at Corinth 655 


Messana founded.. 
Zaleucus in Locri.. 


660 

660 


Temple of Zeus at Ella 660 




Judith? 








BUDDHA ? 


650 


Persian Monarchy founded 650 

Ctrene founded 641 


Voyages of Coloens and Corobius. 






Zkphaxiah fl. 640-609 




Josi Ml . 640-609 

Cyaxares 634~595 

Scythians in Asia. 634-607 

Nineveh taken by the Medes...625 

Assyrian Empire ends.. 625 

Eclipse in reign of Alyattes 

Josxah repairs the Temple 624 


Colony of Battus to Cyrene 641 

Periander at Corinth 625-585 






JEREMIAH fl. 628-586 




Mlmnennus (Smyrna) 629 



T» V 



IUL 



654 



TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 



TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 

Table II. B.C. 750 to B.C. 500. From Foundation of Rome to Beginning of Roman Republic. By Periods of Twenty- 
Five Years. 



B.C. 


Palestine, Asia and Egypt. 


Greece. 


Italy and Sicily. 


Literature and Art. 


625 


HiJkiah finds the book of the Law, 
624 

Passover. Ark restored 623 

Pharaoh Necho circumnavi- 


Draco gives laws to Athens.. .624 




Era of Seven Sages — 

[Thales, Bias, Pittacus, So- 




gates Africa _ 615? 

Pharaoh Necho invades Judah, 610 






Chilon.] 




War between the Medes and 






Arion 625-610 




















Stesichorus (Himera) 612 




CAPTIVITY OF JUDAH. 






SAPPHO (Lesbos) 610 




seventy years. .606-536 

Pharaoh defeated by Nebuchad- 






Habakkuk fl. 612-598 






Cleisthenes at Sicyon 600-560 






600 








Epimenides in Athens 597 




Nebuchadnezzar sacks Tyre. ..586 




Axceus (Lesbos) 684 




" takes Jerusalem.. 606-598 
Sardanapalus? 






Anacharsis in Athens 592 


























DANIEL fl. 606-534 




Pharaoh Hophra (or Apries), 




Seryius Tullius 578-534 






595-570 










As ty ages or Ahasuerus 595-560 




Census. Comitia Centuriata at 


Susarion fl. 578 




Siege of Sidon. 




Rome. 


Later Psalms. 


575 


Civil War in Egypt. 

Periplus of Hanno --57°? 




Phalaris of Agrigentum 570-554 


EZEKIEL fl. 595-536 






The Diedalidre 570 










Chersiphron fl. 560 














CONFUCIUS. ZOROASTER? 




Phrygia conquered by the Lydians. 


Peisistratus at Athens.. .560-527 








CYRUS King of Persia 559-529 






Eugamon (Cyrene) 560 




defeats Astyages 558 






Anacreon (Teos) 560 










Pherecydes and Phocylides. 




Cyrus conquers Lydia 554 


Nile opened to Greeks 








Amasis (Egypt) 570-526 






Anaximenea. fl. 548 


550 


Belshazzaror Labynetus. Baby- 
















Theognis (Megara) 541 




Restoration of the Jews by Cyrus, 

536 

Zerubbabel, Governor Judea..-536 






Xenophanes (Colophon) 538 












Mago. Carthaginian Colonies. 




Tarquinius Suierbus.... 534-509 


PYTHAGORAS fl. 531 




Second Temple built 534-516 










Cambyses (Ahasuerus) 529-521 




Roman Kingdom extended over 


Haggai fl. 520-518 




Cambyses'' Conquest of Egypt.. 525 




Latium. 














525 




Insurrection at Athens; Hippar- 


Wars of Syracuse and Gela. 






Darius I. deposes Smerdis 522 










41 Hystaspes 522-486 


Hippias rules 514 












PARMENIDES fl. 505 




Periplus of Scylax. 
Carthage a Republic. 
Sea-fight with Phocsea. 


Expulsion of Peisistratid-e, 

510 

Hippias expelled from Athens. 510 

Cleisthenes at Athens 510 


Tarquinus expelled; Eraofthe 


Heraclitus (Ephesus)..fl. 505 




Commercial Treaty with 


Corinna (Tanagra) 500 




Siege of Naxos by Aristagoras, 501 


Cleomenes at Sparta 519-490 






500 


Ionian Revolt in Asia Minor 501 




1st Valerian Laws ._ —508 





7H 





9 •. 










j- 


1 


TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 65^ 


a ' 
f 




TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 

Table 111. B.C. 500 to B. C. 325. From Foundation of Roman Republic to Death of Alexander. By Periods of 

Twenty-Five Years. 






B.C. 


Greece. 


Sicilt, Asia, Africa. 


Literature and Art. 


Rome. 






500 


War between Athens and iEgina ..491 
Persian Fleet wrecked off Athos..-4g 

Battle of Marathon, Gr 490 

Aristides, ffr.-fl. 489-4S3 and 479-468 
THEMISTOCLES, Gr, (514-447). 

fl. 480-471 
Athenian Fleet built, 481; Walls. .478 
Leonidas at Thermopylae, S.Gr.-^Bo 

Artemisinm, Salamis, Gr... 480 

Plat-ea.-S 1 . 6>.,andMYCALE, Gr.-fjq 
Pausanias, S. Gr fl. 479-471 

Growth of Athenian Empire, Gr.. 

47 8 -445 




^SCHYLUS 524-456 

Ageladus (Argos), S. A., fl. 500 

Epicharmus (Sicily) fl. 490 

Simo.vides (Ceoe) fl. 490 

Pherecydes ( historian).. fl. 480 

PINDAR 522-44; 

Hegesias and Hegiae, S. A. 
Leucippus— Atomic Theory. 
Hellanicus (Mitylene).. 496-411 


Consular Government at 
1st Secession to Mons Sacer, 

494 
Tribunes of the PUbs, Rom., 

494 
Spurius Cassius 494-483 

Latin League 493 

Volscian War (Coriolanus), 

Hernican League 488 

Agrarian Law of Cflssius.-486 

Wars with Veii 481-475 

Expedition of the Fabii, Pom., 

477 
Fabii destroyed at Cremera, 475 






Persia .recovers Cyprus, Per 498 

Battle of Lade. Miletus taken, 

Mardonius subdues Macedonia, 

Carthaginians in Sicily, P. C. 
Xerxes I. reigns, Per 485-465 

Gelon at Syracuse, S. 6^.-485-477 

Battle of Himera, S. Gr 480 

Theron at Agrigentum 488-472 

Hiero I. at Syracuse, S. Gr., 478-475 
Pausanias at Byzantium 477 






475 


Ostracism of Themistocles 471 

Argives takes Mycenae 468 

Athenians at Nasos 466 

Revolt of the Helots 464 

Third Messenian War, S. Gr., 

464-455 

Cimon, Gr fl. 466-461 and 454-449 

Athenian Victory at (Enophyta 45 6 

Toluiides sails round Malea 455 

Five Years' Truce. 450 


Victories of Cimon, Gr ... 476 

Naval Victory of Hiero, S. Gr., 

Syracuse free, S. Gr 466-405 

Artaxerxes I., Per. (Ahasuerus), 
4 6 5-425 

Story of Esther ..-461-451 

Themistocles in Persia 465-447 

Egyptian War with Persia, Per., 

460-455 

Athenians in Egypt 46a 

Agrigentum powerful, S. Gr., 

470-405 

Ezra, Governor in Judea.. 458-449 


Anaxagoras 500-428 

Diogenes of Apollonia..fl. 468 
Zeno of Elea fl. 464 

SOPHOCLES 495-406 

Tragic Victory. .468 

Polygnotus (.Stoa Poicile), Pt.. 
fl. 460 

Ion of Chios fl. 451 

Archelaus (Physicus) fl. 450 

Phormio _.fl. 450 

Crates, ('rat inns, Eupolis. 

fl. 450 

Phrynis, M fl. 456 

Democritus (Abdera) _ fl. 450 


1st Puelilian Laws 471 

Suicide of Appius Claudius, 470 

Terentiliau Bill 462 

JSquian War (Cincinnatus), 
Bom 458 

Commissioners to Greece. .-453 

The Decemvirate, Pom., 

451-449 






45° 




Athenian Victory at Salamis in 

Syracuse subdues Agrigentum, 446 

" defeats Etruscans 446 

Athenian Colony to Thurii 444 

Carthaginian Voyages. 

Nehemxah, Governor in Judea. 

445-420 

The Samian War. Gr 440-439 

Carthaginians in Sicily, P. C...431 

Fall of Mitylene _ --427 

41 Ships from Athens to Sicily, 426 


Phidias (Parthenon), S. A., 

fi, 448-440 

Polycleitusaud Myron, S. A.. 
11. 440 

HERODOTUS 484-408 

EURIPIDES '....480-406 

Melissus (Samos) fl. 444 

EMPEoocLES(Agrigentum >. 444 

Alcamenes, 8. A fl. 440 

Meton (astronomer) fl. 433 

Era of the Sophists. 

GORGIAS fl. 430 

Malacui. Judaea fl. 436-420 

Erechtheium rebuilt, S. A., 

432-393 

Diagoras (afcog) fl 425 

Cinesias, M. fl. 425 


Apptus Claudius (Virginia), 
Rom. (Dentatus) 449 

2d Secession to Mons Sacer, 448 

Valerian and Horatian Laws, 

3d Secession to Mons Sacer, 44s 
Canuleian Laws 445 

Consular Tribunes, Rom., 

444 

Censors at Rome 443 

Death of Spurius Moelius..-439 

Cornelius Cossus and Lars 
Tolumnius, 2d Spolia 

Destruction of Fidenas 426 




< 


Second Sacred War 448 

Athenian defeat at Coronea 447 

Thirty Years' Truce 445 

Revolt of Eubcea and Megara" 445 

Decline of Athenian Empire ...445-404 

Invasion of Attica by Archidamus. .431 

Siege of Platrca 429-427 

Naval Victories of Phormio 429 


1 




fi ■" 








""• CJ 


> 



,4 


? ^ 








>- _. ° 






656 TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 





TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 

Table III. B.C. 500 to B. C. 325. From Foundation of Roman Republic to Death of Alexander. By Periods of 

Twenty-Five Years. 






B.C. 


Greece. 


Sicily, Asia, Africa. 


Literature and Art. 


Rome. 






425 


Alcibiades, Gr., fl. 424-413 and 411-404 
Nicias takes Cythera and Thyrea .424 


Darius II., Per., Nothus ..424-405 
Congress of Sicilians at Gela 424 

Athenians at Delos 422 

Alcibiades and Nicias off Sicily, 

Or 415 

Fleet winters at Naxos and 

Catana 415 

Nykv isan Expedition.. 4 1 5-4 13 
Gylppus arrives at Syracuse, 

S. Gr 413 

Athenian Allies revolt 412-411 
Persian Treaties with Pelo- 
ponnesus 412-411 

Revol t at Samos. Alci biades, 

412-411 
Thrasybulus with Athenian 

Fleet, Gr 411 

Battle of Cynossema, Gr 411 

Artaxerxes II.. Per 405-359 

Expedition of Cyrus the 
Younger 401 


Philolaus? 
THTJOYDIDES ----471-402 

SOCRATES 468-399 

Lysias 459-380 

ARISTOPHANES .... 444-380 

Andocides 440-390 


Twenty Years Truce with 
Veii, Pom 425 

Capua taken by the Samnites, 
423 
Four Qu-estors in Rome.. 421 
^Equian Wars 419-409 

Colonies— Bola, Lavici, Fe- 
rentinum, Anxur. 

Victories over Volscians, 

409-406 

Plebeian Quaestors. -. 409 

Siege of Veii (Camillus), Pom,, 
405-396 






Brasidas, 5. Gr., at Amphipolis.. 422 






Battle of Mantinea . . 418 






Affair of Melos 416 

Agis occupies Decelea 413 

Fleet destroyed at Syracuse 413 

The 400 at Athens 411 

Callicratidas. S. Gr., defeated at 
Arginnsse Gr. Generals executed, 406 

Battle of .Egospotami, Gr 405 

Lysander, 8. Gr., enters Athens. .404 
Critias and Thirty Tyrants 404 






HIPPOCRATES 460-357 

Callimachus. S. A fl. 412 

XENOPHON 444-362 

Parrhasitts, Pt. fl. 400 

Melanippides, M fl. 400 






400 


Democracy restored (Thrasybulus), 403 

Socrates condemned 39g 

Coalition against Sparta .395 


Return of the 10,000 Greeks, 
S. Gr 400 

Dionysius I. of Syracuse, S. 

Gr 405-368 

Agesilaus in Asia, S. Or.. .396-395 

Conon at Cnidus, Gr 394 

Victory of Dionysius at Helorus,389 

Peace of Antalcidas, Per 387 

Cyprian War 385-375 

Defeat of Evagoras, Per 385 

Wars of Syracuse and Car- 
thage, P. C 410-340 

Humilcar and Mago, P. C. 

Uitiiynian Kingdom 378-75 

Carthaginians in Italy, P. C 379 

Timotheus in Asia, Gr 372 


Euclid of Megara fl.400 

Aristippus . _ 400- 365 

PLATO 429-347 

Timanthes, Pt A. 385 

Timotheus, M. 446-357 

Scopas, S. A c. 395-350 

Diogenes the Cynic 419-324 


Embassy to Delphi 398 

ROME BURNT by the Gauls 
M. F. Camillus, Dictator, 

Rome Rebuilt, Pom 389 

Execution of M. Manlius...384 

Recovery of Revolted Towns 
— Tiisculum, Prceneste,An- 
tiuni, etc... 383-377 

Licinian Laws, Pom. -377-367 






2d Battle of Coronea, S. Gr 394 

Long Walls restored by Conon, Gr. -394 

Agesilaus in Acarnania, S. Gr 391 

Olvntuian War 383-379 

Height of Spartan Power, S. Gr. 

Victories of Pelopidas 378-364 

Athenians allied with Thebes 378 

EPAMINONDAS, Gr 371-362 






375 


Battle of Leuctra, Gr 371 

Supremacy of Thebes, Gr. 

Alexander of Phera? in Thessaly...37o 

Theban Invasions of Laconia, 

369, 368, 362 

Pelopidas'inThessaly 368 

The Tearless Victory 367 

Battle of Mantinea, Gr 362 

PHILIP II. of Macedon, Mac. 359-336 


Embassy of Pelopidas, Gr., to 

Dionysius II,, S. Gr., of Syracuse, 
368-343 

Joshua slain by High Priest 366 

Plato's id Visit to Sicily .361 

Samaritans build Temple at 

Gerizim ... 360 

Kingdom of Pontus — — 360-66 
Artaxerxes III., Per., Ochus, 

359-338 


Archy tas (Tarentuni) d. 370 

Eudoxus (mathematician), 

fl. 360 

"Ludi Scenici" at Rome. .365 

Praxitiles, S.A fl. 360 

Pamphilus, Pt fl. 360 

.Eschines 389-314 

DEMOSTHENES . .382-322 

-Eneas Tacticus fl. 360 

ARISTOTLE- 384-322 


PR-dETonsand Curule ^Ediles 

1st Plebeian Consul 366 

Plague at Rome. Death of 
Camillus 365 

Wars with Gauls, Etruscans 
and HernicanB 362-346 

Legends of ManliusTorqua- 
tus and Valerius Corvus. 

Laws of Debt 357, 352, 347 

C. Marcius Rutilus, ist Ple- 
beian Dictator 356 

C. Marcius Rutilus, 1st Ple- 
beian Censor 351 






1st Sacred or Phocian War. ..355-346 


Dion at Syracuse, S Gr... 357-354 
Sidon destroyed, Per 351 












350 
325 


Olynthus taken by Philip, Mac 348 

Philip of Macedon in Thrace 341 

2d Sacred or Locrian War 339 

Battle of Ch.eronea, Mac 338 

ALEXANDER III., Mac... 336-323 


Timoleon at Syracuse, S. Gr., 

345-337 

Hanno in Carthage, P. C 340 

Darius III., Per 336-330 

Fall of Tyre, Mac 332 

Foundation of Alexandria, Mac, 
33 2 
Babylon taken by Alexander, 

Mac 331 

Persepolis burnt by Alexander.. 331 
Jud;ea subject to Alexander... 330 

Darius slain by Bessus 330 

Alexander at the Ilyphasis, Mac, 
3*7 

Alexander at Susa 325 


Cleomenes, .S'. A fl. 350 

Phrotogenes (Rhodes), Pt., 

360—300 

Lycurgus (Athens) fl. 340 

Lysippus, S. A fl. 335 

Apelles (Cos), Pt 350-308 

Hypereides .. fl. 34^ 

Demudes fl. 330 

Dcinarchus fl. 324 

Theopompus (historian), 

378-305 
Diphihis and Philemon, -fl. 330 
MENANDER 342-291 


Treaty with Carthage .348 

Battle of Mt. Gaurus, Pom.. 343 

Mutiny at Lautuke ^42 

Genucian Laws 342 

Latin War 340-338 

Battle of Mt. Vesuvius, Pom. 
(Devotion of P. Decius 

Mus. I.) 340 

2d Publili an Laws 339 

Settlement of Latium, Pom. t 

338-328 
Servitude for Debt abolished, 

326 






Macedonian Empire, Mac 334-143 




i 


" Issus - 333 

Arbela. Mac 331 

Exile of Demosthenes 324 


i 


"*7 


to *" 








^ c 


1 



TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 



6 57 



TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 



Table IV. B. C. 323 to B. C. 146. 



From Death of Alexander to End of Third Punic War. By Periods of 
Twenty-Five Years. 



Rome and Carthage. 



2d Samnite War 326-304 

Caudine Forks _. 321 

C. Pontius of Telesia ft. 321-293 

Battle of Lautuloe 315 

Roman Victory at Cinna 314 

Etruscan War 311-309 

L. Papirius Cursor Dictator 310 

Q. Fabius crosses Ciminian Hills; de- 
feats Tuscans at Vadimon, Rom. 

Bomilcar at Carthage, P. C 308 

Appius Claudius Censor, Rom.. .312-308 

Bovianum taken - 305 

Ogulnian Law _ 3 00 

3d Samnite War (Samnites, Etrus- 
cans, Umbrians, Gauls) 298-290 

Gellius Egnatius, Samnite Leader. 

Battle of Sentinum, Rom. (D. Mus. II.), 

295 

Execution of C. Pontius 292 

Last Secession tJaniculum) 286 

HORTENSIANLaw _ 286 

Reuewed Etruscan and Gallic War 283 

zd Battle or Lake Vadimon 28^ 

War with Tarcntum . 2C1 

Pyrrhus, Gr., invades Italy 281-275 

Battle of Hcraclea. - 2S0 

Battle of Asgtjxum, Gr. CD. Mus. III.), 279 
Rome and Carthage allied, P. C 279 

Battle of Beneventum, Rom 275 

Tarcntum taken 272 

South Italy subdued, Rom 270-266 

1st PUNIC WAR 264-241 

Hiero of Syracuse joins Rome, S. Gr. 263 

Agrigentum taken, S. Gr , -.262 

Romans build a Fleet .,...261 

Victory of Duilius at Mylae, Rom -260 

Roman Naval Victory at Ecnomus 256 

Regulus, Rom., invades Africa --256 

" defeated by Xanthippus, P. C 255 
Carthalo, P. C, recovers Agrigentum .254 
Roman Victory at Panormus 250 

Carthaginian Victory at Drepana 249 

Sieges of Lilybaeum and Drepana. .250-246 
Hamilcar Barcas, P. C, in Sicily 248-241 
Victory of the^EAGTES (Catulus), Roi7i.2\i 
War of Carthaginians and Mercenaries, 

P. C. 241-23S 

Sardinia and Corsica seized 23S 

Temple of Janus closed 235 

Agrarian Law of Flaminius 232 

Ulyrian War (Queen Teuta) 229 

Hasdrubal, P. C, founds Carthagena .229 
Gallic invasion (Boii and Insubres). 

Battle of Telamon, Rom* 225-223 

Clastidium. Viridomarus and Marcellus. 
3d Spolia Opima 222 



Literature and Art. 



EUCLID (Alexandria).. fl. 325 
Manetho, Egyptian Histo- 
rian fl. 320? 

Pytheas, navigator? 

Philippides _ fl. 320 

Chares (Lindus), S. A. ..ft. 320 

Euhcmerus fl. 3*20 

Polemo, Crates, Crantor, fl. 315 
Tim^eus (Tauromenium), M., 

252-357 
Diodes, Roman Historian 

(Peparethus)? 
Appian Way and Aque- 
duct, S. A 312 

Demetrius Phalereus. 345-283 
Eudemus _„ fl. 300 



Theophrastus 374-287 

Capitoline Wolf, S. A 296 

ZENO, the Stoic (Cittium), 

366-264 

EPICURUS 341-270 

Appius Claudius Caucus, 1st 
Roman Orator fl. 280 

Zoilus and Zenodotus...fl. 28J 

Hegesias (Cyrene) fl; 280 

THEOCRITUS. fl. 280 

Bion and Moschus fl. 270 

Aristarchus (Astronomer), 

fl. 2Sc— 264 
SEPTUAGINT 277 



K Perdiccas Regent. ..323-321 
W Antipater, Jfac., in Mace- 

£ donia 3 2 3~3 10 

3 Lysimachus, Mac., in 

w TJu-ace 323-3 81 

tq Cassander, Mac. , In Greece, 
^ 317-29 6 

The Lamian War (Leosthenes), 

323-3" 

Death of Demosthenes 322 

Cassander takes Athens 317 

Philip III. (Arrhidaeue) 

killed _ 317 

Olympias killed by Cassander, 
316 

Roxana and Son killed 311 

Demetrius Poliorcetes, at 

Athens. 6>.. 308-304 & 295-290 
Demetrius Poliorcetes at 

Thebes 393-30* 

Philip IV. of Macedon, Mac, 

297-296 
Demetrius Poliorcetes in 

Macedon 294-287 

Pyrrhus, Gr., of Epirus, 

318-272 

" reigned 306-272 

" in Macedon, 287-286 
" in Italy and Sicily, 
281-275 
Death of Demetrius Polior- 
cetes 283 

Gauls in Greece.. 280, 279, 278 

Brenuusat Delphi 278 

^Etolian League, S.Gr., 

284-167 



Lycophron c. 285-247 

Aratus (Astronomer) fl. 270 

Hieronymus (Cardia) ...fl. 270 

Arcesilaus (New Academy), 
3 0-241 

Callimachus (Alexandria) 

fl. 260 

Columna Rostrata, S. A...z6o 

Monumenta Scipionum, S.A., 
260 

Cleanthes. 300-220 



AUCHLMEDES, S. A. -287-212 
Eratosthenes .276-196 

CnRYSIPPUS... ___28o-207 

Livtus Androntcu?, fl. 240-214 
1 st Tragedies at Rome. .243-235 
CN N^ytub ..fl. 235-202 

Sosilus and Silanus 



Achjean League, 6>.. 280-146 



Antigonus Gonatus, Mac., 
recovers Macedon 272 

Antigonus Gonatas takes 
Athens 268 

Aratus, Gr (271-213) 

" at Sicyon 251 

Aratus, General of Achaean 
League ---245 

" at Corinth and Megara, 

24J 

Agis IV. killed at Sparta . 141 

Antigonus Doson in Macedon, 
233-221 
Athens joins Achsean League, 
Gr — 229 

Roman Embassy to Greece, 228 

War between Cleomenes 
of Sparta and Achcean 
League 227-222 

Reforms of Cleomenes, S. 
Gr 226-225 



Sicily, Asia, Egypt, etc. 

^ Ptolemy, Mac, in Egypt, 
g 322-285 

t/i Antigonus, Mac., in Syria, 
cc 3 2 3-3oi 

£j Eumenes, Mac., (Cappa- 

O docia -3 2 3-3i5 

p Seleucus, Jfa<;., at Babylon, 

03 321 & 312-280 

Ptolemies in Egypt, Mac, 

322-30 
Ptolemy I. (Soter) takes 

Jerusalem 320 

War of Antigonus and Eu- 
menes 320-315 

Ag athocles, S. Gr. , at 

Syrar.uee 317-289 

Agathocles defeated at Hi- 

mera 310 

Naval War at Cyprus and 

Rhodes 307-305 

Battle of Ipsus 301 

Seleucid-e in Syria, Mac, 

312-64 

Sandracottus' Indian Empire, 
312-160 

Rhodes powerful, S. Gr., 

300-200 

Kingdom of Pergamus, 283-133 

Lysimachus defeated and 
slain by Seleucus at Coru- 
peaion 281 

Ptolemy LI. (Philadelphus), 
Mac 285-247 

Gauls settled in Galatia 277 

Great Wall of China? 



Extension of Alexandrian 
Commerce. 

Egyptian Embassy to Rome, 



Hiero II., S. Gr., of Syracuse, 
269—219 

Rise of Parthia. 

The ARSACLD-E..256 to A.D.226 

Kingdom of Bactria. .254-12' 



Dynasty of Tsin in China, 

250-206 

Ptolemy HI. (Euergetes), 
Mac 247-222 



Attains I. (Pegamus).. .241-197 

" defeats Galatians..24i 

Sicily 1st Roman Province. .241 



Gallia Cisalpina a Roman 
Province 222 



fc*" 



^2 



6 5 8 



TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 






TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE.-Continued. 

Table IV. B. C. 323 to B. C. 146. From Death of Alexander to End of Third Punic War. By Periods of 

Twenty-Five Years. 



B.C. 


Rome and Carthage. 


Literature and Art. 


Greece. 


Sicily, Asia, Egypt, etc. 


225 


HANNIBAL, P. C. (247-183) 


Q. Fabius Pictor.. ) 

> fl. 220 

Cincius AJimentus. ) 

Apollonius Rhodius 238-188 

PLAUTUS 253-184 

Greek Works of Art. S. A., 
brought to Rome 212 

ENNIUS 239-169 

Cjecilius Statius... d. 168 

Rise of Pharisees and 
Sadducees. 

Hermippus (Smyrna)? 

Philinus of Agrigentum..fl. 200 


Battle of Sellaeia, Mac 221 

Aratus and Ant;gonus take 

Philip V., Macedon, Mac, 

221-179 

Philip and Achaeans against 
JEtolians 221-217 

Philip allied with Hannibal, 
Mac 216 

Rome allied with /Etolians, 211 

Piiilopcemen, Gr., General 
of Achaean League. ..208-183 

Peace with ^Etolians and 
Rome 205 

Philip's War with Rome, 

200-197 


Antiochus the Great (Syria), 
Mac 224-187 






Ptolemy IV. (Philopater), 




2d PUNIC WAR 218-202 

Hannibal crosses the Alps 218 


Mac _ 222-205 

Hasdrubal assassinated in 
Spain, P. C - 220 






First Commercial War — 
Byzantium and Rhodes. .214 

Siege of Syracuse, Rom., 

214-212 

Battle of Anitorgis, P. C---212 

Ptolemy V. , Mac 205-181 

At talus and Rhodians war 

Antiochus conquers Palestine, 
203 




Battle of Cannjs, P. C 216 

Revolt of Capua 216-211 

Fabius and Marcellus, Rom. Nola 215 

Scipios defeated by Hasdrubal, P. C.212 

Hannibal before Rome 211 

Buttle of Metaurus. Nero. Rom 208 
P. Cornelius Scipio in Africa, Rom.. 204 

Hannibal leaves Italv 203 


20O 


Hannibal with Antiochus, P. C 196 

Ligurian Wars 200, 19^ 181, etc. 

Deaths of Hannibal and Scipio 183 

Encroachments of Massinissa 182-174 

M. Porctus Cato, Rom (234-149) 

T. Sempronius Gracchus in Spain, Rom., 

179 


Rosetta Stone, S. A 197 


Battle of Ctnoscephal^e 
Rom 197 

Flaminius proclaims free- 
dom of Greece at the 
Isthmian Games 196 

Philopoemen defeats Nabis 

Sparta joins Achaean League, 
192 

Philopcemen abrogates Laws 
of Lycurgus, Gr 188 

Lycortas General of Achae- 
an League 183 

Embassy of Callicrates 179 

Perseus of Macedon, Mac, 

179-168 


Prusias of Bithynia 200-1S0 

EumenesII.,Pergamu6, 197-158 




Titinius. Trabea. Atilius. 

Cato fl. 170 

Carneades (Cyrene) ..213-129 
POLYBIUS 207-122 


Dynasty of Han in China. 
Battle of Magnesia, Rom,. 190 
Hannibal at Court of Pru- 

Ptolemy VI., Mac 181-146 

Pharnaces of Pontus cedes 
Paphlagonia to Rome 179 

Antiochus Epiphanes, Mac, 

176-165 


'75 


2d Macedonian War 171-1^8 

1,000 Achaeans in prison at Rome . 167-151 
L. iEmilius Paulus, Rom fl. 168 

Embassy of Carneades, Diogenes and 
Critolaus 155 

3d PTJNIC WAR 149-146 


TERENTIUS Afer (Carthage), 
I95-I59 

Zeno (Historian) fl. 160 

IIIPPARCHUS fl. 160 

Calpurnius Piso fl. 160 

Sempronius Tuditanus.-fl. 160 

Cassias Hemina fl. 160 

Cn. Gellius fl. 160 

Aristarchns (Grammarian), 156 
Apollodorus (Grammarian), 146 


War of Perseus and Rome, 

171-168 

Battle of Pydna, Rom., Mac, 
168 
Athenians attack Oropus. 

" fined byRome..i55 

Andriscus in Macedonia 149 

Achaean War with Rome, 

147-146 

Diaeus defeated at Leucopetra, 
i 4 6 

Destruction op Corinth, 
Rom. (Mummius), Gr 146 

GreececonstitutedaRoman 
Province (Achaia) Rom., 

146-145 


War of Antiochus and Egypt, 
172-168 

Revolt of Jews under Mat 

Asmon^eans in Judaea... 168-37 

Cyrene and Libya separate 
from Egypt 164 

Judas Maccab-eus 166-161 

" allies with Rome, Rom., 

161 

Bactrians in India 160 

Jonathan Maccabeus, 161-143 


150 


P. Cornelius Scipio Minor, Rom fl. 146 

DESTRUCTION OF CARTHAGE, 
Rom., P. G 146 


Demetrius Soter and Alex- 
ander Balas. 

Judaea free with tribute to 
Syria. 



■ 


» 








^ c 


-\ 


< 


TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 659 


w 

> 




TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 
Table V. B. C. 146 to B. C. 0. From Destruction of Carthage to Christian Era. By Periods of Twenty-Five years. 






B C. 

150 

125 
100 


Rome. 


Latin Literature. 


Other Nation.-. 


Other Literature anij Ant. 






Lusitanian War 150-138 

Death of ViriaLhus -.140 

Scipio Africauus (Minor) Censor. .142 

Scipio lakes and destroys Numantia. 
133 

Sempronian Laws 133-123 


C. Laelius (phil.)._ 186 

A. Postumius Albinus (hist.), 

fl. 150 

P. Sempronius Asellio (hist.), 

n. 130 

Attius (dramatist) 170-76 

The Gracchi (orators). 

L. Cselius Antipater (jurist), 
fl. 125 

M. ,Emilius Scaurus (orator) 
163-90 

Lucilius 1 48-1 03 


Polybius legislates for the 


Antipatex of Tarsus (Stoic). 

Orycon (sculptor). 

Blossius of Cumre (philoso- 
pher). 

Rise op the Essenes. 






Demetrius Nicator (Syria). 145-141 






JrjDiEA independent. 

Macedon formally absorbed by 
Rome. 

Hyrcanus governs Judcea.. 136-106 

in Parthia -131 

Demetrius Nicator restored. 130-126 
Attains LTJ. leaves Pergamus to 

Hyrcanus subdnes Idumea and. 
Samaria, and destroys Tem- 
ple at Gerizim i 2 g 






Fulvi:is Flaccas and L. Drueus, 

Death of C. Gracchus 121 

(i- Metelhis. leader of Senate. 
Sumptuary Laws. 


Crassus (orator) 140-91 

P. Rutilius Rufus (historian), 

fl. 100 

Q. Claudius Quadrigarius 
(hist.), fl 100 


Roman Province In Transax- 
fine Gaul. 

" Colony sent to Carthage, 
123 

Parthians subdue Bactna lzo 

Ptolemy Lathyrus and Alexander, 

1 17-81 

First Northern Migrations. 

Pharisees and Sadducces politi- 
cal factions, civil contests in 
Judaea. 

MITIIRIDATES (Pontus)... 120-63 

" conquests on Black 
Sea 112-no 

takes Galatia 102 














Marius conquers Teutons, Aquse 

Minium conquers Cimbri, VercelIa3..ioi 

C MARIUS (157-86), 6th Consulship, 

100 






L. App. Saturninus Tribune 100 

Laws ofDrusus. His death 91 

Social or Marsic War 90-88 

L. CORNELIUS SULLA (138-78) 

" expels MariiLs S3 

First Civil War 88-86 

First Mithridatic War 83 84 


Artemidorus (Ephesus), fl.ioo 

C. Licinius Macer (historian) 
fl. 80 

Valerius Antias (historian), 
fl. 80-70 

L. Cornelius Sisenna (hist.) 
118-67 

Q,. Roscius (actor) d. 62 

M.TERENTlLXUeVARIt0.ir6 28 

Hortensius (orator). .. 111-50 
LUCRETIUS 99-55 


Ptolemy Apion leaves Ctrene to 
Rome _ 96 

Sulla on the Euphrates. __ 92 

Revolt and Siege of Egyptian 

Sulla, tn course of 1st Mitiiri- 
datic War, takes Athens 86 

at War with Rome, 85-66 


Antipater of Sidon (epigram- 
matist). 

Asclepiades (physician). 

Library of Apellicon to Rome. 

Dionysius Thrax (gTamma- 






CrrraAatRome 87-84 

Return of Marius, 87; his death. . .86 
Sulla 83 

Second Civil War. Battle of Colline 

Second Mithridatic War 83-81 

Sulla Dictator. Proscriptions... 81-79 

Corneman Laws. 

War with Sertorius 78-72 




i 




Ciceroai Athens --— — 79 






is w 


82 






■^ a 


V 

- 



- 


o 








Q 


V, 


\ 


660 TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 


3 

f 




TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 
Table V. B.C. 156 to B.C. 0. From Destruction of Carthage to Christian Era. By Periods of Twenty-Five Years. 






B C. 


Rome. 


Latin Literature. 


Other Nations. 


Other Literature and Art. 






75 


POMPEY ---(106-48) 

Third Mithridatic War 74-63 

1st Consulship of Pompey and 

Catiline's Conspiracies 65-63 

Cicero Consul 63 

M. Porcius Cato (95-46' 

Pompey's Great Triumph. 61 

Csesar in Spain 60 

Coalition of Pompey, Csesar, Cras- 

sus (First Triumvirate) 60 

1st Consulship of Caesar sg 

Csesar in Gaul 58-51 

2d Consulship of Pompey and 
Crassus 55 

C. JULIUS C£JSAR (100-44) 

MARCUS AXTOMUS. (83-30 


Laberius (mimes) 107-43 

CICERO 106-43 

" against Verree ....70 

Lucullus founds Library 
at Rome 63 

Metellus (orator), Consul 60 

CATULLUS 87 (or 84)^4 
P. Ter. Yurro (poet) b. 82 
Calvus (poet) 82-47 

Sallust _ 86-34 

Vitruvius (architect) 80-11 


Xicomedes III. leaves Bithynia 
to Rome 75 

Yictories of Lucullus in Asia, 

74-66 
Scythians expelled from India. 
Hyrcanus II. and Aristobulus 

at War. 
Rome interferes in Palestine 

1 Ant i pater) .69 

Antiochus Asiaticus dethroned 

by Pompey. 

Pompey subdues Phoenicia and 
takes Jerusalem 63 


Poseidonius (phil.) 86-62 

^Enesidemus (phil.) fi. 80-50 

Themison (physician) ..123-43 

Dioscorides (Mosaics). 

Indian Drama nourishes. 
Timagenes the Syrian (hist.) 






l ON QUEST of Gaul— 
Helvetii and Ariovistus de- 
feated 58 

T he Belgas and Nervii defeated- 57 
Treviri defeated 54 

1 aesar crosses the Rhine 55-53 

Yehcingetorix and Alesia 

Gaul a Roman Province. 50 






5° 


Thapsus 46 

Second Triumvirate — Lepidus, 


C. Asinius Pollio (orator 
and poet) 76-4 

First Year of Julian Calendar, 

45 

YIRGIL 70-19 


Battle of Carrhse, in Parthia; 


Quintus Sextius (stoic). 

Cratippue (phil.) 

Library of Pergamus to 






Csesar in Pontus conquers 
Csesar in Africa 47 

Antony and Cleopatra On Cydnus, 

42 

Herod the Great in Judaea. --37-4 

Agrippa crosses the Rhine 37 

Antony fails in Parthia 36 

Egypt a Roman Province 30 






War with Brutus and Cassias. 






Cornelius Nepos d. 14 

Criticism of the best Attic 

MAECENAS (b. 74-64) d. 8 

HORACE 65-8 












Lepidus expelled from Triumvirate. 36 
War of Octavianus and Antony. 33-31 

Gateway of Janus closed 29-25 

OCTAVIANUS (AUGUSTUS), 

(63-A. D. 14) 

'■ Emperor. ..27-A. d. 14 


Pantheon dedicated by 






=5 



Cantabrian Wars 25, 19, 13 

Augustus invested with Trlbunicia 


Messala 64-A. D. 9 

Tibtjllus 54-18 

Propertius 51-16 

M. A. Seneca (rhetorician), 

60-A. D. 30 


Tiridates seeks Roman Court... 25 
Spain finally subdued. 


Diontsius of Halicarnassus, 
d. 18 

Babrius (poet). 
Diodortjs Sictjltjs (hist.) 

fl. B.C. 8 






Embassy from India 20 

Parthians restore standards -.20 

German War. Roman defeat under 

Tiberius and Drusus defeat the 
Rha2ti and Vindelici 15 






British Commerce with Italy 
and Gaul. 

NATIVITY-^ Jesus 4 




i 

. a 


OVID 43-A.3j.x7 


9 


*7 

■ 


r 








"* c 





TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 



66 1 



TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 

Table VI. A. D. I to A. D. 200. By Periods of Twenty Years. 



Rome. 



Tiberius commands on the Rhine 4 

Destruction of Army under Varus by thelGermans-.-g 

Death of Augustus .i + 

Tiberius Cesar i 4 - 37 

Germanicus in Germany 14-16 

" in the East . 17 

" Death ig 



M. JElius Sejanus dominant , ..... ...20-31 

Praetorian Camp at Rome 23 

Tiberius retires to Caprese .26-37 

Fall of Sejanus 31 

Macro Prefect of Praetorians 3'-37 

Agrippiua I. banished, 30; died 33 

Caligula 37-41 

" Expedition to Gaul 39 

" Assassinated 41 



Claudius, Emperor 41-54 

Conquest of Mauretania 42 

Claudius invades Britain, 43, War 43-51 

Execution of Messalina _ 48 

Claudius marries Agrippina II. and adopts Nero 50 

" poisoned by " 54 

Nero, Emperor 54-68 

P.ritannicus poisoned. Parthian and Armenian 
Wars. Agrippina murdered.. 59 



Insurrection in Britain subdued 61 

Rome Burnt. Christians persecuted 64 

Conspiracy of Piso. Deaths of Lucan and Seneca.. 65 

Nero at Olympic Games, 67; Death 68 

Galea, 68; murdered in the Forum 69 

Otho. Vitellius 69 

Civil War. Otho kills himself. Vitellius killed. 

Vespasian 70-78 

Batavian, 69-70; British, 61-84; Jewish Wars 65-70 

Gates of Janus closed; Philosophes expelled 71 

Reform of Treasury. 

Titus, Emperor. 79-81 

Herculaneumand Pompeii destroyed 79 



Other Nations. 



Judsa a Roman Province under Syria 6 

Pannonia, Dalmatia, ^Rhaetia and Noricum 
Roman. 

Cherusci under Arminius defeat Romans 9 

Artabanus i, Parthia) . M _ 44 

Germauicus in Parthia 17 

War between Arminius and Marbod 19 



Pontius Pilate in Judaea.... 25 



CRUCIFIXIOy, according to Eusebius 
Lactantius .30 



Lycia a Roman Province 43 

Judaea and Samaria directly Roman 44 

Thrace lt '* 47 

London founded by the Romans 47 

Frisians subdued 47 

Oolonia Agrippina _..__... .50 

Caractacus Prisoner 50 

South Britain a Roman Province 51 

Corbulo iu Parthia 56-64 



St. Paul at Malta 60? 

Boadicea in Britain 61 

Revolt of the Jews 65 

Josephus governor of Galilee.. 66 

Titus destroys Jerusalem 70 

Civilis leads Batavian revolt _. ..70 

Agricola subdues Britain 78-85 



Literature and Art. 



Ovid banished 9 

Prjedrus fl. 14 

Celsus (physician) 17 

Velleius Paterculus (historian), 

B.C. 19-31 

Strabo (geographer) b.c, 66-22 



Ciesius Basins ipoet) d. 79 

Philo Jud.eus.. c. B.C. 20- ? 

Valerius Maximus (hist.)? 

Petronius Arbiter d. 66 

Apollonius of Tyana b. b.c. 4- 

Josephus 37-97 

Philo, Senior Ambassador to 
Rome 40 



SENECA 3-65 

Lucan 39-65 

Pliny Major 23-79 

Anneeus Cornutus A- 55 

A. Persius Flaccus 34-62 

Columella (Husbandry) " 50 

Pamphila (female historian)..'* 55 



Silius ltalicus (poet) 25-100 

Colosseum built 70-80 

Papinius Statius (poet) 61-96 

Saleius Bassus (poet) fl. 75 

Stoics banished by Vespasian. 
The Laocoon. 



Bo 



DOMITIAN ...8i-q6 

War against the Chatti 82 

Agricola recalled to Rome 85 

LTnsuccessful Wars with Getae, Quadi and Marcomanni. 

Insurrection of Antonius repressed .91 

Persecution of Jews and Christians 95 

Domitian killed 96 

Nerva, Emperor 96-98 

Relief of Taxes. Distribution of Lands. 



Galgacus at Mons Grampius. 



Dercebal, King o£ Getse, defeats Romans. .86-90 



Amphitheatre of Verona. 

Demonax the Cynic fl. 80 

Paris (Pantomime), killed 83 

Valerius Flaccus (poet) _ fl. 88 

JUVENAL 47-130? 

Martial 43-104 

Quintilian 42-1 1 S 

TACITUS ■: 55-" 17 

Pliny M inor 61-105 



662 



TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 



TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 

Table VI. A. D. I to A. D. 200. By Periods of Twenty Years. 



TRAJAN, Emperor 98-1:6 

Free Constitution. Judicia Majestatis abolished. 
Elective Power lo Comitia. Free Speech, in Senate. 

Trajan conquers the Daci _ 101-103, 103 

Parthian War .. 114-116 

Trajan takes Ctesiphon and sails down Tigris 116 

3d Persecution of Christians. 

Hadrian 117-13S 

Surrender of Eastern Conquests 117 

4th Persecution of Christians 118 

Hadrian visits Gaul aud Britain ...120, 125, 130 

Extension of Commerce throughout the Empire. 

Quadratus and Aris tides at Athens present 1st 
Apology for the Christians 125 

ANTONIUS PIUS, Emperor 138-160 

Faustina I.. .- fl. 138-141 

Development of the Civil Law. 

Establishment of Schools in Provinces. 
Insurrections in Provinces quelled. 
Christianity tolerated. 



Other Nations. 



Dacia a Roman Province 106 

Armenia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Roman 
Provinces 114 

Greatest Extent of Roman Empire. 

Earthquake at Antioch 115 

Picts invade Britain 117 

Euphrates eastern boundary of the Empire. 117 

Hadrian's Walls — Newcastle to Carlisle 121 

" " Rhine to Danube 121 

Hadrian rebuilds Jerusalem —.130 

Revolt of the Jews under Barcochab 132 

Dispersion of the Jews 135 

Prosperity in Britain under Hadrian. 

Wall of Antoninus - 138 

Vallum Antonini in Britain 140 



Rome applied to as an Arbiter by various 
nations, 



MARCUS AVRELIUS sole Emperor 169-180 

L. Verus associated in the Government 161-169 

Faustina II. ..fl. 145-175 

Pestilence and Famines at Rome 161-166 

Wars with Parthians 162-166 

War with Marcomnnni, Quadi, etc 167-174, 178-180 

Greek Philosophers patronized. 

Rebellion in Syria quelled _ 175 

Christians in Gaul persecuted 177 



Literature and Art. 



Forum Ulpianum; Column of 
Trajan 103 

Dion Chrysostom (rhetorician), 

50-117 

Plutarch, fl. 98 40-120 

Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna. 96-166 
Suetonius ....68- 

Statues of Antinous (Hadrian's 
Page). 

Epictetus fl. 117-138 

Moles Hadriani (St. Angelo). 

Edictum Perpetuum of Hadrian, 

132 

^Elian (the rhetorician). 

Aulus Gellius ("Attic Nights"), 

fl-M3 



Verus in Armenia and Syria .161-165 

Seleucia demolished 165 

Death of Verus 169 



Advance of the Goths. Attacks on Dacia. 



Commodus, Emperor. 180-192 

Commodup takes the name of Britannicus 184 

Perennis Prefect of Pra?torians 180-186 

Cleander " " 186-189 

Commodus as Gladiator. Killed. .... 192 

Pertixax killed 193 

Didias Julianus buys Empire. Killed 193 

Septimus Se verus — 194-210 

Defeat and Death of Niger I94 

Battle of Lyons. Death of Albinus i 97 

Severus invades Britain, 208-209; dies at York 211 



Successes of Marcellus in Britain 183 

Byzantium taken by Severus 196 

Parthians defeated by Romans 198 

End of Arsacidas 1 

> 226 

Beginning of Sassanidse (Persians).. J 



Justin Martyr 103-166 

Herodes Atticus (antiquarian, 
etc.) 104-180 

Fronto (antiquarian) .fl. 153, d. 166 

Appian (hist.) fl- 147 

Galen 130-200 

Gaius (jurist) fl. 160 

Appuleius »3°- I 74 

Celsus (philosopher) fl. 160 

Marcus Aurelius 121-180 

Lucian 120-200 

Irenasus (Bishop of Lyons). 120-200 

Pausanias (geographer) fl. 174 

Polycarp suffers martyrdom — 166 

P. iEIius Aristides (rhetorician), 

fl. 170 
Hermogenes (rhetorician) fl. 170 

Statue of Aurelius_„ 180 

Dion Cassius (hist.) 155- 

Clement of Alexandria d. 213 

Origen — 185-253 

Julius Paulus (jurist)? 
Diogenes Laertius (oiographer). 

Temple of SunatBaalbcc 197 

Atuen.ei*8.__ fl. 200 

Hippolttus -. d. 230 

Tertullian 190-240 

Sestus Empiricus (phil) fl. 225 



k 



TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 



66 3 



TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 

Table VII. From A. D. 200 to the Norman Conquest. By Centuries. 



A.D. 


History of Rome and Other 
Countries. 


English and Scotch History. 


English Literature. 


Literature on the Continent. 


20O 


Caracalla. Horn. 211-217 

Roman Citizenship extended to the 
whole Empire 211 

Gallienus and the Tyrants, Rom., 

2^,9-268 

Aurelian. Rom 270-275 

Diocletian, Rom 284-305 

CONSTANTINE, Bom., (274-3371 
306-337 


Wall of Severus 210 

Dalriada? 


Papinian at York. 
Roman authors read. 

Ossian? ? 






Sextos Empiricus (phil.) fl. 225 

Plotinus (phil.) 204-274 

Zenobia at Palmyra (queen) 270 


300 




Britain subdued 313 

Early Christian Martyrs. 
Incursions of Picta and Scots. 


Pelagins. 




JULIAN, Rom.... 36^-363 

Paganism restored 361 

Great popular migrations begin 375 

Theodositjs I. Paganism pro- 

The Empire divided 394 

ALARIC (Visigoth). 


Ulphilas. Mceso-Gothic Gospels, 
337 

St. Augustine (theo.) 354-43° 


400 


At Rome 405-410 

Attila at Chalons, Fr... 451 

Genscric at Rome 455 

Succession of Western Emperors 

CLOVIS (Merovingian), Fr 481 

Becomes C hristian 496 

Theodoric (Ostrogoth), at Ravenna. 493 


Romans leave Britain 409 

Hengist and Horsa.449 Kent. 
Cerdic, '• 495 Wessex. 


St. Patrick. 

The Traveler's Song. 

St. David. 

Beowulf. 

The Culdees? 


Orosius. 

St. Martin of Tours. 


500 

O 
m 

m 

a 

« 



W 
O 


JUSTINIAN, Rom 527-565 

Belisarius . 535-560 

Lombards in Italy 570-770 

MAHOMET (570-632) 


Saxons 530 Essex. 

King Arthur? 

( Amelia. 
Angles 550-, Deira. 

{ Mercia. 

Fergus More n.? Scot. 
Ethelbert (Kent) Christian.598 


Aneurin. 

Merlin? 

Taliesin. 

Four Masters? (pub. 1634). 

History of Gildas 564? 

St. Columba 521-615 

St. Austin in England. .597-610 


St. Benedict 480-543 

Institutes and Pandects of 
Dares Phrygius. 

Cassiodorus. 


600 


No Romans after Heraclius, Rom., 

610-641 

Pepin of Heristal in Gaul 687 

MOORS in Spain -149a 


Edwin (Northumbria), Rex 


Fragment of Judith. 
Cedmon? 

Laws of Ina. 


Laws of Rotharis. 

Omar at Alexandria 640 



66^ 



TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 



TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 

Table VII. From A. D 200 to the Norman Conquest. By Centuries. 



History of Rome and Other 
Countries. 



Death, of Roderick, Sp ...711 

Charles Martel at Tours, Fr. 73a 

Pepin the Short, /¥ 752-768 

Death of St. Boniface 755 

Roland at Roncesvalles 778 

Irene (Constantinople) 780-803 

Haroun-al-Raschid 780-808 

CHARLEMAGNE,f7 4 2-8i4) 77I -8:4 



English and Scotch Hi>toi: v . 



Cornwall subdued. 

1st Landing of Danes 786 

Off a of Mercia 790 



K\..i.i-n Literature 



Bede. 



.672-735 



Cynwulf -715-780 



Alcuin 735-^04 



Literature on the Continent. 



Schools at Fulda and St. Gall, 
Ireland. 



Benedict d'Aniana 750-821 



Saracens in Sicily. 

Treaty of Verdun (division of 
Empire) ..844 

Rolf Ganger in Neustria, Scan. 841-876 
NORMANS in France. 



Egbert (Wessex) 827-836 

Kenneth II., Scot. Picts 
and Scots united. 

2d Danes. Ragnar Lodbrog. 
866 

ALFRED 871-901 



History of Nennius? 



Joannes Scotus ERIGENA..875 



Brehon Law in Ireland. 



Alfred's Translations. 



Eginhard 840 

Otfried's Krist c. 870 

Heliand 870 

Archbishop Hincmar 882 

Old HiL'h German Alliterative 
Poetry. 



<2 

<,- 

s 

< 

o 



Magyar invasions. 

Henry I. (The Fowler), Oer 913 

Otho the Great, Oer 936 



Hugh Capet, Fr. 



.987 



DANES in England. 



Athelstane 925 

Battle of Brunanburg 937 

Edwy (contest with Church I, 

955 
Malcolm I., Scot. Strath- 
c'yde 944-95= 

3d Danes. Sweyn. 

CANUTE, Sean 1014 



The Cid (Ruy Diaz) in Spain, 



(1040-1099) 



Malcolm II., .Sfco2_-_ioo3-io33 

Edward the Confessor. 1042 

Macbeth defeated and slain. 
Scot 1058 

Malcolm III. Canmore, 
Scot 1058 

HAROLD 1065 

" defeats Norwegians. 1066 



Afiser'e Life of Alfred 910 

War Poems; Brunanburgh, 
Maldon. 

St. Dunstan. 

^Elfric's Homilies.. 99s 

The Grave? 



Annals of Innisfallen : 



Annals of Tighernach? 



Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 

875-1154 



Gerbert. Silvester II., Pope, 

999-1003 

Hroswitha c. 980 



Schools of Cordova and Seville. 
Spain. 



Avicenna 980-1037 



Translation of Psalms at St. 
Gall. 



Icelandic Sagas. 



Lambert of Herzfeld 1060 



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1 


TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 


665 


> 




TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 






Table VIII. From Conquest to Middle of Fourteenth Century. By Periods of Fifty Years. 














A.D. 


Continental History. 


English and Scotch History. 


English Literature. 


Literature and Art on the 
Continent. 






1050 


H1LDEBRAND, or Gregory 
VII., Pp 1073 


WILLIAM I., The Conqueror, 

1066-1087 




Chanson de Roland. 










Norman Kingdom, of the Two 


Battle of Hastings 1066 

Edgar Atheling to Scotland... 1068 




Bruno founds Carthusians 
Scholasticism. 


. ...1084 








Comneni at Constantinople, Rom. 


Hereward in the Isle of Ely.. .1071 
















Conquest of England completed, 
1073 




Roscelin. 










Urban II., Pj) 108S 


Domesday Book 1086 




Peter Lombard. 












William II., Rufus 1087-1100 




Peter the Hermit. 










THE CRUSADES 1095-1270 


Henry I 1100-1135 




Verse Edda compiled. 




« 




1 100 


Orders of Knights— 
Of St. John, or Rhodes 1048 


Conquest of Normandy. .1101-1*07 


Ordericus Vitalis 1075-1142 


William of Guienne. ist Troa* 
badour. 








The Templars 1118 




William of Malmesbury, 


Universities. 










Persecution of Jews. 

Hohenstaufen Dynasty, Ger., 

1 138-1254 


Shipwreck of Prince William. 1120 

David I., Scot 1124-1153 

Stephen (Blois) and Matilda, 


1 095-1 142 


Study of Civil Law. 








Play of SU Catherine at 
Dunstable 1119 
















Guelfs and Ghibellines, It 1140 

Second Crusade 1147-1149 


"3S-"54 
Battle of the Standard 1138 


Geoffrey Gaimar. 


Reineke Fuchs? 


1079-1142 
1083-1148 








SAX.ADIN (1137-1193) 


Henry II. (Plantagenet). 1154-1189 


Wace's Brut' d'Angleterre. 


St. Bernard. 








1 150 


FREDERICK I. (Barbarossa), 


Conquest of Ireland 1156 


Arthurian Legends, 


Study of Canon Law. 










Ger 1 153 


Constitutions of Clarendon ...1154 


University of Oxford nop 


Nibelungen Lied. 


1 120- 










William the Lion, Scot. t 

1165-1214 


Giraldus Cambrensis.n47-i2i6 
Layamon's Brut. 


Troubadours and M 

singers. 

Vidal. Bertrand de Born 










Battle of Legnano 1176 


Eleanor and Rosamund. 




[NNE- 










Assizes of Clarendon and 


John of Salisbury 1 130-1 180 
















Philip II., Augustus, Fr 1180 ' Glanvil, Chief Justice 1180 


Walter Mapes 1143-1200 


Walter von-der Vogelweide. 




J 




Third Crusade 1190-1102 


Massacre of Jews. 


Josephus Iscanus c. 1190 

Anglo-Norman Ballads. 


Poem of The Cn>. 
Gudrun. 


1170-1221 


1 

.9 


l" 


" 










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1 



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- s; 


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666 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 




> 




TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.-Continued. 
Table VIII. From Conquest to Middle of Fourteenth Century. By Periods of Fifty Years. 






A.D. 
I20O 

*o 
o 

< 

Z 
1230 

On 
H 

Z 
< 

n 

g 


Continental History. 


English and Scotch History. 


English Literature. 


literature and art on the 
Continent. 






Fourth Crusade 1200-1204 

Attack on Constantinople 1204 

Latin Empire 1204-1261 

Albigensian Crusade 1207-1229 

Battle of Bovines, Fr 1214 

FREDERICK II., Ger. (1194-1250) 
1212 

Frederick King of Jerusalem . 1229 

Alphonso the Wise in Spain, 

1226-64 
Gregory IX., Pp 1227 

Retreat of Moors to Granada -1240 

Sixth Crusade 1249-1250 


Stephen Langton and Barons 
Interdict removed 1213 


Robert Grostete 1175-1253 

Story of Genesis and Exodus. 
The Ormuxum? 
"Owl and Nightingale. 1 ' 
University of Cambridge.. 1231 
"Atirren Riwle. 1, 

Romances. 


University of Salamanca 1200 

Gottfried of Strasburg's Tristran. 
Raymond in Languedoc, 
Albert of Stade's Troilus. 

St Francis of A66isi . .. 1182-1230 

Mendicant Orders. 

Sordello fl. 1260 

Albertus Magnus 1193-1280 

Trojumanna Saga. 

William of Lorris. 






" confirmed and renewed 

thirty times .1216-1608 

Alexander II., Scot 1214-1249 

Fall of Hubert de Burgh 1232 

Unsuccessful Wars in France. 






LOUIS IX., Fr i«6-i2 7 o 

Richard of Cornwall, Eng., 
Emperor of Germany .1256-1271 

End of Caliphate at Bagdad... 1258 

Rudolf of Hapsburg, Ger- 1273-1292 

Genoa powerful under Doria, 

1270-1283 




Thomas of Erceldoune, the 
Rhymer. 

ROGER BACON.... 1215-1292 

Telescope.Gunpowder, "Opus 
Majlis." 

Henry Bracton c. 1260 

Surtees 1 Psalter. 

Peter Langtoft. 

Robert of Gloucester... c. 1280 

Duns Scotus 1265-1308 

" Land of Cockayne." 
Robert (Manning) of Brunne. 


Roman de la Rose. 

Earliest Plays in Spain and 
National Lyrics. 

Benoit de St. More. 

Thomas Aquinas 1227-1274 

CuttABTJE, Pt 1240-1308 

Tableau of Marie of France. 

Marco Polo 1 2 ss-i 325 

Gesta Romanorum. Berchorius. 

Guido de Cohunna 1287 

Nicholas IV., Pope 1288 






Alexander in., Scot.. .1249-1286 

Barons 1 War 1262 1266 

De Montfort's Parliament 1264 






EDWARD 1 1272-1307 

Statute of Mortmain 1279 






Sicilian Vespers 1282 

War between Genoa and Pisa. 1284 

Ugolino 1288 

Colonnas and Orsinis at Rome. 

BONIFACE VIII , Pp. ,1294-1303 
Swiss League 1295 






Wales subdued 1283 

Margaret and Baliol, Scot., 

1286-1292 
William Wallace ..fi. 1296-1298 
Expulsion of Jews. 
Battle of Falkirk... 1298 






I3O0 

»35° 


Charles of Valois in Italy. ...1301 

Philip IV., The Fair, Fr., 

1285-1314 
Clement V. at Avignon, ^...1305 

Fall of the Templars 1305-1310 

Henry VII. Luxemburg, Ger., 

1308-1313 


Edward II 1307- 1327 


R. Higden, "Polychromeon,' 1 

132S 


DANTE 1265-1321 

Meister Eckhard — d. 1329 

Jean de Minn. 

Theologia Germanica. 

Orcagna, Pt 1320-1389 

PETRARCH 1304-1374 

Gonsalez de Bercio. 






ROBERT I; (BRUCE), Scot., 

1306-1329 

Battle of Bannockburn, Scot. .1314 
EDWARD in 1327-1377 






Hnmpole's " Prick of Con- 
science. 11 

Chester Plays. 

Fordun's "Scotichronicon, ,, 

Laurence Minot 1300-1352 

Sir John Mandeville.1300-1370 




i 

1 e 


Morgar ten . . 1 31 5 

Election to Empire declared in- 
dependent of Papacy 1338 

Louis the Bavarian, Ger. 1314-1347 

Philip VI. Valois, Fr. 1328-1350 

Duguesclin (1314-1380) 


David II., Scot. 1329-1371 

Battle of Halidon Hill 1333 

Battle of Neville's Cross 1346 

Calais taken i 347 


I 

Is 


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\ 
TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 667 


a 

> 




TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 






Table IX. From Middle of Fourteenth to End of Fifteenth Century. By Periods of Twenty-Five years. 












A.D. 


Continental History. 


English ami Scotch History. 


English Literature. 


Literature and Art on the 
Continent. 






1350 


RlENZI ..1343-1354 

Marino Faliero at Venice 1352 

John II., Fr J 350-1 364 


War with Spain, Scotland and 
France. 

The Black Death ..1349, 1361, 1369 


Langland's "Piers Plow- 
Chaucer's " Roniaunt of 


BOCCACCIO 1313-1375 








The Jacquerie in France 1358 




Rose " 










Hanseatic League 1 140-1723 

The Free Companies. 






Brethren of Common Lot, 
at Deventer. 








( Visconti, Milan 
Tyrants in Italy... - Scala, Verona 
( Este, Perrara 


Law Pleadings in English. 1362 




Pedro Lopez Ayala..i33s-i4,o7 








Gregory XI. at Rome, Pp 1370 


Robert II. (Stuart), Scot., 

1371-1390 


(JHAUCER d. 1400 








1375 


Charles VI., Fr 1380-1422 

Joan of Naples executed 1382 

Decline of Genoa. 


Death of the Black Prince 1376 

Richard II 1377-1399 

Wat Tyler's Insurrection 1381 


" Legend of Good Women, " 

after 1382 


Poggia and Laurentius Valla. 






m 


Philip Van Artevelde, Dtch 1382 


John of Gaunt in Spain 1386 


Andrew Wyntoun...i35o-i420 








< 


Austro-Swiss War 1 385-1470 

Winkelried at Sempach 1386 


Raid of Otterburne 1388 


"The Canterbury Tales," 


Era Angelico, ^.-.1387-1448 








Robert in.., Scot 1390-1406 










£* 






Wakefield and Towneley 
Mysteries. 


Ghtberti. A. and S, 














Florence powerful. 


Henry IV. (Bolingbroke), 

1399-1413 




1381-1455 






1400 




Percy Rebellion. Shrewsbury, 

M°3 












Sigismund, Emperor, Ger 1410 

Council of Constance 1414-1418 


Prince James of Scotland cap- 
Albany, Regent, Scot 1406-1423 


University of St. Andrews. 141 1 


Embassy of Ruy Gonzalez 
to Tamerlane. 








Pope John XXIII. deposed, P/J..1415 
Executions of Huss and Jerome _. 1415 


HENRY V 1388-1422 

Persecution of the Lollards. 


James I., " King's Quair." 


H. Van Eycb, Ft.... 1366-1426 
J. Van Eyck, Pt 1390-144 1 








Frederick of Hohenzollern, Mar- 
grave of Brandenburg, Prus 1417 














Hussite War, Ziska 142J-1436 


Treaty of Troyes 1420 

Henry VI 1422-1461 

JAMES I. reigne, Scot. . .1423-1437 




Thomas a Kempis... 1380-1471 
Donatello, .4. mid S. .1383-14*6 




< 

a 




Is 


-«-^ 






V 


■< 


m 

■ ■ 


1 





& 








- ffl 


> 


1 


668 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 



f 




TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 






Table IX. From Middle of Fourteenth to End of Fifteenth Century. By Periods of Twenty-Five Years. 












A.D. 
1425 


Continental History. 


English and Scotch Bistort. 


English Literature. 


Literature and Art on the 
Continent. 






Joan op Arc, Ft 1429-1431 

French recover Paris 1436 


War between Scotland and 
England 1436 


Humphrey, Duke of Glou- 
Lydgate 1375-1461? 


University of Florence 1438 

Fra Filippo Lippi, Pt., 

1412-1469 








Council of Basle 1433-1449 


Duke of Gloucester murdered. 1447 


Chevy Chase, and 
Early English Ballads. 

Thomas of Walsingham..i44o 


Culture in Aragon and the 
Sicilies. 

Della Robbia, A. and S., 

1400-1482 

INVENTION OF PRINTING, 

'445 








Hapeburg Emperors, £^..1438 etseg. 
The Medici at Florence. 1430 et seq. 


Jack Cade's Insurrection 1450 


Mysteries and Moralities. 


Cozzoli, Pt 1408-1478 








Nicholas V. Single Pope 1447-1454 












X450 


Mahomet II. 


Civil Wars of the Roses, 

1452-1485 


University of Glasgow 1451 

Peacock's "Repressor,". .1449 


Giovanni Bellini, Pt., 

1426-1516 
John Wessel 1420-1459 








English expelled from France. 1453 




The Mazarin Bible 1453 








Belgrade resists the Turks. 
Hungary powerful. 
The Foscari at Venice. 




Sir John Fortescne..i475-i48o 


Francois Villon 1431- 

Boiardo 1434-1494 














Pius II. (...Eneas Sylvius), Pp 1458 




Sir Tiioiaajd Malory.. 1433-1475 


Philip de Comines 1445-1509 








LOUIS XL, Fr 1461-1483 


James III., Scot 1460-1488 












Wars with Charles the Bold. 
Poland powerful. 




The Morte d'Arthum. 


Pico della Mirandola.1463-1494 






M75 


Duchy of Burgundy merged in 
France. 

Death of Charles the Bold 1477 

Maximilian's Marriage with Mary. 1477 


Warwick, King-maker 1471 


The Coventry Mysteries . - 1468 

Caxton's Press in England, 

1474 


Ghirlandajo, Pt, 1449-1498 

LORENZO DE MEDICI, 

fl. 1470-1492 
Sodoma, Pt 1479J-1554 












FERDINAND AND ISABELLA, Sp., 
1479-1512 
Prince Henry of Portugal. 

Charles VIII., Ft 1483-1498 

Provence joined to France 1487 

Charles marries Anne of Brittany. 1491 

B. Diaz rounds C. of Good Hope.. i486 

The Moors driven from Spain 1491 

COLUMBUS (1436-1505) 1492 


Queen Margaret at the Court of 


The Paston Letters.. 1425-1506 
Blind Harry's Wallace. 

Revival of Letters, Classical 
Studies and Theology. 
Grocyn, Colet, Warham, 
More, etc. 

DUNBAR 1450-1530 


Pulci fl. 1480 

Ficinus, Politian. 

Perugino, Pt 1446-1521 

Arabian Nights. 

Leonardo da Vinci, Pt..(i. 1490 

Sebastian Brandt, " Nar- 

Giorgione. Pt 1477-1511 

AlBRECHTDURER,P^.I47I-I528 






Duke of Clarence murdered. .. 1478 

RICnARDIII 1483-1485 

Rattle of Bosworth Field 1485 
HENRY VII. (Tudor). ..1485-1509 
James IV., Scot 1488-15x3 






Alexander VI., Pp. 1493 




4 


1500 


Swiss Confederacy Independent.. 1499 

Loins XIL, Ft.. 1493-1515 

Vasco da Gama, Port 1497 


Poynings' Ait in Ireland 1495 


Henryson fl. 1490-1500 


RAPHAEL, Pt 1482-1520 

MICHAEL ANGELO, A. 
and 3. 1473-1456 


i 


. 




b 


•f 

1 


<S " 








■* 


■ 



< 


~ 








^_..| 


*. 


1 


TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 669 


8 




Table X. The Sixteenth Century In Decades. 


f 




AD. 


' ontinentaj History 


English and Scotch History. 


English Literature. 


Literature and Art on the 
Continent. 






I500 


JULIUSII.,i^ 1503 


Perkin Warbeck executed 1499 




ERASMUS.... 1467-1536 








League of Canibray. Pope, France, 
and Empire against Venice. 

Portugal powerful in East. 

Spain conquers Cuba. 

Don Manuel of Portugal, (1469-1 521) 


James IV. of Scotland marries 
Margaret, daughter of Henry 
VII 1502 

Arthur. Prince of Wales, mar- 
ries Catherine of Aragon 1501 


"Pastime of Pleasure".. 1506 

■"Nut Browne Maid.' 1 


ABIOSTO 14 4-^533 

Andrea del Sarto, Pt 1488-1530 

Voyages of Amerigo Vespucci, 1507 






Scholarship. 

Linacre, Smith, and Cheke. 






1510 


LEO X.. Pp ---1513 




Ballads and Moralities. 


TITIAN, Pt 1477-1576 












Vasco Nunez at Darien, P0/V..1513 


Battle of Flodden 1513 


More'? "Richard III.' 








> 


Bayard — 1524 

Francis, I., i^V* 1515 


War with France 151^ 


First English Prose History. 
Utopia 15x6 


CORREGGIO,PZ M93-»534 






'J2 

X 


Magellan (navigator) 1470-1521 


Margaret. Regent of Scotland. 
WOLSEY (1471-1530) 


First Original Romance. 


"Epistolie Obscurorum Viro- 






C. Agrippa and Cardan. 






< 


Adrian VI. .Pp --1522 


Cardinal 1515 


Barclay (Ship of Fools, Satire 


Ulrich von Hutten 1488-1523 

G. Agricola — ._ 1494-1565 






1520 


( 1516 Spain. 
CHARLES V. J I519 Empire , 


Field of Cloth of Gold 1520 


and Eclogues) 1490-1535 


LUTHER .1483-1546 






', 1530 Italy. 

Gustavue Vasa, Port 1523 

Peasants' War, Ger 1525 

REFORMATION in Germany. 


Futile Scotch invasion of Eng- 


Berner's Froissart 1523 

Tyndale's New Testa- 
ment 1526 


Rabelais 1490-' 553 

Zwingle 1484-1531 








15 19 30 
Confession of Augsburg 1530 


Sib Thomas More (1480-1535) 




Holbein. Pt 1498-1559 






£ 








COPERNICUS... 1473-1543 






OTT( 


Clement VII , Pp 1523 

Constable Bourbon at Rome. .1528 


Chancellor __i 529 




Palissy, A. and S 1499-1589 

Boscan (Spain) ) 






1530 




James V. reigns, Scot 1528-1542 


Surrey 1517-1547 


Hans Sachs (Germany). ' 






Pizarro in Peru, Sp 1531 


Archbishop Cranmer pro- 


SirDavid LYNDSAY.1490-1556 


Jardin des Plantes. 








Brittany annexed to France. . . 1532 

Ivan I., Russian Czar 1533 

Anabaptist at Minister 1534 




Elliot's "Governor" 1 153: 

Coverdale's Bible 1535 


Vittoria Colouna 1490-1547 

Margueret of Navarre ... 1492-1558 
CALVIN 1509-1564 

J. Everts (Joannes Secundus), 

15H-153 6 
Vesalius, first Scientific Anato- 
mist. 






REPORMATION in England. 

Act of Supremacy 1534 

Cromwell, Vicar General 1535 

Suppression of Monasteries, 

1535-153 6 
Execution of More 1535 








Calvin at Geneva 1532-1535 


The Six Articles . 1539 




Ignatius Loyola 1491-155^ 

Francis Xavier 1506-1552 








Foundation of JESUIT Order, 1534 


Execution of Cromwell... 1540 


Cranmer. Angl ican Liturgy. 


St, C. Borromeo 1538-1576 






1540 


Council of Trent 1 545-1 563 




Hall's Chronicles 1548 


Mendoza (Hist, of Moors), 

1 503-1575 
















Mary nominally succeeds 1542 

Death of Beaton, Scot 1546 

Edward VI ... ^S47~ I 553 

Somerset. Protector 1547-1549 

Economic distress. 


Hey wood's Interludes. 

Astham, "Toxophilus" I545 

"Schoolmaster"... 1563 
R. Crowley d. 1588 


Benvenuto Cellini, A and S. 

1500-1572 

Vasari, Pt 1512-157 1 

Pulladio, A. and S 1518-15S0 

Telesins 1509-1588 








1 


i 










TINTORETTO. Pt isi2-is94 








b 


■7 


to ^ 








* 

■ 





4 



670 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 

Table X. The Sixteenth Century. In Decades. 



1560 



1580 



Continental Histort. 



Metz taken by France 1552 

Servetus burnt by Calvin 1553 

Religious Peace of Augsburg _. 1555 
Philip II., Sp -1556 

Catherine de Medici, and the 
Guises. 

Francis II., /V 1559 

Charles IX., Fr 1560 



Civil Wars in France 1562-1595 

Soliman II. in Hungary 1566 

Pius V.. Pj). 1566 

Alva in the Netherlands 1567 

Cosmo de Medici, Duke of 
Tuscany. 

Don John of Austria 1569 

Hungary annexed to Austria 1570 



Battle of Lepanto, Sp - >S7' 

Poland an Elective Monarchy, 1572 

Massacre of St. Bartholomew , 1 572 

Revolt of Netherlands — 157a 

Henry III. Fr 1574 

The League i57 fr ~ I 593 

Union of Utrecht . 1579 

WILLIAM THE SILENT(Oi 
ange), Dutch, 



Independence of Netherlands 
Declared. 1581 

William of Orange assassi- 
nated 1584 

Sextos V.,ifc 1585 

The Duke of Guise assassi- 
nated 15,88 

Alexander of Parma . . .1571-1592 

HENRY IV, Fr 1589-1610 

Battle of Arques ... 1589 

Battle of Ivry, Fr 1590 



Henry IV., Catholic 1593 



Sigismund of Poland in Sweden. 

1 592- 1600 



The Edict of Nantes 1598 



English and Scotch History. 



Mary Tudor 1553-1558 

Lady Jane Grey beheaded 1553 

Mary of Guise in Scotland.. 1554 

Reconciliation with Rome 1554 

Latimer, Ridley, and Cranmer 
burnt 1555-1556 

Gardiner and Pole in power. 

Calais lost 1558 

ELIZABETH 1558-1603 



William Cecil, Secretary 1559 

REFORMATION in Scotland. 

MARY STUART, Scot., reigns 

1 562- 1 568 

Murder of Rizzio 1566 

Murder of Darnley 1567 

Northern Rebellion -1569 

Murray, Regent, Scot 1570 



Morton, Regent, Scot 1^72 

Burghley, Lord Treasurer 1572 

Walsingham, Secretary 1573 

Elizabeth declines the Nether- 
lands 1575 

Drake sails round the World. .1577 
James VI . Scot 1578-162^ 



Risings in Ireland 1580 

Raleigh in Virginia 1584 

Leicester in the Netherlands : 1584 

Battle of Zutphen 1586 

Babington's Plot 1586 

Execution of Mary 1587 

Drake at Cadiz 1587 

THE ARMADA 1588 



War with Spain and Portugal. 

1589— 1600 



Tyrone's Rebellion in Ireland. 

i5 Q 5- l6o[ 



Capture of Cadiz by Essex 159/1 

Gowrie Conspiracy 1600 



English Literature. 



Udal. Earliest Comedy... 1550 

Wilson's Art of Rhetoric.. 155 1 

Mirror for Magistrates. 

Bale's King John. 

Sackytxle (1527-1608) Ear- 
liest Tragedy 

Fox's "Martyrs". 1553 

Tottd'a Miscellany 1557 

John Knox I S°5- 1 572 



Buchanan 1506-1582 

The Geneva Bible ..1560 

The Book of Common Prayer. 
1560 

Tussrr's Bucolics 



Bishops' Bible 1568 

XXXIX. Articles. ._ 1571 



Puttenham and Coze. 

Sir l'uiLir Sidney.. 1554-1586 

Southwell 1560-159(1 



Chronicles of Hollinshed 
and Stowe. 

Knolles 1545-1610 



I Diversity of Edinburgh. .1581 

Hooker 1553-1600 

Raleigh ... 1552-1618 

.SPENSER -i5S3-'599 

Warner 1558-1(^09 

Peele ? — 1598 

Nash i558-i6or 

Greene . _ . ? — 1 592 



Marlowe 1564-159-1 

Lodge d. 1625 

Ilakluyt 1513-1016 

Coke 155C-1634 

Camden -..1557-1623 

Lyly 1 EuphneB) and Come- 

. lies i554"'6 n 3 

Sh;ikspc;irr'. Purlin. 

Bacon's Essays 1597 

I rlobe opened after 1594 

Bodleian founded 1598 

Gilbert (Magnetism). 1540-160 j 



Literature and Art on the 
Continent. 



Sannazaro and Montmajor 

(Dianah 
Socinus 1 539- 1 604 

Stephens and the Scaligers, 

14S4- 1 ' ■ 

Gesuer's Mithridates 1555 

PeterRamus — 1572 

Palestrina, M. 1 524-1594 

P. VERONESE, Pt n28-i 5 SS 

CAMOENS 1527-1579 



St. Teresa 1515-1582 

Beza .1519-1605 

K../NSARD 1524-1586 

Silvester's Du Bartas 

Kochanowski _ . 1530-1584 

MONTAIGNE 1533-1592 



Isaac Casaubon 1559-161 4 

LTniversity of Leyden 1575 

Bodin 1530-1596 

Cynthio and Bandello's Tales. 
Mariana 1 536-1623 

TASSO---- 1544-1595 



Francis de Sales 1567-1622 

Albericus Gentilis at Oxford.. 1582 

Gregorian Calendar --15S3 

Guarini*s Pastor Fido 1535 

Tvcno Brahe 1546-1601 

The Caracci, Pt 1560-1609 

Paolo Sarpi 1552-1623 

Giordano Bruno — 1600 



Charron and Vanini. 

Flndd and Bohem. 

CERVANTES i547-i6'6 

University of Barcelona 1596 

Lope de Vega 1562-1^35 

P. Hooft 1583-1652 

KEPLER 1571-1630 



-sPV 



^fc= 



TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 671 

Table XI. The Seventeenth Century. In Decades. 



Continental History. 



BARXEYELD. Dutch... 1590-1618 

Pnrnr III., Sp 1598-1621 

Biron*s Conspiracy 1602 

Dutch powerful in the Indies. 1607 

Maurice, Dutch 1584-1625 

Spinola - 1604-1*125 

Truce between Spain and 
Netherlands 1 609 

.Moors expelled from Spain. 1609 
Henry IV. assassinated 1610 



LOOS Xm.,^ 16x0-1643 

Mary de Medici, Regent. 

Romanoffs in Russia 1613 

Execution of Barneveld. 1619 

Frederick, King of Bohemia .1619 

Ferdinand II., Sp 1619-1637 

Battle of Prague 162a 

THIRTY YEARS' WAR, 

1618-1648 



1630 



1640 



GUSTAVUS ADOLPBUS, 

161 1-1632 

Wallenstein, Ger — 1583-1634) 

New York founded by the Dutch, 

1624 
Huguenot Rising 1625 

Boston founded — 1627 

Rochelle taken 1628 

Philip IV , sp 1621-1665 

Edict of Restitntion .. 1629 

RICHELIEU, Fr .-.(1585-1642) 
supreme.. 1624-1*42 



British History. 



Patent to East India Company 1600 

Execution of Essex 1601 

James I 1603-1625 

Gunpowder Plot --1605 

Hampton Court Conference 1604 

Emigrations to Virginia 1608 

Ulster Settlements, Ire -1608 

Hawkins at Mogul Court 1609 



Carr (afterwards Somerset), favorite. 

1*1 1 
Death of Prince Henry 16:2 

Marriage of Princess Elizabeth to 
Frederic, Elector Palatine 1613 

Villi" srs, Duke of Buckingham, 
favorite - 161 5 

Execution of Raleigh 1618 

The Pilgrim Fathers . 1620 



Fall of Magdeburg 1631 

Battle of Lutzen, Scan 1632 

i iHBistiNA, Scan 1632-1654 

Oxenstiern (1583-1624) 

Death of Wallenstein 1634 

Peace of Prague --1635 

Franc and Spain at War. 1635-1659 
Independence of Portugal — 1640 

Cinq Mars and De Thou 1642 

War between Portugal and 
Holland. 



Louis XIV. accedes 1643 

Anne of Austria, Regent 1643 

Turenne on the Rhine 1643 

Condeat Rocroy 1643 

Masaniello 1647 

Peace of Westphalia 1648 

Frederick William the Great, 
Elector, Pr 1640-1688 

MAZ ARLN, Minister, Fr. 1643-1661 



Bacon's overthrow, Virginia 1621 

Seldon and Pym Imprisoned 1622 

Spanish Marriage broken 1623 

War with Spain declared .-.1624 

Charles I ...1625-1645 

Eliot sent to the Tower ...1628 

Massachusetts Bay settled 1628 

Buckingham assassinated 1628 

PETITION OF RIGHT... 1628 



English Literature. 



SHAKSPEARE 1564-1616 
Hall and Marston's Satires. 

Burbage, Act ? -1619 

Dekkar .. ? -1639 

Chapman 1 557-1634 

Daniel 1562-16 19 

Drayton 1563-1631 

Davies — ..1570-1626 

Donne... I 573 -I 63i 

Wotton 1 568-1639 

BACON 1561-1626 



English Bible 1611 

Napier's Logarithms 1614 

Harvey. Circulation of Blood, 
1616 

Beaumont 1586-1616 

Fletcher 1576-1625 

Ford ...1586-1639 

Webster 1582-1652 

Massinger 1584-1640 

Inigo Jones, C 1572-1652 

T, Heywood 1570-1650 

BEX JOXSON 1574-1637 

G. and Ph. Fletcher.. 1585-1650 



Arrest of Five Members.- -1629 

Ship Money levied.. 1634 

Laud and Wentworth in power. 

Trial of Hampden 1637-1638 

Prynne lined by Star Chamber 1637 

Nathaniel "Ward, American Author 

1570-1653 

t lovenaut In Scotland 1638 

First Printing Press in America. -1639 

LONG PARLIAMENT 1640-165, 

John Cotton. Am 1638-1652 



First American Book — ...1640 

Pym, Leader of the House. 

Execution of StrafEord 1S41 

Uassacre of English in Ireland 1641 

CIVIL WAR, 1642-51; EdgehilL-1642 

Self-denying Ordinance ._ 1644 

Marston Moor, 1644 Naseby 1645 

Execution of Laud 1645 

Pride's Purge 1648 

Execution of the King 1649 

Execution of Montrose, Scot 1650 

Dunbar, Scot. y and Worcester. 

1650 and 1651 



First Edition of Shakspearc, 

1623 

Burton 1576-1640 

Chillingworth 1602-1644 

Herbert 1 593-1633 

Herrick 1591-1674 

Quarles 1592-1044 

Crawshaw ... 1615-1650 

Alexander, E., of Sterling, 

1^80-1640 

J. Florio 1545-1625 

Middleton .1570-1626 

Usher . 1581-16=6 



Literature and Art on the 
Continent. 



GALILEO.. 1564-1640 

"Don Quixote," -.1605 

Malherbe 1555-1628 

Guido Reni, Pt 1575-1642 

Quevedo 1580-1645 

Rubens, Pt... 1577-1626 

Douay Bible 1609 

Honore d'Urfe (Aetrsea), 

1567-1625 



Opitz I 595~*637 



jadreini ) . 

and - 

larini, \ . 



1 578-1632 

(Sacred Plays) 
1569-1625 



Andrei ni 

and 
Marini, 

Van Helmont 1577-1644 

Teniers, Pt 1582-1649 

Kepler's Laws 1618 

Vanini burnt 1619 



Shirley (End of Old Drama), 

1594-1666 

Tl e I ava ier Poets— 

Drummond 1585-1649 

1 !arew 1 589-1639 

Randolph 1605-1634 

Stickling 1609-1641 

Davenant-. 1605-1668 

Cartwright 1611-1643 

Lovelace _ ...1618-1658 

Den ham .-. 1615-1668 

i Cleveland 1613-1059 

Montrose 1612-1650 



Cowley .1618-1^67 

Waller 1605-1687 

Hobbs' " Leviathan " 1642 

Leighton 1611-1684 

Wither 1588-1667 

Marvell... 1620-1678 

Royal Society founded 1645 

G. Fox. Quaker-sm 1647 

Confession of Faith 1649 

Icon Basilike if-40 

MILTON 160S-1674 



Campanella 1568-1639 

Hugo Grotius * 583-1645 

Gassendi 1592-1655 

Davila _ 1576-1631 

Vandyck, Pt 1599-1641 

Velasquez, Pt- 1599-1660 

GuercinOj Pt 1590-1666 

The Elzevirs... 1582-1652 

Yau_'elas_ 1586-1650 

J. Balzac 1594- 10 54 



Voiture and Hotel Ram- 

bouillet. 

French Academy 1635 

Corneille's "Cid" 1636 

DESCARTES.-.- 1596-1650 
Andreas Gryphius ..1616-1664 

Harvard College 1637 

University of Utrecht 1636 

Claius 1 Play of Creation. 

Vondel 1587-1679 

I ORNEILLB 1606-1684 

Jesuits and Jansenists at 

War. 



Bollandus 1596-1665 

"Acta Sanctorum' 1 -0--1643 

Salmasius fl. 1643 

Torricelli's Barometer 1643 

Claude Lorraine, Pt., 

1600-1082 

Rembrandt, Pt 1600-1689 

The Poussins and Salvator 

Rosa, Pt 1600-1670 

Muiullo, Pt... 1618-1682 

Zaluzianski c. 1650 

St. Simon and Mme- de 

Sevigne. 



i;2 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 

Table XI. The Seventeenth Century. In Decades. 



».iL 



1650 



1670 



1690 



Continental History 



Cardinal de Retz (1614-1679) 

War of the Fronde 1648-1653 

East Prussia free from Poland, 

1656 

LOUIS XIV. reigns, Fr 1655 

Peace of the Pyrenees 1659 

Colbert, Minister 1661-1683 



Versailles built 1661 

French India Companies 1664 

Charles II. of Spain 1665-1700 

Spanish Netherlands invaded 1666 

Peace of Breda 1667 

The Triple Alliance- England, 
Holland and Sweden 1668 

Peace of Lisbon 1668 



Turenne and Conde invade 
Holland _. 1672 

The De Witts assassinated 1672 

William Stadholder, Dtch., 

1672-1702 
Battle of Fehrbellin, Pr 1675 

First Russo-Turkish War 1678 

Peace of Nimeguen. 1678 

"Reunions" in Elsass .1680-1681 



Strasburg seized in time of peace, 
168 1 
Sobieski repels the Turks at 
Vienna 1683 



Revocation of Edict of Nantes, 



1 68 S 



French in the Palatinate 16 



PETER THE GREAT, Bus., 

1689-1725 



France and England at War. 

1 689-1 697 
Battle of Steinkirk ..1692 

Battle of Landen... 1692 

Namur taken 1695 

Treaty of Ryswick... 1697 

The Czar in England 1697 

Treaty of Carlowitz ...1699 

End of House of Austria in 
Spain .... ...... 1700 



British History. 



Navigation Act 1651 

Barebones Parliament 1651 

Van Tromp in the Thames 1652 

CROMWELL, Protector ...-1653-1658 

John Eliot, Am 1604-1690 

Dutch defeated by Blake and Monk, 

Jamaica conquered 1.656 

Death of Blake 1657 

Richard Cromwell.. 1658-1659 

CHARLES II., RESTORATION 

1C60-1685 



Roger Williams, Am 1606-1683 

Corporation Act 1661 

First Standing Army. 

Act of Uniformity 1662 

Secession of Puritans. 

2d Dutch War, Van Ruyter in the 

Thames :666 

Great Plague of London 1665 

Great Fire of London 1666 

The Cabal 1668 

South i 'avulina settled 1669 



English Literature. 



Fuller .1608-1661 

HOBBES 1588-1679 

Selden 1584-1654 

Harrington's "Oceana "..1656 

J. Taylor 1613-1667 

I. Walton 1593-1683 

Sir T. Browne 1605-1682 

Sir M. Hale 1609-1676 

Boyle 1627-1691 

Wallis .1616-1703 



Lauderdale in Scotland 1671 

The Test Act 1673 

Charles pensioned by Louis 1674 

Oates Plot. Murder of Godfrey.. 1678 

Habeas Corpus Act 1679 

Sharpe murdered. Drumclog and 
Both well, Soot _ 1679 

Exclusion Bill. Origin of Whig 
and Tory 1680 



Stafford executed, 1680; Shaftes- 
bury acquitted 16S1 

Pennsylvania settled 1682 

Rye House Plot. Russell and Sid- 
ney executed 1683 

JAMES II 1685-1689 

Argyle executed, Scot 1685 

Monmouth Rebellion. Sedgemoor. 

Monmouth executed 1685 

Trial of Seven Bishops 1688 

BILL OF RIGHTS -16S9 

Cotton Mather 1663-1728 



S. Butler 1612-1680 

Restoration Drama, 

1 063-1 700 

Clarendon 1608-1674 

"London Gazette'' 1 ..1665 

Baxter 1615-1691 

Bl'NYAN 162 8-1688 

Barrow 1630-1677 

Paradise Lost 1677 

Tillotson 1630-1694 

South x 633-i7i5 

Algernon Sidney 1617-1683 



Literature and Art on the 
Continent. 



Calderon 1600-1683 

Pascal ...1623-1662 

Scarron 1610-1660 

Arnauld and Port Royal. 
Delphin Editions. 

M. de Scudery 1607-1701 

Rochefoucauld 1613-1680 

MOLIERE 1622-1673 



WILLLAM III 1689-1702 

Toleration Act 1689 

Siege of Londonderry 1^90 

Killiecrankie, Scot., and the Boyne, 

Ire -1690 

National Debt begun 1692 

Glencoc Massacre. Scot 1692 

Death of Queen Mary. 1694 

Abolition of Censorship of Press. .1695 

Darien Expedition .1698-1700 

Second East India Company 1698 

Partition Treaties 1698-1 700 



Cudworth 1617-1688 

H. More .1614-1687 

Sydenham 1624-1689 

Ray 1628-1705 

Evelyn 1620-170(3 

Pepys 1632-1703 

Pilgrim's Progress 1678 

Otway 1651-1685 

Stair 1619-1695 

DRYDEN 1631-1700 

Aphra Behn 1642-1689 

Buckingham 162S-1684 



Sir Peter Lely, Pt 1617-1680 

Bossuet 1627-1704 

Bourdaloue 1632-1704 

" Journal des Savaus" 1665 

La Fontaine 1621-1695 

Boileau 1636-1711 

Puffendorf 1632-1694 

SPINOZA 1632-1677 



William Penn 1644-1718 

Rochester 1647-1680 

Etheridge 1670 

Dorset 1637-1706 

Sedley . 1639-1701 

Roscommon 1634- 1684 

LOCKE 1632-1704 

PURCELL, M. 1658-1695 

Sir W. Temple 1628-1698 

Jeremy Collier 1650-1726 

NEWTON 1642-1727 



Sir C. Wren, A 1632-1723 

Wycherley 1640-1715 

Buruet 1643-1715 

Congreve 1669-1728 

Bentley.. 1661-1742 

Halley 1656-1742 

Vanbrugh 1660-1726 

Farquhar 1678-1707 



La Bruyere 1644-1696 

RACINE 1639-1699 

Paris Academy of Music. 1672 

Filicaya... 1642-1707 

Spener 1635-1705 

C. Maratta, Pt 1625-1713 

Maleeranche 1638-1715 

Abbe Fleury 1640-1723 

Mme. Dacier 1654-1720 



Fenelon 1651-1715 

Madame Guyon and the 
Quietists persec«ted...i687 



LEIBNITZ 1646-1716 

Bossuet's "Variations". ..1688 

Massillon 1663-1742 

J. F. Reguard 1665-1709 



Sir Godfrey Kneller, Pt.. 

1648-1723 
University of Halle 1694 

Dictionary of French Academy, 

1694 

Bayle's Dictionary 1695 

Fontenelle 1656-1756 

Fenelon's "Telemaque"...i699 

Rollin 1661-1741 

Rapin 1661-1725 



TT 





3 


-^ 






( 


TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 673 






TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERA1 URE.— Continued. 
Table XII. The Eighteenth Century, to the American Revolution. In Decades. 












A.D. 
1700 


Foreign History. 


British History. 


English Literature. 


Literature and Art on the 
continent. 






CHARLES XII., Scan -,.i6g 7 -i 7 i8 

War of Spanish Succession, 

1701-1713 

The Grand Alliance 1701 

Frederick I., of Prussia 1701 

St. Petersburg founded 1703 

Defeatof Alliesat Almanza, Fr., 

1707 

Battle of Pultowa, Bus 1709 


Halifax: and Somers impeached, 

1701 

ANNE .1702-1714 

Irish Parliament petitions for 
Union 1703 

MARLBOROUGH 1 702-1712 

Battle of Blenheim 1 704 

Sir G. Rooke takes Gibraltar.. 1704 

Battle of Ramihes 1706 

THE UNION with Scotland.. 1 707 


Defoe 1661-1731 

Mandeville 1670-1733 

Hamilton's *'De Gram- 
mont" 1 704 

Prior 1664-1721 

SWIFT -.1667-1745 

Addison 1672-1719 

Steele 1671-1729 

"The Tatler" 1710 


J. B. Rousseau. Fr 1670-1741 

Berlin Academy - 1702 

University of Moscow 1705 

Discovery of Herculaiuuin, // .1708 






Arbuthnot 1675-1 735 






I710 


Archduke Charles, Emperor, 

Peace of Utrecht 1713 

Frederick William of Prussia 1713 

Louis XV. succeeds, Fr 171"; 

Duke of Orleans, Regent, Fr. .1715 
Cardinal Dubois, Minister, 
Quadruple Alliance against 


Battle of Malplaqiu-t 1709 

Harley and Bolingbroke, Tory 


Cibber 1671-1757 

Gay 1688-1732 

POPE..- 1688-1744 

Pope's Homer 1714 

P.olin^broke 1678-1751 

Toland, Collins. Etc 1718 

Lady M. W. Montague, 

1690-1762 

Allan Ramsay 16S6-1757 

" Robinson Crusoe " 1719 


Staiil 1660-1734 

Le Safe's "Gil Bias" -1715 

Watteau, Pt 1684-1721 

The Bernouillis. 






GEORGE 1 1714-1727 

Oxford, Ormond, and Boling- 
broke impeached 1715 

Rebellion of 1st pretender, 

1715-1716 

Sheriff niuir 171s 

W ALPOLE 1 72 1- 1 742 






1720 


Peter, Emperor of all the Rus- 


A tterbur y banished 1723 

Wood's Halfpence 1723 

Period of Peace and Prosperity, 
and Rise of Great Towns. 

Guv's Hospital founded 1724 

GEORGE II 1727-1760 


Tindal l6 57 _I 733 

Clarke 1675-1729 

Young -.-1686-1765 


Tiraboschi and Deuina. 

Academy of Science. St. Peters- 
en; .' - 1725 

Maupertuis 1698-1759 

Bach, J/. 1685-1730 

IVr^olesi, M 1707-1739 

Montesquieu 1689-1755 






Louis XV. reigns, Fr i723 -1 774 

Cardinal Fleury, Minister 1726 

Catharine I., Czarina, Rus., 

1725-1727 






Berkeley 1684-1753 

Mi'iltiii History at Oxford. 1724 

Hutcheson 1694-1747 

Wm.Cullen 1712-1790 

"Dunciad".-. 1729 

Maclaurin 1698-174'' 






Victor Amadeus of Savoy re- 
Bigne to his son, King of Sar- 
dinia. 






I730 

■*- 

■O 
m 
t^ 

ffl 
<4 

a 
<n 

5 

s 

< 
z 


War of Polish Succession, 

i733-!735 

Peace of Belgrade 1739 

FREDERICK II., Prus., 

i'7i2-i740-i786 


Queen Caroline 1727-1741 

Georgia colonized, Am 1732 

"Jenkins' Ear" 1738 

Publication of debates pro- 

Whitefield (1714-1770) 


Jonathan Edwards, Am.. 

1 703-1758 

C. Middleton 1683-1750 

Hartley i705" I 757 

D. Mallet 1700-1765 








"Lettres Philosophiques" burnt 
by the hangman. 

VOLTAIRE 1694-1778 




1 


Methodism begins ---1739 


i 

I 


"< 




— ^— — ^^__ _ ^__^ ■* CJ 


v' 


t9 "■ 


■ 



674 



TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 



TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 
Table XIJ. The Eighteenth Century to the American Revolution. In Decades. 



1760 



Foreign History. 



Maria Theresa Queen of Hun- 
gary, Ger 1740-1780 

Charles of Bavaria, Ger 1742 

War of Austrian succession, 

1741-1748 

Frani 1- I., Ger ...1745 

Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 

Louis XV. invades Holland... 1744 

Dupleix at Pondicherry 1748 



Paoli's Corsican Revolt 1754 

Earthquake at Lisbon 1755 

Seven Years War ^756-1-16^ 

England allied with Prussia. 

Damiens executed 177 

Battles of Rosbach and Leuth- 
en, Prus 1757 

Battle of Zorndorf, Prus ... 1758 
French defeated at Minden ... 1759 



Catharine II., Czarina. /, '■, 

1762-1796 



The Philippines to England 1763 

Treaty of Hnbertsburg.- 1763 

Treaty of Paris 1763 

Corsica to France, Fr 1769 

Napiili'im ami Wellington born, 

1 769 



Parliament of Paris abolished- 1771 



First Partition of Poland 1772 



Hyder-Ali in India 1767-17S0 



LOUIS XVI., Fr 1774-1793 



British History. 



Walpole resigns 1742 

Pel ham 1743 

Battle of Dettingen 1 743 

Anson's Voyage 1740-1744 

Battle of Fontenoy, Ire 1745 

Rebellion of Charles Edward, 
Scot 1745-1746 

Prestonpans, 1745. Culloden..i746 
Clive in India 1750-1760 



[New Style of Dates in Great 
Britain, 

Duke of Newcastle's Ministry- 1754 

Braddock's defeat. Am 1755 

PITT (Chatham) 1756-1761 

Admiral Byng shot 1756 

Battle of Plassey 1757 

English Naval Victories. .1758-1759 
Wolf e's Victory and Death at 

Quebec, Am 1759 

Conquest of Canada complet- 
ed, Am 1760 



GEORGE III 1760-1720 

Lord Bate. 1762. G. Grenville.1763 

Wilkes' Agitations 1762-1772 

Rockingham and Grafton. 1765-1766 

American Stamp Act 1765 

Riots at Boston, Am '768-1773 

Letters of Junius 1 769-1 772 

Arkwright's Jenny. Watt 
Engine .'... . . 1769 

Lord North's Ministry.. 1770-1782 

Brace's Travels 176S 



English Debates reported 1771 

Warren Hastings in India, 

1772-1785 

Suicide of Lord Clive 1774 

I ook's Voyages 1770-1779 

WAR OF AMERICAN INDE- 
PENDENCE. 



English Literature. 



Richardson 1 689-1 761 

Fielding 1707-1754 

Sterne 1713-1768 

AllNE I710-I779 

Hogarth, Ft 1697-1764 

Garrick, Act 1716-1779 

Lord Monboddo i> 14-1799 

Shenstone 17 14-1762 

Akenside 1721-1770 

CI esterfleld 1694-1773 



HUME 1711-1776 

Churchill. 1731-1764 

Gainsborough, Ft 1727-1788 

Reynoi js, Ft 1723-1792 

Woolman, Am 1 720-1 772 

Simson 1700-1761 

Smollet .1721-1771 

JOHNSON 1709-1784 

Poote, Act. 1721-1777 

II. Walpole 1717-17S7 

J, Macpherson 1 738-1796 



ADAM SMITH 1723-1790 

Reid 17 10-1796 

Robertson 1 721- 1793 

HUTTON 1726-1797 

Wm. Hunter 1718-1785 

J Watt 1730-1819 

GIBBON 1737-1794 

Percy's Reliques 1765 

t oil in.- 1721-1756 

Gray 1716-1771 

Beattie 1 735-1802 

Black 1 72S- 1 799 

Academy of Arts 1 768 



Cavendish --1731-1810 

Goldsmith 1728-1774 

Blackstone 1723-1780 

Chatterton 1 752-1770 

Cowper 1731-1800 

T. Warton 1729-1790 



Literature and Art on the 
Continent. 



SWEDENBORG fl. I740 

Gellert 1715-1769 

Condillac 17 15-1780 

Helvetius 17 15- 1771 

Vauvenargue 171 5-1747 

Klopstock's Messiah 1747 

Malesherbes .'1721-1791 

Lomonossoff 1 7 1 1-1 765 

ROUSSEAU 1712.1779 



Button 1707-1788 

Discovery of Pompeii 1750 

Marmontel and Laharpe. 

B. de St. Pierre 1737-1814 

Goldoni 1 707-1 792 

Diderot ) _ . .,. 

L Encyclopedic, 

D'Alembert I x 75* 

M Mendelssohn 1729-1786 

LESSING 1729-1781 



Euler 1707-1783 

Lavoisier 1743 -1794 

Affair of Calas 6712 

Condorcet 1743-1794 

Winckelmann fl. 1764 

Scheele 1742-1786 

lleaumarchais fl. 1764 

Lavatei 1 740-1800 

Lichtenberg 1741 1799 

Ewald (Dane) 1743-1781 



1749-1803 



TURGOT 1727-1781 



Gluck, M. 1714-1787 



Beccaria *735 _I 794 



4t- 



TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.-Continued. 675 
Table XIII. From the War of the Revolution to 1880. In Periods of Five Years. 



Colonial and 1'nited States 
History. 



1780 



1 largoee of Tea Ships, Boston, thrown 

into the harbor by masked men. 1773 

Boston Port Bill i 774 

First Continental Congress 1774 

Declaration of Rights 1774 

Union of Colonies formed 1775 

Washington, Commander-in-chief, 

] 775 

Continental Fast _ 1775 

Falmouth burnt _ ...1775 

Norfolk destroyed 1776 

British evacuate Boston 1776 

Declaration of Independence. 1776 

French Commissioners sent 1776 

Congress adjourns to Baltimore.. 1776 
Philadelphia in hands of British. .1777 

Alliance with France 1778 

Treaty with France Feb. 6, 1778 

Philadelphia evacuated 1778 

Savannah taken by British 177S 

New Haven plundered 1778 



Other Countries. 



Charleston taken by British 1780 

New London burnt by Arnold 1781 

Lord Cornwallis surrenders 1781 

Independence acknowledged by 
Holland __ 17S2 

Independence acknowledged by 
Sweden, Denmark, Spain and 
Prussia -1783 

Independence recognized 1783 

Peace with Great Britain 1783 

Treaty of Peace ratified by Congress, 
1784 



Royal Marriage Act, Eng 1777 

Death of Chatham, Eng i 77 8 

Neckar, Er., Minister ...1776-1781 

"No Popery " Riots -..1782 

Rodney's Victories 1779-1782 

Elliot at Gibraltar 1779-1782 

TippooSaib in India --1779 



John Adams, First Ambassador to 
England 1785 

Cotton introduced into Georgia. .1786 

Constitution of the United States 
adopted —-1787 

Constitution ratified by all the 
States, except Rhode Island and 
North Carolina _ 1 7 83 

Emancipation of Slaves by the 
Quakers of Philadelphia 1788 

Government organized under the 
Constitution 1689 

Ten Amendments added to the 
Constitution 1789 



George Washington, President. 1789 

Departments of state, War and 
Treasury created 1 789 



John Carroll. First Catholic Bishop 
in U. S ...1789 



Lofd < leorge Gordon Riots 1780 

Settlement of Upper Canada. _ 1784 

Lord Rockingham's 2d Minis- 
try, Eng 1782 

Lord Shelburne 1782 

Grattan's Irish Constitution.. 17S2 

Coalition Ministry 17S3 

Wm. Pitt. (1759-1806) 

C. J. Fox -.(1749-1806) 

E. Burke (1730-1797) 

Wilberforce, Anti-Slavery, 

(1759-18331 
Russia takes Crimea 1783 

England wars with Tippoo Saib, 

i7 s 3-i799 
Erskine, Eng (1750-1823) 



English and American 

Literature. 



B. Franklin 1706-1790 

J.Adams 1735-1826 

"Wealth of Nations " De- 
cline and Fall 1776 

B. West, Pt 1738-1820 

Priestley 1 734-1804 

Sir J. Banks 1743-1820 

Ph. Fr neam -.1752-1832 

J. Trumbull 1757-1804 

Burns _ 1759-1796 

Sir A. Ferguson 1723-1816 

II. Mackenzie '745-1834 

"The Crisis" and "Com- 
mon Sense." 



Literature and Art of 

other Countries. 



Herder. Ger 1744-1803 

Linnoenus _ ...1707-1778 

Heyne 1729-1812 

Mozart, Mits., Ger.. 1756-1792 

Kant, Ger 1724-1804 

Lessing, Ger 1726-1781 

Gall, Ger _ 1758-1828 

Dr. Hahnemann, c?£?"- 1755-1843 

Allien, It 17,9-1803 

Pestalozzi ...1749-1827 

Metastasio, It 1698-1782 



Attempted assassination of the 
King. Eng 1786 



Russo-Turkish Wars 1787-1 790 

Assembly of Notables, .^V 1787 

Trial of Warren Hastings. 1788-1795 

Assembly of States General. Fr.. 
1789 



Parny ---1753-1815 



National Assembly, JV 1789 

Bastile stormed _ 1 789 

•The memorable battles, military and naval, arc omitted from this table, and will be found in Tables of Military and Naval History of the TJ. S. 



Ritson 1752-1803 

II. Blair 1718-1800 

Sir Wm. Jones 1740-1794 

E. Darwin 1732-1801 

Sheridan 1751-1817 

Dibdin 1745-1814 

Paley 1743-1805 

Dagald Stewart .1753-1828 

Hayley _ 1745-1S20 



Joel Barlow 1755-1812 

S. Hopkins 1721-1803 

J. Bellamy 1719-1790 

R. T. Paine 1773-iSn 

IIokne Tooke ..1 736-1812 

Hannah More 1 745-»833 

J . Jefferson 1 743- 1 826 

J. Madison 1751-1836 

A . Hamilton 1757-1804 

Beckf ord _i 760-1 844 

John Jay 1745-1829 

T. I>wight._ 1752-1817 

S. Peters 1735-1826 

B.Rush 1745-1813 

London "Times" founded. 



Chateaubriand 1768-1848 

Lavater 1741-1801 

Oerster 1777-1851 

Schiller, Ger 1759-1805 

Niemcewicz c. 1 780 

Mallet 1730-1807 

Haydn, Mtis 1732-1809 

Wieland 17^3-1813 

Burger ._ 1748-1794 

Jacobi 1 740-1 8 13 



Goethe, Ger 1749-1832 

Berthollet 1748-1822 

Latlace . 1749-1827 

David, Pt 1748-1825 

Legendre 1752-1833 



^2= 



^ 



676 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.-Continued. 
Table XIII. From the War of the Revolution to 1800. In Periods of Five Years. 



Colonial and United States 
History.* 



Virginia and Maryland cede Dis- 
trict of Columbia -179° 

Benjamin Franklin. d. 1790 

First Census U. S. taken 1790 

First Patent for Threshing Machines, 

i 79 o 
Bank of the U. S. established ...1791 



Vermont admitted into the Union. 



1791 



Washington City chosen as the 
Capital of the Republic. 1792 

Kentucky admitted 1792 

United States Mint established 1792 

Coal Mines discovered in Pa 1793 

Steam first applied to Saw Mills in Pa., 
*793 

Invention of the Cotton Gin, Whitney, 
1793 

George Washington's 2d election.. 1793 

Mad Anthony Wayne defeats Indi- 
ans in Ohio 1794 

First Sewing Thread ever made of 
Cotton produced 1794 



Jay's Treaty with Great Britain 
ratified 1795 

First Glass Factory built, at Pitts- 
burgh 1795 

Tennessee admitted 1796 

Washington's Farewell Address ..1796 

First Cutlery Works established in 
U. S 1797 

N. Y. Commercial Advertiser estab- 
lished --. 1797 

John Adams, President 1797 

Difficulties arise with France. Con- 
gress convened preparatory to 
war i 797 

Geo. Washington appointed Com- 
mander-in-chief of the American 
Armies, with the rank of Lieut. - 
General 1798 

Alien and Sedition Laws passed 
Congress 1798 

Death of Washington 1799 

U. S. Frigate Constitution cap- 
tures the French Frigate l'lnsur- 
gente... 1799 

Three Commissioners sent to France, 
1799 



Other Countries. 



Suwarrow takes Ismail 1790 

Death of Mirabeau 1791 

Canada is given a Constitution. 1791 

Legislative Assembly, Jf>.. 1791-92 

The Revolution, Paris 1791-92 

Escape and arrest of the King.1791 
Birmingham (Eng.) Riots. ...1791 
Paine and "People's Friend, ' , 

1791-1792 
Conference at Pilnitz 1792 

Battle of Jemappes 1 792 

The French Convention 1792 

First Coalition 1 792-1797 

Execution of Louis XIV. and 

Marie Antoinette 1793 

Fall of Gironde. L:i Vendee.. 1793 

Reign of Terror, Paris 1793 

Death of Marat 1793 

England begins War with France. 

*793 
Dumauriez joins the Allies 1793 

2d Partition of Poland 1793 

Toulon taken by the French.. 1793 
Toronto made the Capital of 

Upper Canada 1794 

Suspension Habeas Corpus Act, 

Eng .1794 

Defeat of the Poles under Kos- 
ciusko 1794 

Corsica conquered 1794 

English Expedition to Dunkirk, 

x 794 
Execution of Danton. Fall of 
Robespierre 1 794 



3d Partition of Poland 1795 

The Directory, Ft 1795 

Cape of Good Hope doubled. .1795 

Disaster of Quiberon 1795 

Carnot (1753-1S23) 

Moreau (1763-1813) 

Bonaparte in Italy 1796 

Battle of Lodi, Arcolo 1796 

Spice Islands taken by English . 1 796 

Jenner's Vaccination 1 796 

Cash Payments suspended, Eng., 

1797 
Hoche fails in Ireland 1797 

Battle of St. Vincent 1797 

Sea Fight of Camperdown 1797 

Peace of Campo Fermio 1797 

End of Republic of Venice 1797 

Bonaparte in Egypt. Aboukir.1798 

Battle of the Nile 1 798 

Great Irish Rebellion 1798 

Habeas Corpus Act again sus- 
pended 1798 

Pope Pius VI. deposed by Na- 
poleon 1798 

Parthenopean Republic 1799 

Second Coalition 1799-1802 

NAPOLEON (1768-1821) 

The Consulate 1 799-1804 

Sidney Smith at Acre 1799 

Nelson... (1758-1805) 



English and American 
Literature. 



Boswell's Johnson . . 1 790 

BENTHAM .1748-1832 

Werner 1750-1817 

Porson 1758-1808 

Parr 1747-1825 

Gifford 1756-1826 

Bloomfield 1766-1823 

Flaxman,.4. and £..1755-1826 
J. P. Kemble, Act.. .1757-1823 
Mrs. Siddons, ^^..1755-1831 

Mme. d'Arblay 1752-1840 

Godwin ...1756-1836 

Mrs. Inchbald 1753-182: 

Crabbe 1754-1832 



Blake, Pt 1779-1827 

Tannahill 1774-1816 

R. Hall..... 1764-1831 

The "Anti-Jacobin". 1797 

Dr. T. Brown 1778-1820 

Playfair. ......... .1749-1819 

Sir H. Davy 1778-1829 

Dalton 1767-1844 

Lawrence, Pt 1769-1830 

Bowles .. . .1762-1852 

Sir Walter Scott.. 1771-1832 



Literature and Art of 
other Countries. 



Galvanism discovered 1791 

F. A. Wolf 1759-1824 

GOETHE 1749-1833 

Canova, A. and S... 1757-1822 
SirWm. Herschel. .1738-1822 

Schiller 1759-1803 

Kotzebne 1761-1819 

Talma, Act 1763-1826 

W. Humboldt 1767-1835 

A. Humboldt 1769-1859 

Beethoven, Mvs 1770- 1827 

Weber, Mm 1786-1826 

J. Paul Richter 1763-1825 

Haiiy 1743-1822 



Voss 1751-1826 

Derzhavin 1743-1816 

Karamzin 1765-1826 

Schletrmacher 1768-1834 

Werner 1768-1823 

Baggesen 1764-1826 

Novalis 1772-1801 

Malte Brun 1775-1826 

Hoffman ... .1776-1822 

A. W. Schlegel 1767-1845 

F, Schlegel 1772-1819 

Lamarck 1744-1829 

Jussien 1748-1836 

Cuvter 1769-1839 

A. M. Ampere 1775-1836 



*The memorable battles, military and naval, are omitted from this table, and will be found in Tables of Military and Naval History of the U. S 



•? ST 



9 

^r 1 



•** a 



1*1 



TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 677 

Table XIV. From A. D. 1800 to A. D. 1825. In Periods of Five Years. 



United States History. 



N.Y. Post established 1800 

Important Treaty concluded 
with France 1 800 

A General Bankruptcy Law 
passed 1800 

Removal of Government to 
Washington 1800 

Thos. Jefferson, 3d President, 

1743-1826 

Internal Revenue Law repealed, 



The "Whisky Rebellion" in 
Pa 1801 

Tripoli declares War against 
U. S --. 1801 

First Patent for making Potato 
and Cornstarch 1802 

Ohio admitted 1802 

West Point Military Academy 
founded 1802 

Louisiana purchased of France, 

1803 
Com. Preble sent to Algiers and 
Tripoli 1803 

Alexander Hamilton killed in 
a Duel by Aaron Burr 1804 

Amendment to the Constitu- 
tion adopted 1804 

The Lewis and Clark exploring 
Expedition ...1804 



1805 



Peace declared between Tripoli 
and U. S 1805 

Burr charged with Treason, ac- 
quitted ... 1806 

England persists in the right of 
searching American Vessels. 1806 

Rob't Fulton, 1st Steamboat on 
the Hudson 1807 

Congress declares an Embargo 
on all Vessels in American 
Ports 1807 

First Wooden Clocks made by 
Machinery ._ 1807 

Trouble with England respect- 
ing the rights of Neutrals.. .1807 

First Printing Office west of 
the Mississippi River, at St. 
Louis 1808 

Abolition of the Slave Trade.. 1808 
Repeal of Embargo Act 1809 

James Madison, 4th President, 

1751-1836 



Other Countries 



Hatfield attempts to assassinate the 
King, Eng 1800 

Battle of Marengo 1800 

Battle of Hohenlinden 1800 

Malta taken 1800 

Armed neutrality of Northern Pow- 
ers 1800 

Union op Great Britain and 
Ireland _ 1801 

Nelson's Victory at Copenhagen .1801 

Peace of Laneville 1801 

Alexander L, Russia x8oi 

The Italian Republic 1802 

St. Domingo conquered. 1802 

Peace of Amiens 1802 

Mahratta War. Battle of Assay... 1803 

Emmett's insurrection, Ite 1803 

Camp at Boulogne. Volunteers. . .1803 



Italian and Neapolitan Kingdoms, 

1805^" 

Third Coalition 1805 

Battle of Trafalgar 1805 

Russia Extends East and South... 1805 

< lapitulation of Ulm 1805 

WELLINGTON 1768-1852 

Coalition Ministry. 

Battle of Austerlitz 1805 

Deaths of Pitt and Fox 1806 

Dutch and Westphalian Kingdoms, 

1806-7 

Fourth Coalition ..-1806 

Battle of Jena 1806 

German Empire Dissolved 1806 

Confederation of Rhine 1806-1813 

Francis L, Austria. 

Eylan Friedland 1807 

Peace of Tilsit 1807 

Danish Fleet captured 1807 

Abolition of Slave Trade, Eng 1807 

Madeira taken 1807 

Joseph, King of Spain 1808 

New Nobility of France created... 1808 

Coruna and Walcherin 1809 

Ionian Islands, Collingwood 1809 

Wellesley passes the Duro 1809 

Battle of Talavera 1809 

Finland taken fromSweden ..1809 

Battle of Wagram 1809 

Pius VTI. imprisoned 1809 



English and American 
Literature. 



" Edinburg Review " estab- 
lished 1802 



Malthtts on Population.. 1803 

Alison 1757-1839 

Coleridge 1772-1834 

Wordswobth 1770-1850 

South f.t 1774-1843 

Landob 1775-1864 

S. Rogers 1762-1856 

Isaac Disraeli 1 7'»6-i848 

C, Lamb I 775 - '835 

J. R.Drake, Am 1795-1820 

Slavery abolished in Canada, 

1803 

W Alliton, Am 1779-1843 



Cobbett 1762-1835 

Hazlitt 1778-1830 

Mi-- Austen 1775-1818 

MissEdgeworth 1767- 1849 

W M. Wltford 1744^1327 

T. Campbell 1777-1844 

"Quarterly Review 1,1 1809 

Sir J. Mackintosh ...1765-1835 

James Mill »773- 1 836 

BYRON 1788 1824 

Washington Irving, Am., 

1783-1859 

J. Fenimore Cooper, Am., 

1789-1851 

T. S. Key, Am i779-'S 4 3 



Literature op the 
Continent. 



Voltaic Battery 1S01 

J. B. Say 1767-1820 

Madame DeStael.. .1767-1817 

Mickiewick 1798-1843 

Oehlenschlager. 1777-1850 

Fichte i7'>2-i8i4 

Pestalozzi 1746-1827 

Kriroff ~ 1768-1844 

Chateaubriand 1769-1848 

The Code Napoleon 1804 

Tieck _ 1773-1858 

Do Maistre 1754-1821 

FtrnquG i777~ 1 843 



Chamisso. ....... 1781-18 



Raak 1787-1814 



Arndt 1769-1864 



Korner . 1790-1813 



Arnim..... 1781-1S31 



Sismondi..... ...... 1773-^841 



Battina Brentano 1777-1842 



Varhagen Von Ease. .1785-1858 



Hegel — 1770-1S31 



Ncander 1789-1850 



*£ 



678 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 
Tab'e XIV. From A. D. 1800 to A. D. 1825. In Periods of Five Years. 



United States History. 



Am. Board Foreign Missions 
organized 181a 

Manufacture of Steel Pens com- 
menced - 1810 

First Agricultural Fair in U. S., 
at Georgetown, D. C 1810 

Battie of Tippecanoe. Defeat 
of Indians Dy Gen. Harrison. 1811 

Reparation madebyEnglandfor 
the attackonthe Chesapeake, 1811 

Additional force of 35,000 men 

authorized 1812 

DetacnmentofMilitianot exceed- 
ing 100,00a men authorized— 1812 

Qen. Henry Dearborn appoint- 
ed Commander-in-Chief 

War declared against Great 
Britain - ... — 1812 

Louisiana admitted 1812 

lieu. Hull invades Canada ...1812 
'■ surrenders to Gen. Brock 1812 

James Madison's 2d Presiden- 
tial Term 1813-1817 

Massacre of Americans by the 
Indians a I Kiver Raisin i3i3 

The Power Loom introduced 
into U. S -18M 

Oswego taken by British 1814 

Treaty of PeacesignedatGhent,i8i4 

Washington CityBurned by the 
British . 1814 

Hartford Convention. — 1814 

Jethro Wood patents Iron Plow,i8i4 



Other Countries. 



Insanity of the King, Eng 1810 

Tyrol subdued. Hofer 1810 

Annexation of Holland 1810 

Willing!. m at Tores Vedras 1810 

The Regency, Eng.- 1811 

Soult and Massena in Spain 1811 

Stein J757- ,8 3 I 

Invasion of Russia. Moscow burnt, 

1812 

Salamanca — 1812 

English Storm Cindad, Rodrigo, 

ami Badajos .. ... ... 1812 

Perceval sh 1 b] Bellingham 1S12 

Lord Liverpool, Premier 1S12 

Battle of l.i'ipsic 1813 

Lord Eldou. Chancellor, S117-1807-1827 

Battle of Vittoria 1813 

First Peace <.f Paris 1814 

Abdication at Fontainebleau 1814 

Louis XVIII.. Fr 1814 

Talleyrand, Fr — (1754-1838) 

3S of Vienna.- 1814 

Sib s Komilly (1757- '818) 



Treaty of Ghent ratified by 

Congress ... - 1815 

Congress declares War against 

Algiers .1815 

U. S. Bmk re-chartered for 20 

years _ 1816 

Indiana admitted 1816 

The Erie Canal 1817-1825 

James Monroe, 5th President, 

1758-1831 

ippi admitted ...1317 

Illinois admitted 1818 

Gen. Jackson defeats the Sem- 

inolesin Florida 1818 

U. s. FlagadopteJ by Law ...1818 
Foundation of New Capitol 

laid 1818 

Alabama admitted — 1819 

Lithography introduced into the 

is 1819 

Che Savannah, first Steam 
Packet crosses the Atlantic .1819 



English and American 
Literature. 



SHELLEY .792-1822 

William Roscoe 1753-1831 

Keats 1795-1821 

Moore i779- l8 5 2 

Jeffrey 1773-1850 

SirC. Bell 1774-1842 

J. Montgomery 1771-1854 

R. Heber 1783-1826 

Sidney Smith 1772-1845 

Leigh Hunt 1784-1859 

T. Hook 1788-1841 



Literature of other 
Countries. 



University of Berlin 1810 

C.Ritter ^79-1859 

Berzelius 1779-1848 

Gay Lussac ...1778-1856 



Thorwaldsen, A. and &'., 

1770-1844 



Schelling -.1775-1854 

Ugo Fosoolo 1778-1827 

Savigny 1779-1861 

NIEBUHR 1776-18J! 

Schopenhauer .1788-1860 



Napoleon returns from Elba and 

ico days -- 1815 

Battleof Waterloo 1815 

Norway united with Sweden 1815 

11. il\ Alliance -1815 

sen.n. I Peaceof Paris.— 1815 

United Netherlands '815 

Metternich (i773 _1 83°J 

Sir George Sherbroke, Governor 

Lower ('ana. la. 1816 

lilural and Weaver RiotB, 

ma ---- — 1816-1817 

Tli.' Family of Napoleon forever 

excluded from France 1816 

Howe's Trial and acquittal 1817 

Death of Princess Charlotte 1817 

Specie payments resumed. 1817 

Republics in South America. .1817-1830 

Francia iu Paraguay .- .1816-1840 

Bolivar in Bolivia ... — 1817-1830 
link, of Richmond, Governor of 

Lower Canada ...1818 

Peel's Currency Act 1819 

Parry's Voyages 1819 

George W.,j9ng 1762-1830 

\ 1. 1..1.1A burn 1819 



1825 



James Monroe's 2d Presiden- 
tial Election 1830 

e of the Missouri Com- 
promise 1820 

Florida Ceded to United States 
by Spain 1820 

Percussion Caps for Guns flrst 
used ...1820 

Mn:i" admitted 1820 

Stephen Decatur killed in a duel 

Barren — .1820 

Missouri admitted 1S21 

Gas first used for illuminating 
purposes ... — ._ 1822 

I'.u-loii iiicnrpurat.'d as aCity.iS22 

Independence of South Ameri- 
can Republics acknowledged 
by the U. S 1822 

Com Porter suppresses piracies 
in the W.st Indies 1823 

The Monroe Doctrine 1823 

Gen. La Fayette re-visits the 
U. S -- .1823 

Pius first made by Machinery. 1824 



A. Wilson, Am 1766-1813 

Waverley Published 1816 

Edmund Kean, .Irt.i70o-i833 

Hogg -1772-1835 

Professor Wilson 1785-1854 

Wilkie, Pt. 1785-1841 

Haydon, Pt..-- 1786-1846 

Joanna Baillie 1762-1851 

Motherwell .. - 1798.1835 

E. Elliott 1781-1849 

D. Ricardo 1772-1S23 

.1. C. i'alhoun. Am. 1782-1850 

Daniel Webster, Am., 

1782-1852 



Inquisition abolished in Spain — 1820 

rain Street Conspiracy, Eng 1820 

Trial of Queen Caroline 1820 

Death of Napoleon -1821 

Austria maintains Despotisms in 

Italy. 
Antagonism between the French 
and English Inhabitants Lower 

t anada ^22 

1 astlereagh's Suicide 1822 

" replaced by Canning. 1823 
First Mechanics' Institute, .Fny .1823 
Agitation about Test and Corpora- 
tion Acts, Eng ... 1823 

! 1 -Burmese War 1524 

Charles X 1624 

Welland Canal. Canada Charter..i824 

Brazil Independent 1825 

Greek War of Independence. .1822-1829 
Nicholas I., Russia — .1825-1855 



Heeren 1760-1842 

Pousckin, Jius. 1799-1837 

Lacordaire 1802-1861 

Lammenais 1782-1854 

Tcgner 1782-1846 

A. De Toccjueville . - 1805-1859 

Platen i79 6 - l8 35 

Uhland 1787-1862 

Paganini (Mus.) 1784-1840 

Beranger 1780-1857 

Xeander 1789-1850 



Lockhart 1794-1854 

Gait.. 1779-1839 

Wm. Etty,P* 1787-179S 

Mrs. Hemans 1793-183S 

Pollok 1799-1827 

Barham (Ingoldsby).i788-i845 
George Stephenson . .1781-1848 

Lingard 1771-1851 

Thomas Hood 1 799-1 84-, 

Chautrey, l.araiiiSf.1781-1841 
Davidson Sisters, J.m-1808-1838 

W. Wirt, Am .1772-1834 

Audubon," 1780-1S51 

J.Kent, " i7°3- l8 47 



HEINE 1800-1856 

Borne llmmermann) .1796-1840 

Jouflray 1796-1842 

Cousin 1792-1867 

GuizoT i7 8 7- l8 74 

Manzoni 1784-1873 

Lermontoff 1814-1840 

Boyle, H. (Stendhal). -1783-1842 

Turgenieff 1784-1845 

Silvio Pellico 1789-1854 

Rossini, Mus 1792-1868 

Malibran (Garcia) Act, 

1808-1836 



TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 679 

Table XV. From A. D 1825 to A. D. 1845. In Periods of Five Years. 



United States History. 



Other Countries. 



English and American 
Literature. 



Literature and Art of 
other Countries. 



1825 



J. Q. Adams, 6th President .i 7^7-1848 

Corner Stone Bunker Hill Monu- 
ment laid by Lafayette 1825 

Babcock makes first Piano 182s 

Convention with Great Britain con- 
cerning Indemnities 1826 

John Adams died _ 182 > 

Thomas Jefferson died 1826 

Duel between Henry Clay and John 
Randolph 1826 

Intense Anti-Masonic excitement . . 1826 

First Railroad in the IT. S., from 
Quincy to Boston 1S27 

Sand and Emery Paper first made i8j3 

Passage of Tariff Bill. Woolen 
Manufacturers protected 1S28 

Tariff Bill a law. Opposed by Cot- 
ton States -... 1828 

Andrew Jackson, 7th President, 

1767-1845 
opposes the project to re- 
charter Bank of U. S..1829 

Daniel Webster's great speech 
against nullification 1829 

Samuel Colt made his first Revolver, 

1829 



First Railway in England 1825 

Thames Tunnel. 1825 

Canning, Minister, Eng 1827 

Battle of Navarino 1827 

Palmerston, Foreign Secretary, 
Eng 1827 

O'ConnelPs Agitations in Ireland, 
182S 

Wellington, Prime Minister... 1828 
P-ace of Adrianople iSrq 

Contest between Dom Pedro 
and Prince Miguel in Portu- 
gal .1826-1834 

Catholic Emancipation, Eng~-iZsg 

First agitation for responsible 
government in Upper Canada, 

1829 



Sir William Hamilton, 

178S-1856 

Dr Chalmers 1786-1847 

L. E. Landon 1802-1838 

Miss Mitford ... 1787-1855 

Edward Irving 1 792-1834 

Sheridan Knowles.-.i784-i862 

Procter (Barry Cornwall 1, 

1 798-1 862 

De Quincky i7Ss-i8'K) 

Mac aula Y 1800-1859 

II. Hallam 1778-1859 

CARLYLE 1795-1881 

Story, Am. law 1779-1845 

Marshall, " i755" l8 35 

Emmons, Am. theol.. 1745-1840 



Donizetti, Mus 1798-1848 

Schubert, Mus 1797-1828 

Bellini, Mus 1806-1835 

Mendelssohn, Mus 1809-1847 
Meyerbeer, Mus... 1794-1864 

A. Scheffer, Pt 1795-1858 

Delaroche, Pt 1797-1852 

Augustin Thierry 1795-1856 

Balzac 1799-1850 

Comte 1798-1857 

Lenan — .1802-1850 



1830 



Treaty with Turkey -.1830 

The Mormon Church founded by 

Jos. Smith 1830 

Death of ex-President Monroe 1831 

Establishment of the Liberator... 1831 
First Mowing Machine patented .1831 
Chloroform discovered by Gustino. 1831 
Steam Knitting Machinery first 

used 1831 

Pres. Jackson vetoes the Bank 

Bill.— 1832 

New Tariff Measures passed 1S32 

Rubber Shoes fir^ t made 1832 

South Carolina Nullification Move- 
ment 1832 

First appearance of Asiatic Cholera, 

1832 

The Black Hawk War --1832 

State's Rights Doctrine dates from 1832 
President Jackson's Nullification 

Proclamation 1832 

Prof. Morse invents the Magnetic 

Telegraph 1832 

Removal of the Public Deposits 

from the Bank of the IT. S 1833 

Andrew Jackson's 2d Presidential 

Term -1833 

Tariff Controversy settled 1833 

The N. Y. Sun, first penny paper 

established — 1833 

First Double-Cylinder Press made. 1833 

Caloric engine invented 1833 

Gen. Thompson killed in Seminole 

War 1834 

Lucifer Matches first made in U. S . 1834 
Cyrus McCormick's Reaper patented, 
1834 



July Revolution in France 1830 

Lord Aylmer, Governor of Lower 
Canada --1830 

Charles X. abdicates in favor of 
Duke of Bordeaux —.1830 

Insurrection in Poland i830-i83( 
Louis Philippe, Fr. .. 1830-1848 

William \Y.,Eng 1830-1837 

Earl Grey's Ministry, Eng 1831 

Leopold, King of Belgians ...1831 
The Reform BUI, Eng. ..1830-1832 
Dutch thrown back on Holland, 

1832 
Imperial Duties surrendered to 

the Canadian Assembly 1832 

Russia takes remains of Poland, 

1832 
Otho of Bavaria, King of Greece, 

1832 
NeLrro Slavery abolished in 

British Colonies 1833 

Tus Zollverein, Ger 1834 

Trail- s-Union and Repeal Riots, 

Eng.. -- l8 34 

Lord Melbourne's Ministry, Eng., 

1834 
Don Carlos in Spain 1833-1840 

Quadruple Alliance --1S34 

Lord John Russell, Whig 

Leader, Eng 1834 

Maria Christina, Sp. 7 Regent, 

1833-1S40 
Lord Brougham, Whig Orator, 

1834 
Tractarian Movement, Eng., 

1833-1841 



Whately 1787-18^3 

P. F.Tytler 1791-1849 

Br. Arnold 1795-1S42 

Macready , Act 1 793-1873 

Sir F. Palgrave 1788-1&61 

Brougham 1778-1868 

Charles Napier 1786-1861 

William Napier 1785-1861 

Turner, Pt 1775-1851 

David Cos, Pt 1793-1S59 

Halleck, Am 1795-1867 

R. H. Dana, Am 1787-1870 

J. Picrpont " 1785-1866 

Percival, " -- -1795-1S56 



Arago 1786-1853 

Thiers 1797 

Lamartine 1790-1869 

3Iichelet 1798-1874 

Victor Hugo 1802-iS^f; 

Leopardi 1798-1837 

Giusti 1809-1850 

Becker -- 1816-1845 

F. Bremer... 1801-1865 

Oersted 1777-1851 

H. C. Andersen 1803-1875 

Lipsius 1818-1853 

Ewald 1803-1875 

J. B. Dumas, Fr 1800 



4- 



680 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 

Table XV. From A. D. 1825 to A. D. 1845. In Periods of Five Years. 



1835 



1840 



1845 



United States History. 



Great Fire in New York; 674 build- 
ings burned _ r835 

Seminole Indian War, under Osceola, 

1835 
Creek Indians in Georgia removed 
beyond the Mississippi 1835 

N. Y. HercUd founded by James G 
Bennett 1835 

The National Debt paid 1835 

Post and Patent Offices, Washing- 
ton, burned 1836 

Alpaca first made 1836 

Arkansas admitted 1836 

Electric Telegraph 1837 

Martin Van Buren, 8th President, 

1782-1862 

Independence of Texas acknowledged. 

■837 

Great Financial Crisis __ 1837 

Extra session of Congress called to 
devise relief 1837 

Riot at Alton, 111. Rev. E. P. Love- 
joy killed 1837 

The Mormons driven from Missouri, 
1838 

The Banks suspend specie payments, 
1830 

Goodyear invents Vulcanized Rubber, 
1839 



Log Cabin and Hard Cider i 'ampaign. 

1840 
Jerome manufactures Brass Clocks, 

1840 
William Henry Harrison, 9th 
President 1773-184 

President Harrison died in office . . 184 

N. Y. Tribune founded by Horace 
Greeley 184 

U. S. Bank failed, followed by 
banks generally 184 

Webster's Dictionary appeared. -.184 

Troubles with Canada 184 

All t"e members of Cabinet resign 
but Mr. Webster... 184 

John Tyler, Vice-President, be- 
comes President 184 

The Webster-Ashburton Treaty. . 1842 

Seminole War terminated 1842 

The "Dorr Rebellion," Rhode 
Island 1842 

Settlement of the N. B. Boundary 
question .184-2 

U. P. Upsher. Sec. of State, and 
T. W Gilmer killed by bursting 
of a gun on steamer Princeton .1843 

Fremont Explores the Rockv 
Mountains 1843 

First Patent for Fireproof Safe. ..1843 

First Telegraph — Washington to 
Baltimore 1844 



Other Countries 



The Jupineau party advocate 
Canadian separation from 
Great Britain 1835 



. 1 832- 1 848 



Mehemet Ali J 
Ibrahim Pasha \ 

Ecclesiastical Commission, Eng. y 
1836 

Louis Napoleon at Strasburg.i836 

VICTORIA 1837 

Ernest Augustus of Hanover. .1837 

Coereive measures of the British 
Parliament 1837 

House of Assembly, Lower 
Canada, refuses to transact 
business 1837 

Insurrection iu Canada.. 1837-1838 

Anti-Corn-Law League, Eng..i%-$% 

Lord Durham in Canada 1838 

Union of Upper and Lower 
Canada. Lord Sydenham, 
Governor 1839 



Clergy Reserve's question set- 
tled, Canada 1840 

Dea h of Lord Sydenham 1840 

Queen Victoria's Marriage 1840 

Penny Postage, Eng., established, 
1840 
Sir William Peel in power, 

1841-1846 
Opium War in China 1839-1842 

Afghan War in Cabul.... 1838-1842 

Louis Napoleon ac Boulogne.. 1840 

Espartero in Spain 1840-1843 

Abd-el-Kader 1835-184 7 

Frederick William IV 1840 

War in Sciude 1843 

Free-Church Secession 1843 

Isabella II. of Spain. .1843-1868 

Canadian Government removed 
to Montreal 1844 

Charles Albert, Sardinia. 1831-1849 
Trial of O' Conn ell, Ire 1844 



English and American 
Literature. 



I. Taylor 17S9-1S65 

J. H. Newman 1801 

E. B. Pusey 1800 

Keble 1792-1866 

A. W. Pugin, A. and S., 

1811-1852 

Isaac Taylor 1787-1865 

D. Jerrold 1803-1857 

Milmau 1791-1S68 

Thirl wall 1797-1875 

Grote 1 794-1871 

J. S. Mill 1806-1873 

J. F. Cooper, Am. novelist, 

1789-1851 

Mrs. Sedgwick, " 1789-1867 
Paulding, " 1778-1860 



T. M. Kemble 1807-1857 

Moxon tried for "Queen 
Mab 1 ' 1841 

Stanfield, Pt 1798-1867 

Changing ..1780-1842 

Miss Martineau 1801-1876 

Sir A. Alison 1790-1867 

J W.Donaldson 1811-1861 

Sir E. L. Bulwer 1805-1873 

E. B. Browning 1805-1861 

B. Disraeli 1805-1881 

W. E. Gladstone 1809 

Sir D.Brewster, £a. .1781-1868 

Faraday, " ._ 1791-1867 

Noah Webster. Am 1758-1843 

X. P. Willis, " .1806-1867 

1. P. Morris. " .1802-1864 

Burton, Act. t " .1804-1860 

Wood worth, " .1812-1859 

D.P.Thompson, '■ .1795-1868 

Mrs. Sigourney, " .1791-1865 



Literature and Art of 
other Countries. 



Montalembert .1810-1870 

A. Dumas (Pere) 1803 87 t 

Zschokke 1771- 1848 

Mme. Dudevant (George Sand), 
1804-1876 

Eugene Sue 1804-1857 

Lenancourt (Obermann)? 

Azeglio 1800-1866 

Quinet 1803-1875 

Chopin, Mus 1810-1849 

J. L. Grimm 1785-1863 

W. K. Grimm 1786-1859 



Dahlmann 178s 

Gervinus ,._. 1805-1871 

Verdi, Mus 1814 

Mdle. Grisi, Act 1812 

Rachel. Act 1821-1858 

Jenny Lind, Singer. 1821 

Strauss, Mus 1808-1874 

J. Bunsen 1791-1860 

Lappenberg 1 795- 1 865 

F. C. Schlosser -1861 

Ranke 1795 

Dctllinger 1799 

M. d'Aubigne 1794 1S72 



-ah- 



TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 68 1 

Table XVI. From A. D. 1845 to A. D- 1865. In Periods of Five Years. 



1845 



1850 



United States History. 



James K. Polk, nth President, 

r . , , . 1795-1S39 
Mexico declares war against the 
U. S. 1845 

Texas admitted 1845 

Thornton and party captured by 
Mexicans 1846 

Congress declares "War existed by 
the act of Mexico" ..1846 

Gun Cotton invented 1846 

Ether first used as an anGesthetiC-1846 

Iowa admitted. 1S46 

Elias Howe Sewing Machine patented, 

1846 

Oregon Dispute 1845-1846 

Smithsonian Institute founded... 1847 

American Army enters City of 
Mexico .,1847 

Treaty of Peace with Mexico 1848 

Wisconsin admitted 1848 

Gold first discovered in California. 1848 

Zachary Taylor, 12th President, 

1784-1850 

President Taylor forbids the fitting 
out of filibusting expeditions 
against Cuba 1849 

U.S. Gold Doll- T-i first ccined 1849 

The French Ambassador dismissed 
from Washington 1849 



Other Countries. 



Death of President Taylor 1850 

N. Y. Times established 1850 

Vice-President Fillmore be- 
comes President 1800-1874 

California admitted 1850 

Fugitive Slave Act passed 1850 

Treaty with England for a transit- 
way across Panama 1850 

Kossuth, a Hungarian patriot, 

arrives in New York -1851 

Congressional Library destroyed by 

fire '. 1851 

Dispute with England about the 

fisheries - 1852 

Death of Daniel Webster and Henry 

Clay 1852 

Expedition to Japan 1852 

First Street Railroad in New York 

City -1852 

First Steam Fire Engine used 1853 

Exploration for a Pacific Railroad. 1853 
Franklin Pierce, 14th President, 

1 804- 1 869 
Greytown. Central America, bom- 
barded for Spanish insult to U. S. 

Consul 1853 

World's Fair, or Crystal Palace, 

opened in New York 1853 

Dr. Kane sails for the Arctic Sea. .1853 
" Kansas-Nebraska Bill " passed.. 1854 

Treaty with Japan .. 1854 

Reciprocity Treaty with England. 1854 
Repeal of the Compromise of 1 820. . 1854 
Massachusetts Aid Society send out 

Settlers to Kansas 1854 

A. H. Reeder appointed Governor 
of Kansas - 1854 



Great Fire at Quebec 1845 

sir John Franklin's last voyage, 

1845 
Cobden and Bright flourish.. 1845 

Irish Famine 1840 

Austrians seize Cracow 1846 

Pius IX., Pp 1846 

Corn Laws abolished 1846 

Lord Elgin, Governor of Canada, 

1847 
Financial Panic in England... 1847 

Sikh Wars 1845-46. 1S48-49 

( affre Wars with England, 

1847-1848 
Rajah Brooke in Borneo 1847 

Joseph Story -1847 

3d French Revolution 1848 

2d French Republic 1848 

Louis Napoleon, President 1848 

Mazzini at Rome 1848 

Chartist Riots, Eng 1848 

Kossuth in Hungary 1848 

Smith, O'Brien and Mitchell.. 1848 

Battle of Novara — -1849 

Canadian Annexation agitated. 1849 

Great Riots in Montreal 1849 



English and American 
Literature. 



Palmerston, Prime Minister, 
Eng - 1850-1865 

Death of Peel 1850 

Coup d"Etat and Massacre at 
Paris 1851 

Gold discovered in Australia.. 1851 

Lord Derby, Conservative 
Leader, Eng.. 1851-1860 

Death of Wellington „_i852 

Geobertio in Italy (1801-1852) 

Aberdeen Ministry, £ , rt^.i852-i8s5 

Great Fire at Montreal 1852 

Manteuffel in Russia.. .(1805-1858) 

Burmese War with England. .1852 

Napoleon III .1852-1870 

Crimean War 1853-1856 

Russians cross the Pruth 1853 

Turkish Fleet at Sinope 1853 

Battles of Alma, Balaklava. 
Inkermanu 1854 

Siege of Sebastopol .1854-1855 



Mrs. Somerville 1780-1872 

Whewell 1 794-1866 

R. Murchison 1792-187 1 

C. Lyell i797" l8 75 

Hugh Miller 1802-1856 

Samuel Brown 181 7-1 856 

Sir J. Herschell 1792-1871 

R. Owen 1804 

J.P.Nichol 1804 

SirW.R. Hamilton.. 1805-1865 

Wm. Ctjxlen Bryant, Am., 

1784-1878 
Edward Everett, J.m.1794-1865 

Wm. H. Prcscott, '* .1796-1854 

George Bancroft, " .1800 

R. W. Emerson, " .1803-1882 

N. Hawthorne, " .1804-1864 

H. Powers, S 1805-1873 

L. M. Childs, Am 1802 

Mrs. Judson, " 1817-1854 

Washington Irving, Am., 

1783-1859 



Edgar A. Poe, Am. .1811-1849 

M. Stuart, " ^.1780-1852 

W.W. Story, " ..1819 

H. D.Thoreau, " ..1817-18^2 

J. R. Lowell. " ..1819 

F. E. Church, Pt 1826 

C. Darwin 1809-1882 

Sir C. Eastlake, /Y-.1793-1865 

Harriet Beecher Stowe, Am., 

1812 
A. Tennyson 1809 

T. Graham 1805-1869 

Charles Dickens . .1812-1870 

Wm. M. Thackeray. 1S11-18C3 

Bronte 1816-1855 

Mrs. Gaskell 1811-1865 

J. F. Ferrier 1808-1864 

Landseer, Pt 1 802-1873 

C. Merivale. 1808 

David Scott, Pt 1806-1849 



Literature and Art op 
other Countries. 



Liebig 1803-1873 



Helmholtz ...1821 



Discovery of Neptune 1846 



A. Herzen 1812-1870 



Schwanthaler, A. and S., 

1802-1848 



Rauch, A. and S 1777-1857 



Mommsen, Ger 1817 



Curtius, Ger 1814 



Overbeck, Pt 1789-18 



Kaulbach, Pt .1805-1874 



Jules Janin, Fr 1804-1874 



"71? 



v" 1 



■s, 


»-, 












.- « 


1 


1 


682 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND 


LITERATURE.— Continued. 


S 

> 


Table XVI. From A. D. 1845 to A. D. 1865. In Periods of Five Years. 






A.D. 
1855 


United States History. 


Other Countries. 


English and American 
Literature. 


Literature and Art of 
other Countries. 






Territorial Legislature of Kansas 


Death of Nicholas 1855 


W. E. Aytoun ... 


1813-1865 












meets at Shawnee 1855 










.1804-1869 








Free State men meet at Tnpcka. . . 1855 


Alexander II., Emperorof Russia, 


H. McCulloch, Pt 


1806-1867 












Anti-Slavery excitement in Kansas, 


1855 
















1855 


Russia grants Amnesty to Poles, 


E. M. Ward, Pt.. 


....1816 












Sioux Indians defeated by Gen. Howe, 


KS50 
















1855 




Philip Bailey 


— 1816 












Suspension Bridge over Niagara 


















President Pierce recognizes the Fili- 


Panama R. R. to Aspinwall 




1824-1S74 




-i 800-1 864 








buster Gen. Walker as President 




Alexander Smith. 


1830-1867 












of Nicaraugua 1856 


















Mr. Crampton, British Minister at 
Washington, dismissed... 1856 


Persian War 1856-1857 






Littrfe 


1801 
















Severe Fighting in Kansas 1856 


India> Mutiny, East Indies, 

1857-1858 


A. H. Clough.... 


1819-1861 












James Buchanan*, 15th President, 








.1803-1870 








1791 -1 868 


Government of India transfer- 


Norman Macleod 


1811-1873 










The Dred-Scott decision rendered 


red to Crown 1858 




















Sir G. C. Lewis.. 


1806-1863 












Troubles with the Mormons 1857 


Second Chinese War. TheCon- 








..i8i 3 -,883 








Great Financial Panic 1857 

Great religious revivals 1857 




I. D. Maurice 


1805-1871 


















Dispute with England respecting 


Conspiracv Bill. Volunteers, Eng., 


J. Hill Burton... 


1809 


R. Schumann, Mug. 


.1810-1856 








the right of completion of the 


1858 
















Atlantic Telegraph, 1858; Search, 

1S58 
Minnesota admitted. . . . TR58 


Cavour in Italy (1810-1861) 


Dr. J. Brown 


1810 














Robert Browning 


1812 




.1821 








Mount Vernon purchased by the 


















ladies _ 1858 


Solferino, Savoy and Nice to 


J Sparks. .1//; 














1 tREGON admitted 1859 








Rosa Bonheur, Pt 


..1822 








Oil first discovered at Titusville, Pa., 




Palfrey, " ... 


1706-1SS1 












1859 


Lord Palraerston resigns and 
















Alexander A. Stephens advocates a 


















Southern Confederacy 1859 






Millet,/* 


.1815-1875 









Prince of Wales visits the I*. S 1859 


Stanley, Secretary for India. 1859 


















\ 












i860 


1 809- 1 865 


< .ommercia] Treaty England 
















South Carolina passes Ordinance of 
















Secession .. i8fo 


















Cabinet Officers, U. S. Senators, 
and Members of Ci ingress from 




Froude 


1818 


Spectrum Analysis . 


.1861 








Southern States resign i860 


















New York Banks suspend Specie 


















Payment 1861 


William L, King of Prussia. .1861 
















Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, 
Georgia, Tennessee, Arkansas, 






18:7 




























North Carolina, Louisiana, and 


Victor Emanuel, King of ltalv-1861 
















Texas secede 1861 




Kinglake 


1811 


Geibel 


..1815 








Provisional Government of Con- 
















federate States adopted at Mont- 


Otuo expelled from Greece 1861 


G. H. Lewi- 


1817-1878 












Jeffekson Davis, President 1861 

Bombardment of Fort Sumter 1861 


Queen Victoria proclaims neu- 


.1. W. < iolenso . .. 


1814 












Virginia divided into two States 1861 


trality 1861 
















Call for 75,000 Volunteers 1861 

X011 intercourse Proclamation .- 1861 
General Scott res. gns Command of 


Napoleon III. proclaims neu- 




1817 




.1810-1876 






A. P, Stanley.... 


1815-1882 








Gen. George B. McClellan appoint- 


















ed Commander-in-Chief 1861 

The Trent affair . .-1861 


Confedrate Alabama sails from 


M. Arnold 






















President Lincoln calls for 300,000 


England 1862 


H. Buckle 


.. -.1822-1862 












more men 1862 


















Confederate Congress meets in Rich- 


Cotton Famine in England. 


M. Fuller, Am. 


1810-1850 




.1811-1878 








Kansas admitted .1862 


1862-1863 
















Proclamation of Emancipation 1862 

West Virgini \ admitted 1862 


George, King of Greece. 1663 


U Reed, 


.18c 8-1854 












1st U. S. Colored Regiment enrolled. 




i '. 1 len jamin, " . 


1809-1864 












1863 


Insurrection in Poland 1863 
















Anti-draft Riots in New "i orkCity-18 3 
Proclamation of Amnesty 1863 


-I. Q. Adams. " . 


. 1767-1848 


Freytag, Oer 


1 788-1861 








Draft of 5110,000 men ordered iS' 4 


French in Mexico » 1854 












Nevada admitted 1864 




T II Benton," - 


1782-18=8 












Gen. U. S Grant appointed Com- 
mander-in-Chief... _ 1864 


Schleswig-HolsteinWar 1864 




... 1785-1848 












President Lincoln calls for 200,000 


















Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 repealed, 




Silliman, " . 


-- -1779- ,s6 4 












1864 










..1823 


i 




1865 




Ionian Islands surrender 1864 


E. Hitchcock," . 


1703-1864 








^ 








to 






* 


r~ 












-» £ 


V 



M 



<2 **_ 



TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.-Continued. 6S3 
Table XVII. From A. D. 1865 to A. D. 1880. In Periods of Five Years. 



1865 



1870 



United States History. 

Gen. Lee surrenders 18*5 

President Lincoln assassinated 
by Wilkes Booth 1865 

Vice-Pres. Andrew Johnson 
becomes President 180S-1875 

Booth, the assassin, mortally 
wounded and captured 1865 

15th Amendment submitted. ..1S65 

Atlantic Cable successfully laid, 

1866 

The Freedmen's Bureau Bill, 
and Civil Rights Bill passed 
over President Johnson's 
veto 1866 

Nebraska admitted _ 1867 

Horace Greeley and others sign 
Jefferson Davis' bail bond.. 1867 

Alaska purchased from Russia. 18^7 

President Johnson impeached 
by the House and acquitted.. 1868 

Ulysses S. Grant, 18th Presi- 
dent 1869 

De.ith of Geo. Peabody (Phil- 
anthropist) --.1869 

Death of Gen. Robert E. Lee. .1870 

Congress repeals the Income Tax, 
1871 

Great Riot (Chinamen's) in San 
Francisco __ 1871 

Orange Riot (attacked by Catho- 
lics) in New York 1871 

The Great Chicago F1RE..-1871 

Great Forest Fires in Wiscon- 
sin and Michigan .1871 

W. M. Tweed and others ar- 
rested for fraud in New York 
City 1871 

Great earthquake and loss of 
life in California 1872 

The World's Peace Jubilee, 
Boston 1872 

The Groat Boston Fire ...1872 

Barnum's Museum destroyed 
by fire in New York 1872 

Settlement of the Alabama 
Claims .. 1872 

U. S. Troops defeated by Mo- 
doc Indians .. 1873 

Gen. Canby and Rev. Dr. 
Thomas murdered by Modoc 
Indians _._i873 

Failure of Jay Cooke & Co. 
and others 1873 

Capt Jack and other Modoc 
Indians executed ___i873 

Payment of the Geneva Award- 1873 

Death of Charles Sumner 1874 

Mill River (Mass.) Reservoir 
disaster 1874 

Kalakaua, King of Hawaiian 
Islands, visits the U. S 1874 



Other Countries. 



Gladstone in power.. 1865-1874 

Seven-Weeks War... 1866 

Battle of Sadowa 1866 

North German Confederation, 

1S66 

Venice falls to Italy 1866 

Lord Russell's Reform Bill, .E>i<7_.i866 

Fenianism in Ireland and United 
States 1867 

Mr. Disraeli's Reform Bill 1867 

Maximilian shot in Mexico 1867 

The Dominionof Canada formed. -1867 

Francis Joseph crowned at Pesth, 

1867 
Gladstone Ministry, Eng 1868 

Abyssinian Expedition 1868 

Isabella II. of Spain deposed 1868 

Dis-establishmentof Insn Church. 1869 

Manitoba joins the Dominion of 
Canada ... 1870 

Land Bill of Ireland ...1870 

Franco-Prussian War 1870-1871 

British Columbia joins Dominion 

of Canada --1871 

Napoleon surrenders Sedan 1870 

English Educational Bill 1870 

Paris, Metz, and Strasburg surren- 
der 187 1 

Meeting of the Alabama Claims 

Commission at Geneva 1871 

William I., Emperor of Germany 1871 

Rome the Capital of Italy 1871 

3d French Republic ...1871 

University Tests abolished, Eng-.iSji 
Army Purchase abolished. Eng .1871 

War in Cuba 1871 

The Ballot passed, Eng 1871 

Lord Dufferin Governor General of 

Canada - 1872 

Prince Edward Island joins Canada, 

1872 
The Jesuits expelled from Germany, 

1872 

Russia quarrels with Khiva 1872 

Scotch Educational Bill 1872 

Marshal McMahon, President of 

France. 1872 

France pays the War Indemnity to 

Germany 1873 

The German Stamp Tax 1873 

Irish Educational Bill fails __. 1S74 

Disraeli, Prime Minister 1874 

Amadeus. Spanish Republic. Don 

Carlos, Alphonso, Sp 1870-1S75 



American Literature. 

J. E. Worcester 1784-1865 

G. P. Marsh 1801-1882 

Albert Barnes 1798-1870 

II. W Longfellow. 1807-1882 

J G. Wihttier 1807 

W. D. Whitney 1827 

T. B. Read -.825-1872 

J. G. Saxe 1816 

F.Wayland 1796-1865 

Journalists: — 

G. D. Prentice 1802-1870 

Horace Greeley. i8ii-i£72 

H. J. Raymond 1820-1869 

Thurlow Weed 1797. 1882 

J. W. Forney 1S17-18S1 

J. G. Bennett 1795-1872 

J G. Holland 1819-1S81 

C. Anthon. 17^.7- 1867 

Halibnrton (Sam. Slick"), 

1802-1865 
Hildreth 1807-1865 

Rev. Dr. McClintock.1814-1870 
Mrs. Parton (Fanny Fern), 

1811-1870 
J. T. Field 1820-1881 

D. G. Mitchell (Ik Marvel), 

1822 

J. S. C. Abbott 1805-1877 

J. G Motley 1814-1877 

C. F. Browne (Artemus Ward), 

1834-1867 
Cary Sisters died 1871 

J. Parton 1822 

S. A. Allibone -.1816 

0, W. Holmes 1809 

E. P.Whipple 1819 

R. il. Stoddard 1825 

W.Whitman 1819 

T. W. Higginson 1823 

J. T. Trowbridge 1827 

John L. Morley ... .1S14-1S1S 
W. C. Tyler 1835 

I.'. '■ White 1822 1SS5 

J R. Lowell 1819 

R. H. Dana, Jr 1815-1882 

Bayard Taylor 1825-1878 

W. L. Garrison 1S05-1876 

Rev. Dr. Bushnell 1802-1876 

J. W. Draper 1811-1883 

Dr. Austin Flint 1812 

Son, 1836 
G. S. Millard... 1808-1879 

Rev. Dr. Hodge 1797-1878 



English and other Foreign 
Literature. 

J, P. Joule, Scientist. 1818 
J G. Stokes, " .1820 
W. Tyndall, " .1820 

Sir Wm. Thompson, 

Scientist. 1824 
T. H. Huxley, " .1825 

M. Taine,.Fr 1828 

E. Angier, " 1820 

T. Gautier," 1811-1872 

G. Dor£, " Art 1832-1883 

O. Feuillet, " 182a 

Dumas (Ml), Fr . 1824 

A. Trollope, novelist.. 1815-1883 

C. Reade " .. 1814-1884 

W. Collins, " --1824 

Mrs. Cross (George Eliot), 
novelist 1822-1881 

Mrs. Oliphant, novelist, 

1820-1857 
Mrs. L. Linton, novelist. 1822 

Herbert Spencer. ..1820 

Geo. MacDonald 1820 

Cousin, Fr., Phil 1792-1867 

Swinburne.—.- 1837 

Holman Hunt, Pt.. . .1827-1881 

D. G. Rossetti 1828-1882 

Millais, Pt 1829 

E. A. Freeman 1823 

J. Foster 18:2-1876 

Flaubert, Fr 1821 

Laboulay6 1811 

Castelar, Sp 1832 

H.V. Sybel, Ger 1817 

Hartmann, " 1821-1872 

M. Thierry, Fr., 7/^.-1797-1873 
Tulloch, Ger., Theol .1822 

M. Gl-izot, Fr 1787-1874 

Hans Christian Andersen, 
Dan 1805-1875 



1— 



85 



d£- 



684 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE. -Continued. 
Table XVII. From A. D. 1865 to A. D. 1880. In Periods of Five Years. 



1875 



1880 



United States History. 



East River spanned by an Ice Bridge, 

•875 
iooth Anniversary of the battles of 
' Concord and Lexington 1875 

Centennial Celebration of Banker 
Hill 1875 

Death of Vice-President Henry 
Wilson __._ 1875 

William B.Astor died.. 1875 

A. T. Stewart died 1876 

Dom Pedro, Emperor of Brazil, 
visits U. S ...1876 

Whisky Ring broken up 1875-1876 

Opening of Centennial Exhibition, 
Philadelphia 1876 

Gen. Custer and 311 IT. S. Troops 
slain by Sioux Indians, led by 
Sitting Bull 1876 

( lolorado admitted 1876 

First Wire of East River Bridge.. 1876 

Brooklyn Theater burned... 1876 

Ashtabula (Ohio) Railroad disaster, 

1876 
Death of Cornelius Vanderbilt 1877 

The Electoral Commission Bill passed, 
1877 
Electoral Commission Count declare 
the election of It. B. Haves 1877 

R-utherford B. Haves, 19th Presi- 
dent 1877 

Great Railroa 1 Strikes and Riots.. 1877 

Gen. Miles whips Nez Perces Indians, 

1877 
Extradition Treaty with Spain ...1877 

Wm. M. Tweed died 1878 

Win. Cullen Bryant died 1878 

Yellow Fever rages at Vicksburg, 
Memphis, etc 1878 

Gold at Par for the first time 
since 1862 1878 

Specie Payment resumed 1879 

Anti-Chinese Bill vetoed 1879 

Extra Session of Congress called . . 1879 

Proclamation warning settlers from 
the Indian Territory 1879 

Yellow Fever at Memphis --1879 

Relief ordered by U S. Government 
in ail of sufferers 1879 

Steam Yacht Jeannette sent out 
by James Gordon Bennett to dis- 
cover the N. W. passage 1879 

Arrival at San Francisco of Gen. 
Grant, homeward bound on his 
■2.M years' tour around Lhe World- 1879 

The French Transatlantic Cable 
landed 1879 

Refunding of Government Bonds 
into Bonds bearing 4 per rent 
interest completed, to the extent 
authorized by law. Amount re- 
funded, $1.395,3451950 1879 

Laws to Suppress Food Adultera- 
tion passed 1879 

Death of Zachariah Chandler 1879 

Great Exodus of Southern Ne- 
groes 1879 



Other Countries. 



Re-opening of the Eastern Ques- 
tion 1875 

Prince of Wales visits India.. .1875 

French Legislative Body re-or- 
gan ized 1875 

English Channel Tunnel Bill 

passed, FT 1875 

Japan Cedes Territory to Russia, 
1875 

Russia l oinjners Khiva 1876 

Meeting of New French Cham- 
bers __.i876 

England purchases the Suez 
Canal ..1870 

Victoria proclaimed Empress 
of India... 1876 

Disraeli elevated to the Peerage, 

1876 

New Marriage Law. Austria.. 1876 

The German the Official Lan- 
guage in Prussian Poland. _. 1876 

Deposition of Catholic Bishops 
in Germany 1876 

Russo-Turkish War 1877-1878 

England neutral in Russo-Turk- 
ish War 1877 

Death of M. Thiers 1877 

Marquis of Lome, Viceroy of 
Canada 1878 

Treaty of San Stefano and Berlin, 

1878 
Great Commercial depression 
in England 1878 

British- Afghanistan War 1878 

International Exposition at Paris, 
1878 

Marriage of King Alfonso, Sp. 1B7S 

Death of Victor Emanuel 1878 

Death of Pope Pius IX 1878 

Leo XIII. elected Pope 1878 

Austria occupies Bosnia 1878 

The Zulu War 1879 

M. Julius Grevy, President of 
France 1789 

Japan gains the Loochoo Islands, 

1879 
Religious awakening among 

the Brahmins, led by Brabmo 

Somaj 1879 

The Principality of Bulgaria 

created 1879 

Prince Imperial Killed by the 

Zulus 1879 

Glasgow Bank failure 1879 



American Literature. 

Bret Harte. 1837 

Joaquin Miller -1841 

W. D. Howells 1837 

Edward Eggleston 1837 

Miss Dodge (Gail Hamilton), 
1838 

W. T. Adams (Oliver Optics), 



Judge Tourgee, "Fool's Er- 
rand" - 



S. L. Clemens (Mark Twain), 

'835 

D. R. Locke (Petroleum V. 
Nasby 1833 

H. W. Shaw (Josh Billings), 

I8I8-1S85 

E. E. Dale 1822 

Miss Phelps, " Gates Ajar," 

1844 

T. B. Aldrich 1836 

W.Greene 181 1 

H. W. Beecher 1813 

Guyot -1807 

Clara Louise Kellogg, Singe?; 
1842 

Charles March 1825 

Thos. Nast, Caricaturist ..1840 

K. C. Stedman 1833 

C. D. Warner... 1829 

Henry James, Jr 1847 

A. Wiiichell 1824 

L. M. Alcott 1833 

Elihu Burritt .1810-1879 

Caleb Cuehing 1800-1879 

Wm. Lloyd Garrison. 1804-1879 
Mrs. S. J. Hale 1795-1879 



English and other Foreign 
Literature. 



Virchow, Ger 1821 

Messonier, Fr., Pt 1822 

Zeller, Fr., His 1820 

Auerbach, Ger 1812-1882 

Figuier, Fr 1819 

Oscar Wilde, Esthete 1857 

Du Bois Raymond, Ger 1818 

Ewald, Ger .1802-1875 

Flaubert, Fr 1821 

Cassagnac, Fr 1806 

Dudevant (George Sand), Fr., 

1804-1876 

Du Chaillu, Fr 1835 

Haeckel, Ger 1834 

Holse, Dan.. ::.n 

Victor Hugo, Fr n3oa 

Jacoby, Ger _i8o5-i°77 

Janauschek, Act 1830 

Pasteur, Fr., Chemist 1822 

Patti, Singe?; Spain 1843 

Reelus, Fr 1830 

Remusat, Fr 1797-1875 



Lord Lyttcn (Owen Meredith), 
1831 

Hepworth Dixon 1821-1879 

Rowland Hill Postal 

Reform 1795-1879 

B20Trx8on,Norwegian,iS^2~ 



George E. M. Ebers, 
Ger 1837- 



iu. 



TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.-Continued. 685 

Table XVIII. From A D. 1880 to 1883. 



1883 



United States History. 



National Republican Convention, held 
in Chicago, June 2-8, 1880 Gen. U. 
S. Grant and James G. Blaine chief 
candidates. James A. Garfield, of 
Ohio, nominated for President, and 
Chester A. Arthur, of New York, for 
Vice President. 

National Democratic Convention, held 
at Cincinnati, nominated General W. 
8 Hancock, of the regular army, for 
President, and W. H. English, of 
Indiana, for Vice-President, June 
24, 1880. 

John A. Sutler, discoverer gold, Cali- 
fornia, died Washington, D.C., June 
19 1880, aged 77 years. 

Election for Presidential Electors No- 
vember 2, 1880; 213 of those chosen 
Republicans; 156 Democrats. 

Kansas adopted Constitutional Amend- 
ment prohibiting all traffic in intox- 
icating drinks for a beverage. No- 
vember 2, 1880. 

Lucretia Mott, Philanthropist, died 
November 1 1, 1R80, aged 87 vears. 

Electoral College Vote counted by Con- 
gress February 9, 1S81. 

Three per cent. Funding Bill passed 
by Congrt-ss, March 2, 1881. 

President Garfield inaugurated March 

4, 1SS1. 
President Garfield shot by Guiteau at 

Washington July 2, 1881. 

Edmunds* Anti-Polygamy Bill passed; 
approved March 23, 1882. 

Guiteau found Guilty of Murder Janu- 
ary 25. sentenced" February 4, and 
hanged June 30, '882. 

Anti-Chinese Bill signed May 8, 1882, 
operative for ten years. 

Postal Service United States, self- 
sustaining fiscal year 1882. 

Grinnell, Iowa, devastated by a cyclone 
June 18, 1882. 

Mrs- Abraham Lincoln died at Spring- 
field, 111., July i*. 1882 aged 67 years. 

Iowa adopts Constitutional Amend- 
ment prohibiting liquor traffic by a 
majority of 29,751, June 27. 1882. 
afterwards declared invalid by the 
Supreme Court of the State. 

Trenor W. Park, President of the 
Panama Railroad, died December 
20, 1882. 

J.M. Sturtevant. for thirty years Super- 
intendent of the State School for the 
Blind in Tennessee, died December 
26, 1882. 

Civil Service Reform Bill passes 
the House without amendment, 
Jan. 1. 

Newhall House burned ;it Mil- 
waukee, Jan. 10, loss <>f life, 59. 

(i.virt lion.!- throughout the Ohio 
Valley in February, 50,000 people 
rendered homeless. 

Bill reducing the tariff and internal 
taxation enacted in February. 



Other Countries. 



II. Maria Alexandrovna, Empress 
of Russia, died June 3, 1880. 

Jesuits expelled from France July 
1, 1880 

General Gonzales electedPresident 
of Mt xico and an unsuccessful 
attempt to assassinate him made 
July 13, 1880. 

Adelaide Neilson, actress, died in 
Paris, August 15, 1880. 

Flogging in the British Navy 
abolished December 8, 1880. 

Sir Alexander Cockburn, Lord 
Chief Justice of the Queen's 
Bench, died November 20, 1880, 
aged 78 years. 

M. Auderwert, President-eh ct 
Swiss Confederation committed 
suicide December 25, 1880. 

Troops sent to the Irish farm of 
Captain Boycott to protect his 
potato harvesters, November 12, 



Chilian Army entered Lima, Peru, 
in triumph, January 17, 1881. 

Eugene J. Verboeckhaven, artii-t, 
died at Brussels, January 22, 
1881, aged 81 years. 

Alexander II, Czar of Russia, 
assassinated March 13, 1881. 

Opera House, Nice, burnt. One 
hundred lives lost, March 23,1880. 

Earthquake at Scio; seven thou- 
sand lives lost, April 3, 1880. 

Benjamin Disraeli, Lord Beacons- 
field, died, aged 77, April 19, 1881. 

Opera House, Vienna, Austria, 
burned December 8 1881. Loss 
uf life, 794 

Bradlaugh expelled from Ihe Bi tt- 
ish House of Commons, and the 
False Prophet appears in Khar- 
town February 22, 1882. 

Garabaldi died June 2, 1882, aged 
76 years. 

General Skobeloff died at Moscow 
July 6, 1882, aged 37 years. 

Egyptian War begun July, 1882, 
closed in September following. 

Rev Dr. Edward Pnsey, originator 
of the tractarian movement in the 
church of England, died Sep- 
tember 16, 1882, aged 82 years. 

Parliament adopts Gladstone's 
Cloture, November i, i8fc2. 

Destructive fire in London, de- 
stroying property to the value of 
$i5,ooo,o"o, December7, 1882. 

Steamer Cambria run into by 
the Sultan between Hamburg 
and Hanover, Jan. 19, loss of 
life 400. 

Terrible loss of life and proper- 
ty 63 inundationsof the Rhine 
and the Danube in January. 

Startling: explosion of dynamite 
near the house of Parliamenl 
created intense excitement, 
March 15. 



Eminent Americans. 



George William Curtis 1824 

Frank B.Goodrich 1826 

J. T. Ileadley 1814 

C. F. Hoffman 1806 

Charles Nordhoff 1830 

James Parton 1822 

Francis Parkman 1823 

David A. Welle 1828 

Philip Philips, Mus 1834 

Geo. Frederick Root, Mus. 1820 
John B. Eads, Engineer.. 1820 
A. L. Halley, Engineer ... 832 
Isaac Newton, Engineer.. 1838 



Peter Cooper, Philanthropist, 
1791-1883 



H. M. Stanley, Explorer.. 1840 

William Beach Lawrence, 
Legist 1799-1881 

Henry C. Carey, Economist, 

1794-1880 



Gilbert Haven, M. E. Bishop, 

1830-1S8J 



James Lenox, Philanthro- 
pist 1800-1880 

James T. Field, Publisher, 

1817-1881 

Alfred B. Street 1810-1S81 

Lydia Maria Child.. .1802-1880 

MrB.Estelle A. Lewiss, 182^-1880 

Robert S. Macenzie. Critic* 

1809-1881 

Jere S. Black 1810-1883 



Archbishop I'urcell, 

1800-1883 



J. Marion Sims. 1813 1883 



Alexander II. Stephens, 

1813-1883 



English and other Foreign 
Literature. 



Amari, It 1806 

Bodenstedt, Ger 1819 

Chabas. Fr 1817 

Frances Power Cobbe, Eng. 

1822 

Earnest Curtius, Ger 18 14 

Ernest Engel, Ger 1821 

Emil Erckmann, Fr 1822 

Giesbrecht, Ger 1814 

Rudolph Gollschell, Ger. .1823 

Leon Halevy, Fr 1832 

Philip Gilbert Hamerton, 

Eng... 1834 

Augustus Hare, Eng 1834 

Frederick Hauesaurek, Ger. 

1832 

Thomas Hughes, Eng 18 3 

Albert Jacqucmart, Fr . 181.8 
Edward Jenkins, Fng .. 1838 

W B Jerrold, Fng 1826 

Theo. Juste, Belgian 1818 

Pierre L. Lanfrey, Fr 1828 

Sir John Lubbock, Eng.. 1834 

Xavier Marmier, Fr 1809 

Jules Oppert, Ger ... ... 1825 

George Rawlinson, .£^---1810 
Sir H. C F. Rawlinson, Fng. 
18.5 

Ernest Renan, Fr... 1823 

Anninius Vamprey, Hun. 1832 
Martin Farquhar Tapper.. 18 10 

Trench, Eng .1807 

Von Bulow, Ger., Mvs... 1B30 
Franz Abt, Ger., Mus 1819 

Gounod, Fr , Mus 1818 

John Strauss. Ger., Mxis- 

1825-1883 
Ruberstein, Bus., Mus.. 1830 
Richard Wagner, Ger , Mus. 

18 13-1883 

Julius Renter, Ger .. 1815 

Thomas Landseer, Art. 

1 797- 1880 
Thomas Bell, Scientist. 

1 792 -1 880 
Emile de Gerardin, Fr., 

Journalist 1805-ir" 

Dean Stanley 1815-1 

Littre, Fr., Philologist, 

1800-1: 
Franz von Dingelstedt, 

Ger - 1813-1; 

Tom Taylor, Dramatist, 

1817-1: 
E. A. Sothern, Actor. 1827-1; 
Eugene J. Verboeckhaven, 

Artist 1800-ii 

William H. Ainsworth, 

1804-188 

M. Blanc. Fr., Critic. 1793-188 

Bishop Colenso, Eng., 

lsi-t-1883 



Prince Gortehakoff, Rs„, 

1798-1883 



John R. Green. Eng. 

his,, 1838-1883 



7;F=^ 



686 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE— Concluded. 



1883 



1884 



1885 



lsso 



United States History. 



The Brooklyn bridge formally 
opened May 24. 

Star Route trial resulting in acquit- 
tal, June 14. 

Great strike of telegraph opera- 
tors July 19. 

Northern Pacific E. R. formally 
opened September 8. 

U. S. Supreme Court set aside Civil 
Rights Act as Unconstitutional, 
October 15. 

Forty-eighth CongTess organized 
December 3, by electing John G. 
Carlisle of Kentucky, Speaker of 
the House. 

Validity of the Legal Tender Act 
reaffirmed by the Supreme Court 
March 3. 

Cincinnati riot, bum the Court 
house and kill 42 persona, March 
28 30. 

Failures of Grant and Ward for 
$1,600,000, May 6. 

Blaine and Logan nominated for 
President and Vice-President by 
the Republican National Conven- 
tion, June 2. 

July 10, National Democratic Con- 
vention nominated Cleveland and 
Hendricks for the same offices. 

July 24, the Prohibitionists at Pitts- 
burgh assembled, nominated Gov. 
J. P. St. John for President. 

The popular Election for President 
Nov. 4, resulted in the election of 
Cleveland and Hendricks. 

Congress reconvened December 1. 

Grover Cleveland resigns as Gov- 
ernor of New York January 6, 
and Lieut. Gov. Hill succeeds him. 

The Washington Monument, an 
Obelisk, 555 feet in height, dedi- 
cated at Washington January 1. 

March 4, Grover Cleveland inaug- 
urated President United States. 

The Anti-Polygamy Act held Con- 
stitutional by the Supreme Court 
U. S. March 23. 

Bartholdi's great Statute of " Lib- 
erty Enlightening the World," 
formally received at New York 
June 19. 

Grand funeral ceremonies over the 
burial of Gen. Grant, New York, 
Aug. 8. 

Five hundred Chinese miners in 
Wyoming attacked by a white 
mob Sept. 2, and 50 of them killed. 

Anarchist dots occurred in Chicago 
early in May. A dynamite bomb 
thrown intn tin ' police force at the 
Haymarket, and eight members 
of the force killed and over sixty 
wounded. The disseminators of 
anarchistic doctrines, eight in 
number, were arrested, tried and 
convicted of being accessory ti> 
the murders, and seven of them 
sentenced to be hanged. 

First session Forty-ninth Congress 
adjourned August 5. Total ap- 
propriations, $264,783,579. 



Other Countries. 



Italy resumed specie payment, 
suspended in 1866 in April. 

Great panic in Egypt over the 
cholera. Over 16,000 deaths 
during the summer at Alex- 
andria and vicinity. 

Earthquake at the Island of 
Isehia, near Naples; loss of 

lite 5,000. 

Parliament prorogued Aug. 25. 
Treaty of Peace between Chili 
and Peru October 20. 

The Protestant world cele- 
brated the 400th birthday of 
Martin Luther Nov. 10-11. 
1884. 

Massacre at Tonquin, China, of 
Christian missionaries and 
converts, February. 

Great alarm from dynamite 
explosions in London, May 30. 

Asiatic Cholera, France, loss of 
life, 5,7ns. 

The English Franchise Bill fail- 
ing, Parliament was pro- 
rogued August 12. 

The Cholera panic spread to 
Italy and causes 7,974 deaths. 

British Parliament reconvened 
October 21. 

Mr. Gladstone introduced Dec. 
1, his till giving the right of 
suffrage to 2,000,000 additional 
voters. 

The above bill passed the House 
of Lords December 5. 
1885. 

Great earthquake shocks in 
Malaga and Granada, Spain, 
January 1. Thousands killed 
and great destruction of 
property. 

Great dynamite explosion 
House of Parliament Jan. 
24. Twenty persons killed. 

French-Canadian r e belli o n , 
headed by Riel crushed, and 
Riel executed. Began Mch., 
execution Nov. 16. 

Trcatyof peace between France 
and China signed June 9. 

Princess Mercedes brought to 
the Spanish throne, aged five 
years, by the deata of her 
father, Alfonso XII., her 
mother, Christina, being 
regent. 

lS.SIi. 

Gladstone's bill for the relief of 
Ireland made public April 15, 
providing lor local self-gov- 
ernment, while maintaining 
imperial supremacy. Glad- 
stone's reform also provides 
for the purchase of the laud. 

British Parliament prorogued 
June 25, followed by a cam- 
paign on the Gladstone Irish 
reform policy, resulting in 
the defeat of the Liberals 
under Gladstone and the ele- 
vation of the Tories to power. 

Terrific volcanic eruptions at 
New Zealand in June. 

Belfast riots began Aug. 7, and 
continued several days. 

General election in France 
Aug. 1, resulting in Republi- 
can victories in a majority of 
the districts. 



Death of Notable 
Americans. 



Jan. 10, Lot M. Morrill, of 

Maine, Statesman, aged 65. 

At New York Feb. 9, Wil- 
liam E. Dodge, Pltilan- 
thropist, aged ,8. 

Ex-Gov. E. D. Morgan of 
New York, Feb. 14, aged 
72. 

Peter Cooper, founder of 

t 'oofier Institute , April 4, 

aged 92. 

1884, 
At Boston, Wendell Phil- 
lips, Abolitionist, Feb. 2, 
aged 73. 

Prof. A. H. Guyot. at 
Princeton, Feb. 8, aged 77. 

Judah P. Benjamin, Emin- 
ent Confederate and Law- 
yer, at Paris, May 7, aged 

At Nantucket, Mass., 
Charles O'Conor, Lawyer. 

At Philadelphia, Bishop 

Simpson, of the Metho- 
dist Church, June 18, aged 
74. 
At Linsdale, Pa., Mrs. Jane 
G. Swisshelm, July 22, 
aged 68. 

Robt. Hoe, at New York, 
Sept. "13, Inventor Hoe 
Press, aged 70. 

Rev. W. H. Channing, at 

London, Dec. 23, aged 74. 

1885. 

Mrs. Myra Clark Gaines, at 
New Orleans, Jan. 9, aged 
78. 

At Mankato, Minn., Schuy- 
ler Colfax, Ex-Speaker 
and Vie, I'reselent of the 
U. S., aged 62. 

Jacob Thompson, E.r-Sccre- 
tary of the Interior, at 

Memphis, Mch. 24, aged 74. 

At Mount McGregor, N.Y., 
lien. u. S. Grant, Julv23, 
aged 63. 

At New York, Oct. 10, John 
McCloskey, First Roman 
i Catholic Cardinal in Am- 
erica, aged 7o. 

Gen. Geo. n. McClellan, at 

Orange, N. Y., Oct. 29, 

aged 59. 
Vice-Prest. Hendricks, at 

Indianapolis, Nov. 25, 

aged 66. 

1886. 
Ex-Gov. Horatio Sevmour, 

at Itica, N. Y., Feb. 12, 

aged 76. 

Gen. W. S. Hancock, at Gov- 
ernor's Island, N.Y., Feb. 
9, aged 62. 

At Bloomington, 111., Hon. 
David Davis, June 26, 

aged 74. 
Aug. 4, at Greystone, on 

the Hudson, Samuel J. 

Tilden, Capitalist ana 

Politician, aged 72. 
John Kelly, Politician, at 

New Y"ork, June 1, aged 

64. 



Death of Notable 
Europeans 



At Paris, Gustave Dore, 
Artist, Jan. 23, aged 50. 

Richard Wagner, Musician, 
at Venice, Feb. 13, aged 70. 

At Paris, Jules Sardeau, 
Novelist, April 24, aged 72. 

Sept. 13, Ivan Turgenefl, 
Russian Novelist, aged 65. 

Comte de Chambord, last of 
the elder branch of Bour- 
bons, Fr., Aug. 24, aged 63. 
1884, 

Dr. Edward Lasker, German 
Liberal, at New York, aged 
55. 

Eugene Kouher, Fr. States- 
man, at Paris, Feb. 3, aged 
70. 

Count Todleben, Bus. Gen- 
eral, died July 13, aged 66. 

Prof. Karl R, Lepsins, Egypt- 
ologist, July 10, aged 71. 

At London, H. G. Bohn. 
Publisher, Aug. 22, aged 88. 

At London. Henry Fawcett, 
Postmaster General, aged 
51. 

1885. 

Edmond F. V. About, Novt I- 
ist, at Paris, Jan. 17, aged 
68. 

In Costa Rica, March 13. 
Gen. Fernandez, President 
of the Republic. 

Victor Hugo, Xoeelist, Poet 
and Patriot, at Paris, May 
22, aged 83. 

At Carlsbad, June 17, Field 
Marshal, Baron Von Mon- 
tueffel, aged 76. 

At Ramsgate, England, Sir 
Moses Montefiore, Hebrew 
Philanthropist, July 28, 
aged 100. 

At London, Lord Houghton, 
Poi t an, I Critic, August 11, 
aged 76. 

In England, Lord Shaftes- 
burv, Phiietnthropist, Oct. 
1, aged 84. 

At El Pardo, Spain, Nov. 25. 
Alfonso XII., King of 
Spain, aged 28. 
1886. 

At Berlin, Dr. Leopold Zanz, 
Hebrew Scholar, March 19, 
aged 92. 

At London, Sir Henry Tay- 
lor, Author, March 27, aged 
86. 

The Countess Chambord, 
died at Paris, March 25, 
aged 69. 

Archbishop French, better 
known as Dean French, 
thed at London March 28, 
aged 79. 

At Paris, July 8, Archbishop 
Guibert, aged 84. 

At Munich, July 21, Carl Von 
Piloty, Artist, aged 60. 

At Baireuth, Abbe List, Mu- 
sician, July 31. aged 75. 

At London, Sir Samuel Fer- 
guson, Scientist, August 6, 
aged 76. 

At Berlin, May 23, Leopold 
Von Rouke, Historian. 
aged 91. 



~7Ti 



_« 9 



THE PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 



6S< 



Showing their Population, Area, Religion, Government, Capital, Debt, Standing Army, Navy, Miles of Railroad, and Trade 

with the United States. 



Country. 



Chinese Empire. .. 

British Empire 

Russian Empire 

United States 

German Empire.... 
Austria- Hungary . . 

France 

Japan 

Great Britain & Ire- 
land ... 

Turkey 

Italy 

Spain 

Brazil 

Mexico 

Persia 

Morocco 

Siam 

Roumania 

Belgium 

Egypt 

Portugal 

Norway & Sweden. 

Canada 

Holland or Nether- 
lands 

Abyssinia 

Columbia 

Madagascar 

Switzerland 

Peru 

Chili 

Denmark 

Norway 

Venezuela 

Bolivia 

Argentine Republic 

Servia 

Greece 

Guatemala 

Ecuador 

Hayti 

Liberia 

San Salvador 

Uruguay 

Nicaragua 

Paraguay 

Honduias 

Costa Rica 

San Domingo 

Hawaii 



Popula- 
tion. 



433,000,000 
237-39', 7SS 
86,952,34; 

50,155,7^3 
42,727,260 

37,700,000 
36,005,738 
35.35S.994 

34, 160,000 
31,669,147 

27-769,475 
10,835,506 
9.930,47S 
9,276,079 
6,500,000 

600,000 

5,700,000 
5,376,000 
5,336, 1S5 
5,250,000 
4.44", 03'. 
4,429,713 
3,602,32' 

3-579,529 
3,000,000 
2,951,211 
2,000,000 

2,77 6 ,035 
2,699,045 

2,375,971 
1,912,142 
1,806,900 
i,7S4,i 9 7 

J . 742,352 

1,715,681 

1,720,270 

M57-S94 

*, i9o,754 

1,100,000 

1,000,000 

1,000,000 

600,000 

455,000 

300,000 

221,000 

351,700 

185,000 

150.000 

60,000 



<» 



3,924,627 
7.788,347 

8,404,707 

3,026,504 

208,744 

240,940 

156,604 
121,230 

S6o,562 
1 14,406 
'95,775 
3,2S»,no 
761,640 
645,000 

260,000 

310,000 
49,26, 

■'•373 

212,600 

35,S'2 

170,980 

3,4S3,95 2 

i2,6So 
i5$,ooo 
432,400 
225,570 

'5,991 

502,760 

130,977 

H.553 

I22,2>>0 
368,235 

500,870 

871,000 

iS, 7 S 7 

19.94 
40,77s 

2lS,9§4 
29,000 
25,000 

9,500 

70,000 
49,000 
57,2-M 
47.°92 
21,495 
20,000 
7,600 



sS 



— 3 
a- 



bflrt 






270, <■»■"* ' 

286,450 
768,427 

25,000 
4>9,73S 
292,166 
502,697 

7S,5'2 

135.452 
459,36o 
I 99,5l I , 
151,668 
16,055 
21,136 
30,000 

20,000 

none 
iS,ooo 
46.3S3 
14,000 
62,920 
36,495 
3,000 

6i,So3 

2,600 

106,102 
13,200 
3,500 
^■7°3 
iS.ooo 
5-494 
4,025 
8,283 
14,150 
"2,397 
3,200 
1,200 
6,S2S 

1,000 
4,060 
6,000 
2,000 
1,500 
900 
4,000 
none 



^ in 
w 

X = 



3S 

53' 
223 
140 
, 74 

45 
492 

'7 

222 
170 
Si 
13S 
63 
4 
none 



'4 
34 
42 

7 
105 
none 

none 
iS 
12 
33 
3 3 

none 

37 
28 

none 
21 

none 
3 



none 

3 
none 
none 
none 
none 

5 
none 






26,oSS 
12,945 

17,717 

1 1,,. 1 JO 

u,ioS 

14,100 

67 

17,092 
1,200 
5,000 
4,112 
i,VM 
403 

none 

none 

none 
791 
2,300 
1,163 
709 
3,05 
4,929 

1,262 

42 

1,500 
744 
977 
S19 
5'o 
39 
none 
1,466 

7 

none 

75 



none 
340 

none 
47 
56 
29 

none 

none 



National 
Debt, 

1SS3. 



51,100,000 
1,765,673,4: _ 
4-3 '4,607,599 
'-55 I -09',2o7 

1.349,728,232 

1,107,978,11s 

4, '-83,840,000 

311,294,347 

3,Si4,5go,ooo 

532,186,170 

2,042,000,000 

1,826,613,093 

409,866,550 

144'°/^' S 5 
N o debt, 

3,^jo,ooo 

No debt. 
125,727,822 
34 1 -9 17-662 
5 2 9.353- '50 
430,879,399 
90,757,292 
i99,&6i,537 

370,523,380 

19,971,219 

7,389,409 
241,650,000 
85,762,664 

43,331.657 
27,384,000 
67,309-990 
i7,42S,673 

107,'^] ,' \<;, 
20,248,090 
97,231,480 
3,S77,3S4 
11,450,000 
548,022 

No debt. 



47,861,042 
251,000,000 



299,200 



Capita!.. 



Pekin 

London: 

St. Petersburg. 
Washington . . 

Berlin 

Vienna 

Paris 

Tokio 



London 

Constantinople 

Rome 

Madrid 

Riode Janerio. 

Mexico 

Teheran 

J Morocco 

/Fez-Mequinez 
Bangkok. ... 
Bucharest.. . 
Brussels .... 

■Jairo 

Lisbon 

Stockholm . . 
Ottawa 



Amsterdam 

Magdala 

Bogota 

Antananarivo , 

Berne 

Lima 

Santiago 

Copenhagen . . . 

Christiana 

Caraccas 

Chuquissca .. 
Buenos Ayres.. 

Belgrade 

Athens 

G atemala 

Quito 

Port an Prince, 

Monrovia 

San Salvador .. 

Montevidio 

Nicaragua 

Assumption,. . . 
Comavagua. . . . 

San Jose 

San Domingo. . 
Honolulu 



Prevailing 

Religion. 



Buddhic 

Protestant 
Greek Church. 
Protestant .... 
Protestant 

Catholic 

Catholic 

Buddhic 

Protestant . . . . 
Mahomedan . . 

Catholic , 

Catholic 

Catholic 

Catholic 

Mahomedan . . 

Mahomedan . . . 

Buddhic , 

Greek Church., 

Catholic 

Mahomedan . . 

Catholic 

Protestant 

Protestant 

Protestant 

Coptic Chris'ns, 
Catholic 

Protestant 

Catholic 

Catholic 

Protestant 

Protestant 

Catholic 

Catholic 

Catholic 

Catholic 

Greek Church. . 

Catholic 

Catholic 

Catholic 

Protestant 

Catholic 

Catholic 

Catholic 

Catholic 

Catholic 

Catholic 

St. Catholic 

Protestant 



Government. 



Monarchy . . . 
Monarchy ... 
Monarchy . . . 
Republic .... 

Empire* 

Monarchy . . . 
Republic 
Monarchy . . . 

Monarchy . . . 
Monarchy ... 
Monarchy. . . . 
Monarchy - . . 
Monarchy. .. 
Republic .. .. 
Monarchy . . . 

Monarchy ... 

Monarchy .. . 
Monarchy ... 

Monarchy . . . 

Monarchy. .. . 
Confederation 
Colony 

Monarchy . .. 
Monarchy ... 
Republic 
Monarchy . , . 

Republic , 

Republic , 

Republic 

Monarchy 
Confederation, 

Republic , 

Republic 

Republic 

Monarchy 
Monarchy 

Republic , 

Republic 

Republic 

Republic 

Republic 

Republic. 

Republic 

Republic .... 

Republic 

Republic 

Republic .... 
Monarchy 



U. S. Commerce 

with 

Foreign Countries 

1SS2. 
Imports. Exports. 



20,214,341 

See note 
2,566,021 

56,368,542 
z,444»Si2 

SVv.-7/Of 

H.439-495 

i95-5SS,692 

2,678,431 

12,1 14,221 

t94,750,566 
48,801,878 
8,461,899 

none 



none 
none 

20,< ■>■,,<■ ■*'■-■ 

See 

1,141,884 

1,639,972 

5', i'3.475 

8,165,72s 

4,961,470 
none 

3,029,676 

1,810.487 

B 033,401 

See N'w'y 

5,746,3oo 

5,234,914 
none 
899,561 
See note 
See note 
4»445»9°7 
83,885 
See note 
6,837,736 
See note 
S-^ note 
See note 
See note 

6 57>5°9 
7,646,204 



5.89S.9 I 
oee note 

■i,573,77S 

54.228,953 
2,295,702 

50,010,818 
2,540,664 

40S,347,i55 
2,585,250 
9,076,297 
48,535,957 
9,152,562 
'5,482,583 
none 



none 
25,107,013 
Turkey. 
4,589,77" 

i,7«,79> 
38,569,822 

i3,737,S23 

6,408,346 

none 

544,Si9 

1,774,045 

. 4,594,299 

& Sweden 

2,i7S,i85 

2,964,253 
none 

349,467 

See note 
See note 

4,159,608 
197,504 
See note 

••555.488 
See note 
See note 
See note 
See note 
803,315 

3,350.775 



Note. — Trade with the British Possessions, Great Britain and Ireland excluded, was — Imports, 33, 787,285; Exports, 26,932,857. With South 
American Ports not given above — Exports, 92,747. With the Central American States — consisting of San Salvador, Nicaragua, Honduras, 
Guatemala, and Costa Rica— Imports, 4,735,39s; Exports, 1,644,013. *The Empire forms a Customs League named " Zollverein. |The greater 
part of this trade is with Cuba. $A Province of Turkey, yet practically independent. IBritish India, deludes Germany, Prussia, etc. 



THE COMMERCE OF THE WORLD. 



The following table shows a Comparison of the Commerce, Population, Annual Imports and Exports of the several Geographical 

Divisions of the World for 1882— the latest published statistics. 

The following shows the variations in total imports and 
exports of all the countries of the world from 1S67 to 1S76: 



Europe 

America..., 

Asia 

Australasia . 
Africa 



Total. 



49 



Population. 



289,000,000 
84,840,000 

806,700,000 

1,800,000 

80,000,000 



1,262,340,000 



Commerce. 



$11,133,806,600 

2,413,054,600 

1,024,495,703 

4S1.037.165 

302,506,229 



$6,153,051,000 

1,171,906,500 

490,017,440 

229,851,325 

162,011,099 



$'5^354.900.297 $S,2o6,S37,364 



Exports. 



- 
1,241, - 
53+.47S.263 

251,185,840 
140,495,130; 



$7,148,062,933 



1S67-6S. 
1S69-70. 
1872-73. 

1874-75. 
1876.... 
1882.... 



Annual 
Imports. 



$5,S2S,6oo,ooo 
6,081,400,000 
7,772,000,000 
7,251,400,000 
7.474-400,000 
8,206,837.364 



Annual 
Exports. 



§5,225,000,000 
5,503,600,000 
6,669,200,000 
1 00,000 
6,526,000,000 
7,148.062,933 



These figures carry with them their own importance. 



- — »Jv' 



\ 



±^ 



688 



INDUSTRIES AND MONEY OF ALL NATIONS. 



INDUSTRIES OF NATIONS, IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS, IN 1870 AND 1880. 



Great Britain 

United States 

France 

Germany 

Russia 

Austria 

Italy 

Spain 

Belgium 

HollanJ 

Sweden and Norway 

Denmark 

Portugal 

Turkey, etc 

Australia 

Canada 

South America 

South Africa 

The World.. 



Comn 



S70 1SS0 



2661 

S37 
1211 

13H 
535 
4°4 

3<5° 

>S" 
3" 
3-15 
'3' 
73 
49 
4"4 
277 
161 
41. 1 
39 



077 



34*7 

146+ 

1615 

1S6S 

929 

6S1 

467 

'Ss 

501 

535 

'75 

92 

63 
306 

433 

.70 

433 

S3 



Manufactures, 



1S70 1SS0 



3'23 
33 >S 
2136 
■ 6 59 
997 
S90 

5oi 
375 
355 
iSd 

■75 
6S 

49 
3&> 

44 
170 



37** 
4320 
2360 
2077 
1114 
1002 

559 
428 

4H 
204 

195 
SS 
54 

3 2 i 
63 

224 

107 
'5 



'7333 



Mining:. 



1S70 1SS0 



224 
■SS 

44 
68 
39 

24 
10 

24 
29 



7t; 



3>6 
35o 

ss 

102 

54 
34 
10 

34 
39 



39 
'9 



Agriculture. 



1S70 1SS0 



1265 

2019 

2004 

1508 

1703 

1168 

63a 

462 

■«5 

'99 

229 

122 

1 12 

25S 

170 

24S 

340 

H 



iif>S 

2554 
1946 

1654 
1S00 
1280 
7°5 
53o 
170 
224 
253 
'3' 
122 
180 

253 
292 
3S9 
34 



136SS 



Carrying 
Trade etc. 



1S70 



544 

642 

204 

204 

'36 

7? 

54 

34 

34 

'9 

44 

5 

3 

'5 

5 

24 
'5 



783 
S08 
302 

33° 
214 

11S 
73 
5S 
39 
24 
73 
10 

5 
29 

'5 
44 
29 



2960 



Banking. 



1870 



3S9 
■95 
146 
122 
5S 
68 
24 
10 

'5 
63 
'5 

5 
5 
'5 
24 



11S3 



1S80 



525 
253 
'65 
136 
73 
S3 
29 
'5 
'5 
6S 

'5 
5 
5 
'5 
49 
'9 
24 



Total. 



1S70 



S206 
7'9" 

5745 
4S75 
3.6S 
2632 
.58. 
■056 
°°9 
S06 
604 

273 
21S 
10S1 
S64 
6.3 
9to 
S3 



40S20 



10047 
9749 
6446 

°'73 
41S4 

3'9S 
'843 
1250 
1 178 
'055 
72' 
326 

249 

85' 
842 

749 
1026 

'5' 



5003S 



Increase. 



184 1 

2553 

7°l 

129S 

716 

566 
262 
'94 
269 
249 
"7 
53 
3' 

27S 
'36 
116 
6S 



044s 



Note.— The average production of human industry per head is $100, an increase of 12 per cent, since 1S70. 



MONEY OF ALL NATIONS COMPARED WITH POPULATION AND TRADE. 



United States 

Great Britain 

France , 

Germany. -. 

Russia 

Austria , 

Italy 

Spain and Portugal.. . 

Holland 

Belgium 

Norway and Sweden. 

Swi zerland 

Greece, Turkey, etc . . , 

South America 

Australia 

C.inada , 

Japan 



S.5Q 

p. t.° 



1S70 iSSo 



<j86 

■99 

345 
219 
569 
■95 
253 
39 
54 
44 
39 
5 

24 

'75 

'5 



642 

219 

438 

204 

S66 

3" 

3"> 

73 

73 

63 

44 

20 

1C7 

326 



207 
116 
63 
34 
'9 
'9 
5 
'5 
83 
'5' 
5 
'9 



o2i 



_ u 

< 



375 
6oj 

7'S 

321 

107 

44 

39 

■95 

'9 

i°7 

44 

5S 

5 

'5 

44 

5 

5 



U u 



> — 



'5' 

93 

4'4 

209 

5S 
29 
49 
83 

s-> 
63 

10 
34 

5 
44 
5 
5 
4 



a) ^jz 



1 168 

9'S 

1567 

734 
1 03 1 
a 8 4 
404 
35' 
'SO 
233 
9S 
1 12 

"7 
3S5 
69 
49 
'36 



■-2 



10.-6 

zo. ii 

..°.4 

11.68 

2.19 

1.0S 

3 I" 

13.86 

'9 46 

30.S9 

6.32 

33-oS 

•49 

2.19 

'7-27 
2.19 



The World 2SS1 3SSS 1066 2701 1314 7903 S.76 S.51 17.27 30 to 100 29toioo 59 to 100 16 to 100 



12.S9 
6.32 

11.9s 
4.62 

10.95 
7-79 

10.95 

3-«S 
18.25 

"•43 
5.10 
6.81 
4.86 

12.40 
7.30 
9.25 
2.65 



■3.9 ■ 

i) u C 

o. o rt 
w &. - 

— u 



23-35 
26.51 
42.32 
16.30 

'3- '4 

9-74 

'4-35 

'7-5' 

37-7' 

42-32 

11.42 

39-S9 

5-35 

■4-59 

24.57 

11.44 

2.65 



.2 E 
S.(J 



36 to 100 

21 " 

71 " 
2S " 

iS " 



124 

'5 
34 
iS 

4 
'3 



•b e 

ao 

0- 



44 to 100 
7 " 



40 

74 

4 

24 



Total. 



So to 100 
2S " 



56 
91 
'57 
29 

47 
33 

44 
S7 
'4 
30 



i< 



12 to 100 

9 " 

24 " 

12 " 

24 ■' 

12 " 

22 " 

30 " 

'5 " 

21 " 

9 " 

■4 " 

32 " 

7 •'■ 

6 " 



Note. — The estimates of gold and silver coin are mainly from the Washing-ton Mint Report. India is not included; say about 5S4 million 
dollars of silver, 49 of gold and 5S of pa-ier. 



THE ART OF WAR — CAPITAL AND EARNINGS OF NATIONS. 



6S9 



THE ART OF WAR. 
Increase or Decrease of Armaments since 1869, 



Countries. 



United States 

Great Britain 

France 

Germany 

Russia 

Austria 

Italy 

Spain 

Holland 

Belgium 

Denmark 

Sweden and Norway 

Portugal 

Turkey 

Greece 

Brazil 

The World 



Cost of Army, 
ooo's are supVd. 


Cost 
0O0*S su 


Navy, 
■jpressed 


Total E 
ooo's su 


xp'd't're 
-.pressed 


Total 
Force 
in :S69. 


Total 
Force, 
1SS0. 


Rano to 
Popula'n. 


1S69 


iSSo 


1S69 


1SS0 


1869 


1SS0 


1S69 


1SS0 


77.S4<> 


3S.Q20 


19,460 


13,622 


97.300 


52.542 


64,000 


33,ooo 


0.17 


0.07 


7 2 ,975 


75,849 


55.661 


50,596 


128,636 


1 26,400 


263,700 


258,000 


0.S7 


0.74 


82,705 


100,403 


3S 920 


30,650 


121,625 


140,113 


493,000 


523,000 


1.30 


1. 41 


5S,3So 


85,138 


4 379 


14,109 


62,759 


99.247 


3So,ooo 


448,000 


r.oo 


1. 01 


87.570 


141, 0S5 


17,02s 


20,94,7 


104,59S 


162,032 


876,000 


S3 5, 000 


1.19 


1.04 


46,218 


60,326 


4.379 


3.892 


50,597 


64,21s 


283,000 


298,000 


0.S1 


0.78 


30,163 


42,Sl2 


6.32S 


10,703 


i6,4SS 


53.515 


199,000 


216,000 


0.76 


77 


20,433 


23,839 


5.S3S 


5.352 


26,271 


29.191 


174,000 


120,000 


1.0S 


0.80 


5.S3S 


9.730 


6.325 


5.333 


12,163 


•5.S6S 


$2,000 


S6,ooo 


2-34 


2.15 


6,Su 


9,244 








6,811 


9,224 


73,000 


46,000 


1 46 


0.81 


1,946 


2.433 


973 


1,460 


2,919 


3.S9S 


44,000 


40,000 


2 5c 


2.03 


3.4o6 


6,Su 


1,460 


1,046 


4.S66 


S.7.S7 


60,000 


62,000 


1 .00 


0.95 


3.4o6 


3.892 


1,460 


1,460 


4,866 


5.352 


26,000 


34,000 


0.65 


So 


iS.ooi 


9,730 


4.865 


2,433 


22.S66 


12,163 


iSS.ooo 


103,000 


1.70 


2. 10 


973 


1,46b 


4S7 


4S7 


1.460 


1.947 


9,000 


24,000 


0.60 


'■5o 


7.293 


7.29S 


3,892 

171.452 


4.S65 
.6S.360 


1 1,190 


12,163 


7,200 


21,000 


0.S0 

0.93 


0.21 


523.963 


62*3,075 


695.415 


796,435 


3,291700 


3147000 


0.76 



CAPITAL, OR WEALTH OF NATIONS. 



Countries. 



Great Britain 

France 

United States 

Germany 

Russia 

Austria 

Italy 

Holland 

Belgium 

Spain 

Portugal 

Sweden and Norway, 

Denmark.. ., 

Turkey, Greece, etc.. 

Australia ... 

Canada 

South Africa 

South America 



Million Doll 
ars. 



1S70 



40,428 
34.649 
30,747 
26,028 
16,006 

13,76s 
8,514 
5.254 
4,379 
6,033 

I,2-| I 

3-371 
i,6S4 
3,648 
1,683 
2,549 
345 
4.379 



Thf. World 204,676226,313 21,637 



43,590 
36,0*4 
38,336 

29.555 
17.222 

■4,838 

9.049 
5.497 
4,573 
6,6So 

1,323 
3,590 
1,703 
3,697 
' 2,3S + 
3,094 
477 
4,621 



3.162 

1,435 

7.5S9 

3.527* 

1,216 

i,o7ot 

535 

243 

194 

"47 

S2 

219 
49 
49 

701 

545 
132 
242 



Ratio per 
Inhabitant. 



1S70 



■?1,2S 4 
910 
79S 

6S6 
214 
iSi 
321 
1,474 
866 
37o 
3H 
560 
924 
■5' 
924 
67, 
3S9 
175 



1SS0 



$1,265 
97S 
7"9 
657 
214 

379 

316 

i,377 

8,7 

399 
316 
550 
S66 

■5i 
837 
720 
350 
180 



545 $ 550 S 496 



Ratio free 
of National 
Debt. 



1870 



$1,158 
847 
735 
667 
200 
336 
253 
1,362 

837 
287 
23S 
555 
890 

127 
S27 

7S2 
379 
146 



1SS0 



■.■S3 

87S 
730 
632 
175 
326 
229 

1,275 
759 
24S 
219 
535 
S42 
92 
6S1 
6S1 
3-6 

IOO 



♦Including $1,362,000,000 for Alsace and Lorraine. 
575,000 for Bosnia. 



tlncluding $267,- 



EARNINGS OR INCOME OF NATIONS/ 



Countries. 



United States 

Great Britain 

France 

Germany 

Russia 

Austria 

Italy... 

Spain 

Belgium 

nolland 

Sweden and Norway 

Denmark 

Portugal 

Turkey, Greece, etc. 

Australia 

Canada 

South Africa 

South America 

The World 



Million 

Dollars 



5,167 

4.675 

3.834 

3.(15 

2,754 

1,961 

1,134 

774 

491 

433 

433 

■85 

156 

457 

307 

457 

63 

So; 



1SV0 



7.327 
5,624 

4.5!0 

4,140 

3.07S 

2,238 

1,226 

005 

574 

506 

5ii 

214 

170 

4c..- 

433 

574 

S8 

920 



7,499 13.4.39 



2,160 

949 
676 

725 
321 
277 
92 
131 
83 
73 
7? 
29 
■4 

1 2'. 

■■7 
25 
"7 



Ratio per 

Inhabitant. 



1S70 



S134.1S 

14S5S 
100. S6 
9001 
38.34 
54-44 
42.S5 
46.99 

97 79 
"3-67 

72.16 
107.0S 
39.00 
20.6S 

163.33 
121.95 

70-54 
32.62 



5.939 8 70 



{.135-82 
163.01 
112.14 
91.10 
38.43 
57-32 

43-21 
54-86 

102. 9S 

126.77 
7S.59 

102.52 
39-o8 
19.46 

151.30 

1.34.72 
65.20 

37 34 



Ditto free 

ot Taxes. 



$116.23 
129.11 
85-66 
S1.S5 
32.51 
45-49 
30.67 
36.85 
86.72 
107.74 
66.95 
97-34 
31-94 
17.64 
141. Si 
113.S4 
65.2S 
25-3S 



7^-35 $ 62.15 $ 66.94 



$123.03 
143.66 
90.59 
80.19 
32.23 
47-44 
29-51 
43-58 
S9.71 
109.60 
7i-3i 
99-29 
30.36 
16.87 
123.58 
124.46 
52-06 
29-94 



♦Computed on a uniform basis in relation with the tables, 
of all Nations. M 



'Industries 



Note. — During the decade from 1S70 to 1SS0, the aggregate debt of nations was increased from $7, S75, 000,000, or $920,000,000 less than the 
cost of new railways during the same length of time. The net earnings of the world have increased, but the relative burden of taxation has 
increased. The paper money ot the world, a form of debt, rose from $2 060,000,000 in 1S70 to .$3,995,000,000 in 1S80, an increase of 34 per cent. 
The actual a.nount of gold and silver coin in 1SS0 is set down as $4,115,000,000, 6S per cent, gold and 32 per cent, silver. The total production of 
silver during the decade was $798,000,000; of gold, $1,006,000,000. In the transaction of the world's commerce the mediums of exchange were as 
follows: 19,93 per cent, in gold ; 9.O1 insilver; 27.S1 in bank notes; and 42.65 in checks, drafts and bills of exchange. 



\ 



INCREASE OF RAILROADS* SINCE 1870; TOTAL COST AND TRAFFIC. 



Countries. 



Miles Open. 



1870- 18S0. 



o c — 

p * 
O 



Passengers, 

Millions. 



1S70. 1S70. 



Goods, Mill 
ion Tons. 



1S70. 1S79. 



o c 
O.Sr 



■a .a a 

33 £ 



o. 
> x 



a. 






United States 

Great Britain 

France 

Germany 

Russia 

Austria 

Italy 

Spain and Portugal.. 
Norway and Sweden. 
Belgium and Holland 

Switzerland 

Turkey, Grui < e, - t< 

Canada 

Australia 

India 

South America 

Africa, etc 

The Would 



44,614 

15.537 
10,851 

11.457 
7,ooS 

5.906 

3,820 
■.7S3 

-■'■ I 

8»5 

454 

4.010 

1,170 

4.7So 

2,160 

966 



S6.497 
17,696 

'5.375 
2 '.-7S 
14,69s 
12,160 

S>°9<5 
5,260 

5. "7 
3.910 
1,650 
1,870 
6,145 
4.350 
8,611 
6,S 3 o 
5.897 



4-.SS.? 
2. '59 

4.524 
9,SiS 
7,600 
6,254 
1,271 
1,440 

3.3&I 

1,226 

7°5 

1,416 

2,135 
3. 'So 
itl* 
4.'vO 
4.93' 



2.1SI 
910 

6'3 
I,l87 

70S 
<.)2 
IO7 

"7 
"7 
'36 

73 
1 12 
122 
2.4 
aSj 
345 

5S 



4,821 
3.4S9 
2,04,8 
2,150 

1.323 
1,241 

4S2 
414 
170 
409 
160 
146 

355 
292 

S9'3 
462 

315 



110 
34^ 
110 

■3« 

'I 
21 

2f 
10 

S 
47 
'5 



19S 

629 
160 
196 
3S 
42 
2 9 
28 

'7 
67 
H 
2 
6 
4 
43 



IS" 
170 

52 
°S 

s 

2 S 
6 



210 

2'5 

70 
'30 

35 
45 
S 
7 

6 

6 

4 



56,239 
1 17,227 
I33.05S 
100,657 
89,729 
102,019 
93.797 
79.737 
33.39S 
99,1 -. 
97.319 
7S.0S3 
57-74- 
67,oSS 

69.594 
6S,no 

SS.3S0 



6,2oS 

10.3^7 
13,140 
12,052 
11,112 
8,562 
6,276 
5.960 
3.o'6 
9.'95 
6, 103 

3.697 

4.2S[ 

"■354 
4,622 



3.634 

5,154 

6,699 

7.361 

6,7 H 

|.". 

4,'*4 

2 .505 

1,95' 

5,9" 

4.0S7 

2.9 7 

3,313 
2,627 



2,574 
s 173 
6,441 

4.7" 
4.3S9 
3.S96 

2,091 

i 155 
1,0 5 
3.2S4 



729 
2,043 
3.°1' 
'.9S9 



1-62 

4- '5 
,.85 

4-65 
|.S2 
3-S6 
1.22 
4.40 
3.3S 
3-2' 

3.10 
26 

3-0+ 
4 37 
3-Po 



22,000 222,487 110,487 



18,905 



S79 '.497 566 793 84,846 



S.222 



4.6SS 



3.537 



Note. — The tariff returns per mile show a decrease of 4 per cent, for passengers and 22 per cent, for freight since 1S70. 



FOOD SUPPLY OF ALL NATIONS. 



Countries. 



United States 
Great Britain 

France 

Germany 

Russia 

Austria 

Italy 

Spain 

Belgium 

Holland 

Denmark 

Swed., Nor... 

Portugal 

Tur., Greece.. 

Australia 

Canada 

River Plate .. 
Algeria 

*The World 



< .r.iin — Million 
Bushels. 



2390 

t '0 

740 
950 

1620 

560 
270 
305 

95 
50 
71 
7S 
30 
90 

ss 
170 

6 



2020 
i.* ■ 
910 
1065 
1(40 
53" 
275 
300 
120 

"5 
62 
80 

35 
So 

4' 

160 

6 

'5 



7916 7S91 



370 



Meat— Thousand 

Tons. 



Pioduction of 



3,816 
1,205 
1,002 
1,340 

2,116 
960 
224 
196 
92 
'4-1 
1 12 

2'3 
51 
250 
990 
2^7 
i.3'° 



E5 

3 o 



2,740 

i.SoS 
1,22s 

l.TOO 
•■935 

"75 

2'S 

i as 
140 
87 
52 
146 

47 
250 

■5 : 



107'. 



57 
60 

67 
7 

S33 

'7 
1038 

: 



2144 



4S 



it 



?- 
j,-i> 



360 

1 10 


76 
3' 


192 


33 




61 


50 


105 


245 


24 


-■0 


S 





4 


170 


'5 


35 


16 


25 


S 


35 


27 



3123 416 



♦There are, moreover, 200 million bushels of wheat grown in India 
of which one-tenth is exported; and besides the wine crop here given, 
the Cape produces 4V2 million gallons, and Maderia, Canaries, etc., 5 
millions. 



FOOD OF ALL NATIONS. 



Countries. 



United States 
Great Britain 

France 

Germany 

Russia 

\ustria 

rtaly... 

-pain 

Belgium 

Holland 

Denmark .... 
Swed. and Nor. 
Portugal. . . 
Greece, Turkey, 
\ustralia.. . 
Canada. ... 
River Platte 
Algeria 



( Jem ral average 



Grain per inhabi- 
tant. 



48.10 
1 1.90 
19.94 
21.15 
20.22 
'4-35 

9-45 
17.98 
17.25 
12.50 
3''.So 

'■7.; 

7-'l 

7-So 
21.10 
40.30 

2.02 
6.60 



S B 



40.66 



2.25 

"•7 s 



20.23 20.19 0-°4 — 



0.30 



5-97 



0.84 

6-5' 

2.10 

1.65 



Om 



4.0s 
2.56 



•'7 

• 59 

3-75 


0.30 
1.19 



Meat per inhabitant. 



a 



u oj 

3X> 


u 

a. 


c 


■a 

¥ 

c 





_3 

"E. 

3 


171.00 


120. CO 


51 .00 


7S.26 


I 19.10 


— 


6S.06 


S..SS 


— 


66.63 


S4.5' 


— 


59-34 


54.05 


5.29 


55-io 


S6.03 


— 


21-54 


20. So 


0.74 


26.00 


25.04 


0.96 


37.6o 


57 10 


— 


S0.75 


4S.40 


32 .55 


125.S0 


5 s -' 5 


67.6S 


72.S0 


51.10 


21 .70 


28. 82 


25.20 


3.62 


45.00 


45 on 


— 


790.00 


120.00 


71 1.00 


153.00 


120.00 


3300 


1 1 S3 .00 


200.00 


9S3.00 


SS.00 


66 00 


22.00 


77.00 


6S.S7 


8.13 



40-84 

.3.82 

I7.SS 
0.93 



- '9-50 



Liquor per inhabi- 
tant. 



0.40 

17.S0 
2.10 
0.02 
7-55 
23-44 
'5-40 



20.42 
2.00 
o-75 



0.33 
3.10 

6.56 



I I 

e>3 



0.60 
0.51 

1S.60 
3-20 
0.03 
7-5o 

22.5' 

12.50 
0.72 
0.76 
0.25 
0.25 

16.40 
1. So 
1.30 

O. II 

6.20 

2.95 

6.S3 



'.52 
0.90 
o.SS 

'•35 
1.30 

0.60 
o 30 
0.25 

_•.-■> 
2 9 1 
4.20 
4.20 
0.20 

0.10 

1.36 
0.30 
0.25 

o. 10 



*The total length of telegraphs in 1S70 was 323,65c; in 1SS0, 604,010, an increase 
of about 90 per cent, in the decade. 



~&r~ 



AGRICULTURE, POPULATION, AND MANUFACTURES OF ALL NATIONS. 



69I 



AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL INDUSTRIES 
OF THE WORLD. 



United States 

Grea Britain 

France , 

Germany 

Russia 

Austria 

Italy 

Spain 

Belgium 

Holland 

Denmark 

S*weden and Norway, 

Portugal 

Greece 

Australia 

Canada 

River Platte 

South Africa 



The "World. 



Grain Cultivation 






102500 

1 1260 

40300 

43200 

15S000 

37300 

19560 

25000 

2910 

>73o 

2670 

43So 

2570 

610 

3400 

S500 

33o 

600 

464S20 



u 3 

<3 



10.25 

1.63 

5-45 
4-75 
9-95 
4.78 
3-43 
7-5o 
2.65 
2.16 
6.70 

3-37 

2.S4 
2.90 
6.10 
9.90 
0.60 
2.40 

6.44 






23-3° 
36.40 
IS.50 
22.05 
IO.25 

15-04 
I3.S0 
12.20 
32.72 
2S.SO 
27.72 
I7.SO 
II.64 
I5.20 
17.IO 
20.OO 
I9.OO 
9.90 



I7.02 



Pastoral Farming. 



OH 



.•='0= S»! 



3350" 
9912 

"3"5 

15S00 

2S000 

I3'31 

3490 

i55o 

1242 

1466 

134S 

3*>5 

5^3 

ss 
7S79 

2702 

I8S50 
1730 

■55703 



ss. 



3S00C 

3217+ 
23674 

25200 
64000 
2I41S 

7150 

14000 

5S6 
941 

1720 

3276 

2417 

2100 

65914 
3331 

76000 
11700 



393601 



1) " 

si 



76 

93 
6+ 

55 
80 

55 
2 5 
S4 
10 

24 
SS 

5° 

55 

130 

2402 

77 

25S0 

S90 



Note — During the period from 1S70 to 1SS0 the agricultural wealth of 
the world increased 8.5S per cent. 

INCREASE OF POPULATION SINCE 1870. 



United States 

Great Britain 

France 

Germany 

Russia (Europe) 

Austria 

Italy 

Spain 

Belgium 

Holland 

Sweden and Norway. 

Denmark 

Portugal 

Turkey, etc 

Australia 

Canada 

South Africa 

South America 



The World., 



3S55S 
31205 
36554 
41066 

7372S 
35904 
26*139 
■6S5- 
5052 

3574 
602S 
'785 
3966 

2364S 

1S29 

376.3 

5S2 

24700 



— 5 « 

^Q 1 



9402 
4265 
722 
52SS 
6565 

ii6S 
2053 
3S6 
527 
452 
724 
223 
5io 
1645 
4SO 

307 
128 

S'o 



II 



2,192 



965 




no 




9S7 




130 






*1I03 


360 




305 






40 


60 




202 




44 




72 




1|205 






5S4 




228 




297 




270 



375129 30331 41172S 36599 9 76 



50152 
34505 
37166 

45307 
So 160 

39175 
2S332 
16632 
5619 
3960 
6550 
1964 

+404 
240SS 
2863 
4298 
1007 
254S5 



"594 

3300 

612 

4301 

6435 

3271 

■693 

Si 

567 

3S6 

522 

'79 

43S 

440 

1034 

535 

425 

786 



~ 



30.13 
'0-S7 
..67 

IO.46 

8-73 
9. 11 
6.36 
0.50 
11.23 
10. Si 
S.66 
10.03 
10 90 
2.01 
56.50 

14-23 

73 -2S 

3-iS 



CONSUMPTION OF COTTON, WOOL, FLAX, 
JUTE, ETC. 



COUNTRIBS 



United States 

Great Britain 

France 

Germany 

Russia 

Austria 

Italy 

Spain 

Belgium , 

Holland 

Scandinavia 

Switzerland, Greece, etc. 
British Colonies, etc. . . . 



1S70 1SS0 



530 
noi 
210 
20S 

93 
103 

55 
60 
36 
11 
20 
7S 
70 



911 

1404 

270 

joo 

■33 
130 
90 

76 

48 

13 

25 
70 
105 



The World 26353665 1431 17S3 1S70 2154 59367602 1666 



1S70 1SS0 



1S70 1SS0 



1S70 



7S8 
2103 
S62 
649 
393 
263 
100 
109 
276 
67 
60 
116 
150 



1SS0 



1 192 

2571 
1022 
96» 
S'S 
305 
149 
142 
301 
75 
67 
no 
190 



100 
3" 
125 
42 
49 
33 
25 
S 

7 



Note. - During the period from 1S70 to 1SS0 the increase in the manu- 
factures of the world was 1S.60 per cent. 

MANUFACTURES OF ALL NATIONS IN MILLIONS 
OF DOLLARS, IN 1870 AND 1880. 



Countries. 



* Annexation of Bosnia. 



United States 

Great Britain 

France 

Germany 

Russia 

Austria 

Italy 

Spain 

Belgium 

Holland 

Norway and Sweden. 
Switzerl'd, Greece, etc 
British Colonies 

The World 



1S70 1SS0 



324' 



559 

1036 

652 

462 

263 

175 

122 

10; 

146 

29 

34 

24 

165 



3774 



1S70 



'537 



1880 



220S 



1870 



2622 

1576 
1362 
1 1 19 
720 
686 
394 
268 

■75 

146 

199 
3S4 
97 



1SS0 



3230 
1S07 
1508 
I314 
77S 
754 
414 
292 
204 
161 
219 

345 
146 



974S 1 1262 



1S70 1SS0 



33'S 
3'23 

2136 
1659 
99 
S9. 
5oi 
375 
355 
1S0 
257 
423 
3" 



14526 



4319 
3687 
*359 
2078 
1114 
1002 
S60 
428 
413 
205 
287 
3S4 



17244 



1001 

564 
223 
419 

"7 
ii 1 

59 
53 

ss 

25 
30 

97 



275' 



i*? 



]« — ». 



693 AVAILABLE POWER FOR INDUSTRIES. 





Thousands. 




Countries. 


Human 

Workers . 


Horses. 


Steam, 
Horse- 
power. 


Rivers, 
Horse- 
power. 


Total, 
Horse- 
power. 


Ratio. 


Great Britain. 


22,570 

27.765 

3W4 

49,520 

25,00s 

iS,3io 

11,120 

2,780 

3,776 

2,690 

5,810 

1,815 

3,5^0 

1,070 

1,020 
30,Il6 


2,906 
2,833 
3»36o 
16,200 
3,760 
65S 
590 

263 

2S0 
970 
1 10 

55° 
140 

97 
11,202 


7,7So 
3.5'3 
4.325 
1.365 

I.2SO 

480 

4S3 
66 

595 
216 

416 

253 

90 

35 

20 

8,152 


4.5^0 

6,130 

6,040 

36,115 

5,830 

3.96o 

2,220 

610 

370 

640 

6,360 

650 

1,160 

450 

420 

61,150 


17.466 

■5.253 

16.735 

58,630 

13,370 

6,729 

4.405 

1,054 

1,626 

i,40S 

S,327 

1,195 

2,152 

732 

640 

83,516 


7-5 
6.6 

7-2 
25.0 

5-7 


Spain 

Portugal 
Belgium . 

Holland 

Scandinavia.. 
Switzerland .. 
Roumania.. .. 

United States. 


1.1 
0.5 

0.7 
0.6 
3.6 
0-5 
0.9 

0-3 

0.2 

36.0 


Total 


236,964 


44,009 


29,0 '9 


136 655 


23.5.435 


100.0 



All of the above powers may be considered in active use, except the 
rivers, of which less than one-tenth of the power is turned to any use. 



OPERATIVES.— NUMBERS EMPLOYED. 

(Thousands.) 



Germany 

Great Britain . 

France 

United States.. 
Austria. ....... 

Russia 

Italy 

Spain 

Belgium 



In Factories. 



Mining. 



Textile. ' Various. 



632 

1,060 
620 
545 
300 
354 
130 
90 

2S j 



4SO 
720 
430 

1.534 
490 
2S6 
240 
1 10 
130 



231 
550 
206 
660 
92 
207 
36 
71 
105 



Handi- 
craft. 



S.797 
3,911 
5,359 
787 
2,324 



i,073 
921 



Total. 



10,140 
6,241 
6,615 
3,526 
3,266 
2,436 
',274 
1,344 
1,436 



* 5 »■ 

K oa. 



THE OCCUPATION OF THE WORLD. 

The Workers in All Nations. 



Countries. 



United States 

Great Britain 

France 

Germany 

Russia 

Austria 

Italy 

Spain 

Portugal 

Belgium 

Holland 

Norway and Sweden. 



Total 116,217 



Thousands. 



Agri- Manu- Va- 
culture. facture. rious. 



7,7 13 
2,gS9 
14,162 
12,920 
40,590 
■3.755 

12,862 

3.360 
1,251 
1,51a 

i,5°3 

3.5+0 



3,526 

6,241 

6,615 

10,140 

2,436 

3,266 

1.274 

1,314 

220 

1,436 

321 

520 



37,339 



iS,S76 

n,2Sq 

6,9SS 

7,0H 

6,494 

7.9S7 

4.'74 

6,416 

1,306 

82S 

806 

',75o 



73,928 



Agri- Manu- Va- 
culture. facture. rious. 



Ratio. 



14.6 
5i 

£ 

55 
70 
30 
45 
40 

5S 
61 



30.4 

24 

34 

5 
■3 

7 
12 

8 
3S 



62 

5S-o 

25 

23 

14 

32 

2} 

5« 

47 
22 

3° 
30 



THE MINING OF THE WORLD. 

Value of Minerals. 



Countries. 



United States. 
( Sreat Britain. 

France 

Germany 

Russia 

Austria 

Italy 

Spain 

Belgium 

Sweden 

Spanish Am.. 
Australia . 
Other counr's 

The World... 





In Million Dollars. 




No. of 












Miners. 


Gold. 


Silver. 


Coal. 


Sun- 
dries. 


Total. 


omitt'd. 


35 


40 


140 


170 


3S5 


560 






335 


60 


395 


S38 






55 


'5 


70 


206 






70 


20 


95 


231 


30 




15 


5 


50 


207 






22M 


15 


37* 


92 








10 


10 


36 




2% 




30 


3*5* 


70 






30 


2^ 


325* 


105 








5 


5 


29 


5 


25 


2^2 


'7% 


50 


150 


25 




5 


10 


40 


95 


5 


*A 


5 


5 


■75* 


70 


100 


75 


6S0 


365 


1,220 


2,3S9 



Result 
Per 
Man, 



730 
350 
410 
240 
430 
260 
430 
310 
1-5 
330 
420 
250 



THE WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF COAL, IRON AND STEEL. 

Compiled from the London " Engineering/' " Iron," Hunt's " Mineral Statistics," 
Saward's " Coal Trade," and other sources. 



Countries. 



Great Britain 

♦United States 

Germany 

France 

Belgium 

Austria-Hungary... 

China 

Russia 

Australia 

Canada 

Sweden 

Spain 

India 

Turkey 

Italy..' 

Switzerland 

Mexico 

lapan 

Vancouver's Island. 

Nova Scotia 

All other countries. 

Total 



Coal 
area in 
square 
miles. 



1 1,900 

192,0 o 

I.770 

2,oS6 

510 

I.SoO 



30,000 



3.500 

2,000 



I. MINERAL COAL. 



1879 
1879 
1879 

1879 
187S 
I.S79 
1^79 
' X 7 S 
1S7S 
>^77 
187S 
1S78 
■S78 

1878 



1879 
1878 

1S7S 



Tons of 
2,240 lbs. 



!33,SoS,oco 
59.8oS,398 
12,631,729 
■7>io4.485 
14.S39.175 
14,378,605 
3,000,000 

1,709,2' q 

1.575,926 

1,000,000 

90,000 

765,000 

4,000.000 

150,000 

220,000 



600,000 

228,974 
788,000 

1,000,000 



297.697.561 



CAST or pig 

IKON. 



IS79 
■879 
■879 

IV 
1S79 
■879 

1878 
'877 
1S79 
187S 
1S72 
■V 
' s 77 
1877 
' s 77 
1^77 
■ s 77 



Tons of 
2,240 lbs. 



5.99S.3i7 
2,74i,»53 
2,161,192 

1,344,759 
193.544 
469,213 

409,613 

2,600 

22,500 

33;,496 

73,000 

12,500 

4,300 

45,ooo 

6,500 

7.500 

7,400 



1S79. 



Tons of 

2,240 lbs. 

Ingots. 



S34,5H 
829,439 
450,000 

3H,69i 
100,000 
100,000 

50,000 



152,000 



Tons of 
2,240 lbs. 

Rails. 

509,786 

610,682 

350,000 

247.000 

75,000 

75,000 

54,479 



THE WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF METALIC 
LEAD.— Tons. 



United States 

Great Britain 

France 

Germany 

Italy 

Spain 

Austria 

Other European countr's 



STEEL MANUFACTURE OF THE WORLD. 

Showing numher of works, converters, capacitv, tons made, 
and the ratio manufactured by each country. 



r4,«40.333 I 2,850,641 I 1,921,947 



Total. 



1S30. 



3.7°o 
48,000 
1,100 
0,500 
8,000 
23,000 
7,000 
4,000 



104,300 



1S50. 



36,000 
55,000 

7,000 
j 6,000 
12,000 
27,000 
1 ,000 

6,500 



170,500 



1SS0. 



89,000 
51,000 
32,000 
58,600 
33,000 
92,300 
8,900 
14,400 



379,200 



Value in 
1880. 



$7,000,000 
4,250,000 
3,250,000 
"5,600,000 
2,900,000 
S. 300, 000 
Soo.ooo 
1,300,000 



34,300,000 



Countries. 



*Other estimates make the coal fields of the United States, reckoning the Permian 
and tertiarv coals, to embrace an area of over 600,000 square miles. But all estimates 
of their extent are as yet conjectural, and a very large portion of their actual area 
contains no workable coal. 



United States 
Great Britain 

Germany 

France 

Austria 

Russia 

Belgium 

Sweden 

Total 



Works, 



23 
23 



95 



Con- 
verters. 



36 

116 
Si 
33 

24 
iS 
35 



Capacity, 
Tons. 



2,200 

2,500 

1,300 

'500 



35° 
3?o 
100 



7,330 



Tons 
made. 



1,374,000 
1,780, too 
865,000 
418,000 
176,000 
296,000 
135,000 

..:- 



5,081,000 



27.0 
350 

% 

3-4 
5-8 
2-7 
0.7 



PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF IRON. 

Table Showing the Increase of Production and Consumption of Pi& Iron in the 
■World from 1850 to 1882. 

(From Mulhall.) 



Countries. 



Thousands of 
Tons. 



United States 
Great Britain 

Germany 

France 

Belgium 

Austria 

Russia 

Sweden 

Total 



Production. 



1S50 



560 

402 
40S 
.70 
140 
220 
■3° 

4,*So 



1SS2. 



4,023 
S.4SS 

3,'7' 

2,033 

640 

55° 
505 
410 



19,820 



Lbs. per 
Inhabitant. 



■S50. 



54 

IQO 
26 

U 



4S3 



1SS2 



190 

555 
140 

"7 
250 
30 



1,400 



Consumption. 



Thousands of 
Tons. 



1S50. 



560 
,97° 
420 
450 
170 
150 
300 
45 



4,065 



1SS1. 



5,372 

6,4 '5 

2,520 

2,110 

720 

520 

630 

1S0 



18,467 



Lbs. per 
Inhabitant. 



1850 



55 



SS 



1SS1 



240 
420 
126 

122 

303 

3D 

18 



Germany . 

Great Britain 

United States 

France 

Belgium 

Austria 

Norway & Sweden. 

Holland 

Russia 

Switzerland 

Denmark 

Italy 



693 

THE WORLDS PRODUCTION OF BEER. 

The following t.ible shows the production of beer. 



Countries. 



No. of 
Breweries, 



Total. 



•23>940 
16,114 
3,293 
3,100 
2,500 
2,297 
040 

560 
460 
400 
240 
200 



53,744 



SSo 
1,025 
340 
190 
170 
245 
35 

63 
16 

25 



to 4 
29.0 
6.6 

5 2 



13.0 
°-7 



3,044 



9.0 



For consumption of beer see table " Drink of Nations." 



■k. 



Million Gallons 
Gallons, per Inn. 



PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF TIMBER. 



PUBLIC LIBRARIES OF ALL COUNTRIES. 



Countries. 



United States 

Great Britain 

Russia 

France 

Germany 

Austria 

Italy 

Spain and Portugal.. . 
Sweden and Norway. . 
Belgium and Holland. . 
Canada 

Total 



MILLIONS OF CUBIC FEET PER ANNUM. 



Production, 
All Kinds, 



3,100 

140 

6,400 

i,oSo 

i,4S° 
i.oSo 
4S0 
200 
900 
70 
310 



16,110 



CONSUMPTION. 



wood. BU etc ing ' T °*'- 



1,420 
60 

2,770 
S50 
760 

I,t20 
23O 
IIO 

320 



7,Soo 



l,6So 
395 

3,350 
43° 
690 
760 
280 
2 to 
345 
9° 
So 



8,310 



3, too 

455 
6,120 

I,2So 

t,45° 
1, SSo 
510 
320 
665 
no 

220 



16, 1 to 



ANNUAL CONSUMP- 
TION. 



Countries. 



Libraries. 
1SS0. 



Value. 

Thousands 

Omitted. 



387,000 


5 s 


101,250 


12 


281,500 


76 


107,000 


33 


122,500 


32 


150,500 


5' 


61,500 


iS 


47,000 


16 


5".5°o 


102 


23,500 


12 


27,000 


49 



$1,365,250 



Cubic Ft. 
per In- 
habitant 



Great Britain 

France 

Germany 

Austria 

Italy 

United States 

Spain and Portugal... 

Switzerland 

Norway and Sweden. 

Russia 

Holland 

Belgium 



Total . 



202 

S05 
594 
577 
493 
59 
90 

1,654 

94 
'45 
220 

'"5 



4.73 s 



Vols. Vols, per 

Thousands, toolnhab. 
1SS0. is<o. 



3,770 

7,29 s 
4,070 

5,47f 

4,349 

2,263 

1,200 

1,819 

1,250 

950 

Soo 

610 



33,»55 



'9 
9 
■4 



64 

n 



♦The above does not include any libraries with less than 
10,000 volumes (except possibly those of Switzerland), nor 
school libraries of which tht-re are about 25,000 in the United 
States, with nearly fifty million volumes. 



COMPARATIVE RETAIL PRICES OF THE NECESSARIES OF LIFE 
IN EUROPE AND THE UNITED STATES IN 1878. 

(Condensed from the Report of the Secretary of State on the State of Labor in Europe, 
derived from facts reported by the United States Consuls, Washington, 1S79. 



Beef— Roast lb. 

" Corned lb. 

Beans at. 

Bread lb. 

Butter lb. 

Coal ton 

Codfish lb. 

Coffee lb. 

Eggs doz. 

Flour lb. 

Lard lb. 

Milk qt 

Mutton, fore qr lb. 

Oatmeal lb. 

Pork, fresh lb. 

" salted lb. 

" bacon. ...... lb. 

" sausage lb. 

Potatoes bushel. 

Rice lb. 

Soap lb. 

Sugar lb. 

Tei lb. 



E 




>■ 




•a 
c 




United States. 


3 


u 






u 


c 








B 


E 


^ 


,£3 


«M 






m 


u 
fa 


V 




rt 


to 





New York. 


Chicago. 


Cents 


Cents 


Cents 


Cents 


Cents 


Cents. 


Cents. 


Cents. 


20 


22 


22 


20 


30 


22 


12-16 


S-S2J4 


16 


16 


13 


12 


iS 


1S-20 


S-12 


4" 7 






to 


■3 




9 


7-10 


5- 9 


4-5 


3 


3-7 


6 


4 


ihi'^A 


4-4M 


4-4K 


20-50 


25 


22 


2S 


30 


29-3S 


2S-32 


16-40 






$4.25 


$lI.OO 




$2.65-4.10 


$3-5-25 


$3-6.75 








9 




6- S 


6-7 


5- 9 


30-40 


3 S 


35 


32 


30 


2S-50 


20-30 


16-40 


20-25 


iS 


20 


iS 


20 


14-30 


25-30 


10-24 




4 


•M 


10 


7 


Z'A-*'A 


3- 4 


2%-i% 


20 


20 


21 


22 




12-1S 


10-12 


6-10 






4 




5 


S-9 


S-10 


3-6 


16 


16 


■4« 


15 


18 


16-17 


9-10 


5-12K 






8 






i'A-4'A 


4- 5 


4- 5 


irt 


14 


17 


■3 


iS 


10-.6 


S-IO 


4- 5 


16 


14 


■7 


iS 


20 


10-16 


8-10 


6-12 


18 


20 


20 


22 




12-16 


8-10 


7-12 


20 


16 


■9 


20 




iS 


8-10 


6-10 





5° 


50 


$1.15 


60 


6S-$2.0o 


$1.40-1.60 


60-S0 






9 


6 




3^-8 


S-IO 


5-io 






10 


4 




5M-9 


£- 7 


3-8 


I5-20 




it 


SV4 


S 


5^-1° 


S-10 


7-10 






75 




50 


43-S8 


50-60 


25-$!. 00 



UNIVERSITIES OF THE WORLD. 



(From Mulhall.) 



Countries. 



United States 
Great Britain 

France 

Germany 

Russia 

Austria 

Italy 

Spain 

Portugal 

Belgium 

Holland 

Denmark 

Sweden 

Norway 

Switzerland . . 
Greece 

Total 



3'o 



4,240 
344 
tSo 

1,920 

1, Sio 
600 
3So 

i° 
80 

80 

40 

'73 
46 
90 
40 



■"S 1 



09,400 

13,400 

9,300 

25.084 

6,900 

13,600 

11,140 

16,200 

1,300 

2,400 

[,600 

1,400 

2,010 

s 3 o 

2,000 

Soo 



I,2SO 

390 
250 

5 S2 

360 

•P5 
090 

40S 
440 
400 
700 

310 

460 
700 

S60 



456 11,265 176,3*4 4S0 



The income of the Universities of Oxford and Cain- 
hridge are, the former $2,070,000, that of the latter $1,700,- 
000. 

The University of Paris has 9,300 students, 2,500 law, 
2,Soo medical, 1,500 science, and 2,500 belles-lettres. 

In the Germa-i Universities 11 per cent, of the students 
are foreigners, 1 per cent, being Americans. 



VI r 



S^ 



-4 



694 THE LINEN MANUFACTURE OF 
THE WORLD. 



Countries. 



United States 

Great Britain 

France 

Germany 

Russia 

Austria 

Italy and Switzerland. 
Belgium and Holland, 



Total 



Thousands. 



Power Flax. 
Spindle*. Looms> Tons> 



'3 

i,4S5 

762 

327 
MS 
4'5 
64 
296 



3,507 



7 

45 



97 



107 
66 

35 
40 
60 
10 
30 



36S 



Value of 
Product. 
Millions 
Dollars. 



COST OF LIVING. 

Expenditure Among Natioru 



Countries. 


Millions Dollars. 


Per 

Inhab. 


Millions Dollars. 


Food. 


Clothing. 


Sundries. 


Total. 


Income. 


Surplus. 


United States 


2,870 

2.36S 
1,060 
3 ,53G 
3,580 
1,600 
1,020 

6-5 
510 

375 


1,200 
690 

560 

S5o 
610 

45° 
150 
100 

■5o 
100 


1,980 

2,410 

1,605 

970 

5 ? 
760 

240 

360 
220 


6,050 
5,405 
4,'25 
4,o;o 
3,75o 

2,8lO 
1,4m 

SOO 
1,020 

09S 


112.0 

156-5 
10S.5 
00.0 
• 44-o 
76.0 
49-5 
53-o 
■05-5 
77-5 


• 7, IO ° 
6,235 
4.S25 
4,250 
3,800 
3,010 
1,460 

940 
1,120 

745 


1,050 

770 

7G0 

200 

50 








5° 




5° 


Belgium and Holland 
Norway and Sweden 


100 
50 




16,425 


4,500 


9,280 


30,265 


S6 3 


33,485 


3,210 







Food includes liquor and tobacco, and therefore contributes a good share of the 
taxes in each country. Clo thing also pays its share to the public revenue. 



COMPARATIVE RATES OF WEEKLY WAGES PAID IN EUROPE 
AND IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1878. 

(Condensed from the Report of the Secretary of State on the State of Labor in Europe, 
derived from facts reported by the United States Consuls, Washington, 1S79. 



Bakers 

Blacksmiths 

Bookbinders 

Bricklayers 

Cabinet-makers 

Carpenters and Joiners 

Farm Laborers 

Lab rers, Porters, etc. . 

Painters . 

Plasterers 

Plumbers 

Printers 

Shoemakers 

Tailors 

Tinsmiths 



I4-40 
4 40 



6.00 
4.S0 
5-40 

3.00 
4.20 
5-40 
6.00 



4.80 



$4-25 
3-90 
3-72 



4-25 
4- "5 

4.62 
3-30 
4.10 
3-9o 



$5-55 
5-45 
4.S5 
4.0) 
6.00 
5-42 
3- "5 

4.90 

5-50 
4.70 
4-75 
5-"o 
4.40 



3-50 


$3-oo 


3-55 


3-94 


3.S2 


390 


3.00 


3-45 


3-97 


4-95 


4.00 


4.1S 


2S7 


3.50 


2.92 


2.60 


it 


4.60 


4-35 


3-00 


3-90 


4.80 


4.90 


*'2 


4-32 


3.5» 


4-30 


3-05 


3.60 






$6.50- 6.60 
7-°l 8. ' 2 
6.50- 7.83 
7-5S- 9-03 
7.70- 8.48 
7-33- 8.25 
3.40- 4.25 
4.50- 5.00 
7.25- 8. 16 
7.08-10.13 
7.1}- 8.(6 
7-52- 7-75 
7-35 
5.00- 7.30 
6.00- 7.30 



I'nited States. 



New 
York. 



5 5- 8 
10-14 
12-18 
12-15 

9-13 
9-12 

6-'g 
10-16 
10-15 
12-18 

S-iS 
12-1S 
10-18 
10-14 



Chicago. 



$8 -12 

9 -12 

9 -20 

6 -10.50 

7 -i5 
7.50-12 



5- 5o- 9 

6 -12 



-18 

-iS 
-iS 



REMARKABLE IRON BRIDGES OF THE WORLD. 



Date. 


Bridge. 


Over. 


Length 

(feet). 


Iron 
(Tons). 


Cost. 


Builder. 


1779 
1706 
1S19 
1825 
1S49 
1850 
185S 
1S59 
i860 


Coalbrookdale.. 
Sunderland 




100 
236 
Soo 

1,050 

000 

Mil 

850 
7,200 
1,900 
1,095 
2,252 
1,270 
2,200 

1,160 
5,120 
6,000 
4,850 
3.550 
4.872 
3,000 
6,000 


378 
260 
5,78o 
3,187 
5,050 
9,000 
400 
8,230 
7,000 
3,100 

4,200 
1,600 
6,650 

5,150 
34,000 


$ 

135,000 
4,000,000 
1,060,000 
1,215,000 
3,010,000 

415,000 
8,500,000 


Darby 




Thames 

Menia Straits.. 
Tyne 


Rennie. 
Telford 


Britannia 

Niagara 

Frvyburg.. .... 

Cincinnati 

Ctifton 

Wezeravad .... 


Stephenson. 
Stephenson. 
Roebling. 
Stephenson. 


Menia Straits.. 
St. Lawrence.. 


1862 


500,000 

200,000 
2,000,000 
3,250,000 




1S67 
1S68 


Ohio 


Roebling. 


Mississippi..., 


1874 

i*75 


Eads. 


1S77 
1S7S 
1S79 


Eiffel 








Saratov 


2,750,000 




1SS0 






1SS0 


Volga 






1S81 


3,475,ooo 
2,125,000 
15,500,000 




1SS2 


Ganges .... 




iSS 3 


Roebling. 



































The Brooklyn Bridge was completed at a cost of $15,500,000, having taken 
13 years in construction, during which 20 lives were lost, including the constructor 
(Roebling . Length, 6,000 feet; width, S5; height above water, 135; weight, 
34,000 tons. There are 3,200 tons wire; section, 580 square inches; strength, 75 
tons per square inch. There are two towers 274 feet high, and 1,600 feet apart. 
The central way is 15 feet wide for pedestrians, each of the railway lines has 16 
feet width, and each of the ways for wagons, horses, etc., 19 feet. 

The Forth Bridge (Scotland) is to cost $7,500,000; main girder, 5,330 feet; total 
length, 2,700 yards; heaviest train deflection, 4 inches; wind pressure of 30 pounds 
per square foot will bend bridge 9 inches aside; superstructure, 42,000 tons of steel ; 
approach, 3,000 tons of iron and 12^,000 cubic yards of masonry. 

A bridge of great magnitude is proposed at Rio Janeiro; length, 16,000 feet; 
to cost $9,000,000. 



THE CATTLE OF NATIONS. 

NUMBER IN ALL COUNTRIES IN iSSo. 



Countries. 



United States 

Great Britain 

France 

Germany 

Russia 

Austria 

Italy 

Spain 

Portugal 

Holland 

Belgium 

Denmark 

Norway and Sweden, 

Greece 

Roumania 

Canada 

Australia 

River Platte 

Cape Colony 

Algeria 



The world. 



Thousands. 



Cows. 



35,926 
0,905 

Ii,4So 

'5.790 

22,770 

I3.'33 

3,490 

3,000 

530 

1,462 

1,242 

',348 

3.254 

258 

3,600 

2,702 

7.S63 

lS,390 

>.330 

1,204 



'5".7"7 



Horses. Sheep. Pigs, 



52,437 



49,237 
27,896 
23.370 

25,200 

48,820 

21,418 

6,oSo 

22,SOO 

2,417 

.89S 

536 
1,720 
4.990 
2,292 
6,180 
3.330 
'".5,015 
76,230 

II,2S0 

8.7SS 
4'Q.297 



47,"34 
3. '90 
5,Sio 
7. '30 
10,514 
7,oSo 
i.S7o 

XI 

337 
632 

504 

5"S 

30 

2,3"0 

1.425 

8.5 
362 
164 
300 

95/HS 



AGE. 



The percentage of population to age in various countries is 
shown thus: 



Countries. 



United States, 

England 

Scotland 

Ireland 

France 

Germany 

Italy 

Austria 

Greece 

Spain 

Brazil 

Belgium 

Holland 

Denmark 

Sweden 

Norway 



PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION 



Under 
20 Years, 



46 
46 
36 
43 
44 
43 

4 S 

42 

46 

40 

43 
42 
43 
43 



From 
20 to 60 
Years. 



45 
47 
45 
43 
52 
49 
49 
50 
47 
52 
45 
50 
49 
5o 
49 
48 



Over 60 

Years. 



Average 
Age of 
All Liv- 
ing Years. 



24.9 
27.1 

27.4 
2S.6 
32.2 
28.0 
27.6 
27.7 

25-5 
27.2 

37 3 

29-7 
28.3 
2S.4 
28.0 



From the above exhibit it will be seen that the Americans are 
the youngest, the French the oldest. 

A man's working life is divided into four decades: 

20 to 30 bronze. 

30 to 40 silver. 

40 to 50 gold. 

50 to 60 iron. 

Intellect and judgment are strongest between 40 and 50. 



TT5 

" 



5TC* 



Gonsarnption of Gotten, Wool and Flax in the World, 



IN MILLION POUNDS. 



COUNTRY. 



Scandinavia, 25 23 19 67 



Holland, 



Switzerland 
and Greece, 



Spain, 



Italy, 



13 7 55 75 



70 20 20 no 



76 40 26 142 



90 34 25 149 



Br. Colonies, 105 35 50 190 



Belgium, - 48 105 148 301 



Austria, - - 130 80 95 305 



Russia, - - 133 165 220 51 



Germany, - 390 265 305 960 



France, 



United I 
States, J 



270 350 402 1,022 



911 258 23 1,192 



Gt. Britain, 1,404 401 766 2,571 




Cotto 



Wool, - 



Flax, 




EXPLANATION. 



An interesting table is here presented, showing the 
consumption of cotton, wool, and flax by the leading 
nations of the world. Great Britain stands at the head, 
consuming 1,404,000,000 pounds of cotton, 401,000,000 
pounds of wool, and 766,000,000 pounds of flax — one- 
half more cotton than that consumed by the United 
States, 62 per cent, greater of wool and 33% times more 
flax ; the consumption of cotton being greater in 
pounds than France's entire consumption of the three 
staple articles. Here we find a confirmation of the 
table showing the Manufactures of the World, where 
Great Britain's manufacture of textiles is more than 
double that of the United States. 



A, 



> 



THE REMGI6US GREEDS 0F THE W6RED. 

Showing their Proportion, Sect, Number and Location throughout the World. 

!■ • i| 



PARSEES, 
1,000,000. 






^Vc 




n 



% % - '< 



« . 

O o 

«<o* 



y c o- 



Jv" 



in 

■z. z 
x < 

££ 

u 









-D" 






^#' 



OTHER 
RELIGIONS, 

817,000,000. 




A* o°° 



^ 



C ^,ooo.oo°- 



J£U* 



OPE' 



147 ,300,000. 



*r 



■^ 






Mr 



4r, 



?,'% 4 



* *<& 



«4fc 



'% 



4 % 



EXPLANATION. 

The inner circle represents the entire world: this is divided, showing the proportion of Christians to other creeds, also giving 
the numerical strength of each. The second inner circle shows the distribution of Christians in the three great Churches: the Roman 
Catholic, the Greek or Eastern, and the Protestant; each of these is again subdivided, as shown in the third or outer circle, giving their 
strength on the different continents. The location of Mohammedans, Buddhists and other creeds is also given. 

There are 3,750,000 Jews in Europe, over 2,000,000 being in Russia alone; about 250,000 in America, 2,000,000 in Asia, 1,000,000 
in Africa, and 3,000 in Australia. 



r v 



Religious iDenor^inatsiems m Utye UniUei EfeakeS.* 

Pictorial Diagram and Table showing the number of Churches, Ministers and Members of the several Denom- 
inations in the United States, January i, 1883. 



■A ui 

H os tn 

DENOMINATIONS. U H 

§ Z 3 

a i a 

u a E 

Six-Princ. Baptist.... 20... 17... 2,075 

Tndepend. Methodist 13... 14... 2,100 

Shaker 17... 68... 2,400 

Amcr. Communities- 14... 8... 2,838 

New Mennonite 31... 44— 2,990 

Primitive Methodist 121... 50... 3,370 

New Jerusalem 91... 81... 4,734 

Reformed Presbyt... 41... 31... 6,020 

Seventh-Day Dapt... 87... 103... 8,606 

Reformed Episcopal- 55... 68... 10,459 

Adventist 91... 107... 11,100 

Free Methodist 287... 601... 12,120 

Jews 269... 202.. 13,683 

Seventh-Day Adven.. 608... 138... 14, 733 

Moravian 74... 96... 16,112 

Wesleyan Methodist 260... 472... 17,847 

Unitarian 34 2 — 394— 17,960 

Winnbrennerian 569... 498... 20,224 

Universalist 7 IQ -" 7 I 3— 26,238 

Anti-Mission Baptist, 1,090... 888... 40,000 

Second-Adventist 583... 501... 63,500 

Friends 621... 876... 67,643 

Meth. Epis., Colored 1,038... 648... 74,195 

Free-Will Baptist 1,485... 1,286... 76,706 

Ref. Church of Am.... 489... 519. .. 78,917 

United Presbyterian.. 793— 658... 80,236 

Dunkards 710... 1,665... 90,000 

Evangelical Ass'n 1,332... 1,340... 99,607 

Mormon 654... 3.906... 110,377 

Presb. Cumberland.. 2,474... 1,386... 111,855 

Meth. Protestant 1,501 .. 2,120... 118,170 

Presbyterian South... 1,928... 1,031... 119,970 

United Evangelical.. 366... 363... 144,000 

Ref. Church in U. S. 1,384... 752... 154,742 

United Brethren 2,207... 2,200... 155,437 

Protestant Epis 3,049... 3,496... 342,590 

Congregational 3,689... 3,589... 383,685 

Christian 4,681... 3,658... 567,448 

Presbyterian 5,33 8 - 4,9 2 °- 573,377 

Lutheran 5,556... 3,102... 684,570 

Meth. Epis. South 3,593"- 828,013 

Methodist Episcopal, 16,721 ... 9,261 ...1 ,680,779 

Baptist 24, 794. ..15, 401— 2,133,044 



EXPLANATION. 

This table gives the latest statistics of the relig- 
ious denominations in the United States, the tab- 
ulated matter being illustrated by a diagram show- 
ing the relative proportion of each. The Baptist 
denomination being the strongest numerically, 
after the Roman Catholic, they occupy in the 
diagram a double line, equivalent to nearly four 
times that of the Presbyterians. Several of the de- 
nominations are so small that they cannot be shown 
in the diagram. It is estimated by the publisher of 
the N. Y. Independent that Jan. 1, 1884, there were 
115,610 churches, 81,717 ministers and 17,267,678 
communicants in the United States, in a total pop- 
ulation of 50,155,000. Subtracting the Catholic 
population from the 17,000,000, we have in round 
numbers 10,500,000 Protestant communicants. A 
very low ratio would be three children and adher- 
ents to a communicant ; upon this basis, the Protes- 
tant population would be 42,500,000, to which add 
the Catholic population, and we have a total Chris- 
tian population of about 48.830,000, leaving the Jews, 
Mormons and other classes, besides the non-religious, 
to make up the small balance of 1,200,000. 




« The Roman Catholics have 5,975 churches, 6,366 priests, 
and 6,370,858 adherents of that faith, according to the Catholic 
Director/ of 1882, but the Church membership is not reported. 



>£. 



y*=^- — *« -to 



. -~<®r 



<$>*-> - 



VT&Xi'BMMB TIME.i§ ; 



^s^. 

4^r 



THE NEW STANDARD RAILROAD TIME EXPLAINED AND COMPARED— WITH ILLUSTRATED DIAGRAM. 




„HE adoption of a practical system of standard 
™ time had long been considered " a consummation 
devoutly to be wished," but exceedingly difficult 
to accomplish. After several conferences and a 
careful examination of the several schemes pro. 
<r ^" ) posed from time to time by various scientific 
•8671**' men, the railroad officials of this Continent decid- 
ed, at their last National Council, to adopt as their standard of 
regulation the time of the Greenwich Observatory, London, 
England, and, as the longitude in which their roads were 
situated was fifteen degrees westward from Greenwich, 
make their standard ot time that many hours slower than 
Greenwich. Hence the 6oth degree of longitude 'is four 
hours, the 75th five hours, the 90th six hours, the 105th 
seven hours, and the 120th eight hours slower than Green- 
wich time, thus making five different standards of time 
between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, viz.: Interco- 
lonial, Eastern, Central, Mountain, and Pacific. The 



present system, and the first practical one ever devised, 
was perfected and carried through by William F. Allen, 
editor of the "Official Railway Guide," and Secretary of the 
National Railway Convention. The several meridians are 
plainly indicated upon the map, and the territory included 
in the divisions shown by colors. The irregularity in the 
color boundaries is caused by various roads wishing to 
adopt as their standard the time of the meridian nearest to 
which the greater portion of their lines are situated. The 
unanimity with which towns and cities responded to this 
radical change was remarkable. At the present time the 
people have generally conformed to, and regulated their 
timepieces by, " Standard Railroad Time,'' no matter how 
much the same may differ from "Sun Time." This 
difference between local or sun time is shown by the 
following table of the principal cities of the United States. 
In this table "faster " means that standard railroad time is 
so many minutes laster than local time, etc. 







ind, Ml Nail j .&[Cp„Jn gr'a, Chicag o. 



ClTIPs. 

Albany 

Atchison, Kan 21 

Atlanta 

Augusta, Me 

Baltimore 6 

Bangor 

Bath, Me 

Boston 

Buffalo 16 

Charleston 25 

Charlottctown, 

P.E.I 12 

Chicago 

Cincinnati, O 

Cleveland. O 

Columbus, O 



, Minutes 

Faster, blower. 



33 



Minutes 

Cities. Faster. Slower. 

Danville, Va iS 

Denver The same. 

Des Moines 47 

Detroit 

Dubuque 3 

Fargo 27 



Galveston 

Halifax 

Hartford, Ct 

Houston 

Indianapolis 

Jefferson City 

Kansas City, Mo, 
Lacrosse, Wis. . . . 

Lincoln, Neb 27 

Little Rock, Ark. . 



Cities. 
Louisville, Kv. ..., 
Memphis, Tenn. . . . 
Milwaukee, Wis. . . 
Minneapolis, Minn 

Mobile, Ala 

Montgomery 

New Haven 

New Orleans 

New York 

Omaha , 

Philadelphia 

Pittsburgh 

Portland, Me 

Portland, Ore 

Providence, R. I. . . 



Minutes 

Faster. Slower, 
iS 
The same. 
3 



40 
19 



Cities. 
Richmond, Va. 

St. Min, N. B 24 

St. John's, N. F 

St. Louis, Mo 1 

St. I aul, Minn 12 

Salt Lake City 2S 

Santa Fe, N. Mex.. 4 

San Francisco 10 

Topeka, Kan 23 



, Minutes . 

Faster. Slower 



32 



Toronto, Can. 

Trenton 

Virginia City, M. T. 
Washington", D. C. 
Wilmington, Del. .. 
Yankton, Dak 



'5 

2S 
S 
2 

30 



THE RIBMG LARDS WHERE THEY ML 

Table showing the number of Acres of Public Land Unsurveyed in the States and Territories, June 30, 1882, 

except the Territory of Alaska. 



WYOMING TER., 

47,181,877. 





Louisiana 
515-329. 



CALIFORNIA, 

4°,495,°97- 



ARIZONA TER., 
66,454,45°- 



MONTANA TER., 
80,038,018. 



Nebraska, 
4.653.681. 



DAKOTA TER, 
66,185,119. 




NEW MEXICO TER., 
54.°57.93 




MINNESOTA, 

12,824,058. 



INDIAN TERRITORY, 

17.150,250. 




OREGON TER., 

29,819,341. 







IDAHO, TER., 
47, 1 1 r, 652. 



EXPLANATION. 



Diagram represents the total area of the public domain of the United States remaining unsurveyed, inclusive of private land claims 
surveyed up to June 30, 1882; this is exclusive of Alaska (369,529,600 acres). From this it will be seen that Montana has 80,038,018 
acres unsurveyed, while Dakota and Arizona are nearly equal , the smallest number of acres of any one State being in Louisiana, which 
occupies but a small corner of the diagram. This diagram should be studied in connection with the reference table, Our Public Lands, 
as given in this volume. 






*> feeehetien ef fie ieen in the weele. + 



IN TONS. 



EXPLANATION. 

The entire production of pig iron in the United States for the year 1881 was 4,641,564 tons, of which Pennsylvania produced nearly 
one-half, or 2,190,786 tons. This enormous production is shown by the large center circle, around which are clustered smaller circles 
showing the relative proportion of production of each of the several States; the number of tons produced is also given for each State. 
The central diagram inside of triangle shows the relative production of the leading countries of the world, from which we learn that 
Great Britain produces more than double the amount produced by this country, and Germany but a little less than the United States. 



Texas 




FOR ADDITIONAL STATISTICS SEE TABULATED MATTER. 



^*ThE Enal Prndnctlnn nf tire United SiaiEs««4- 

Diagram showing the Number of Tons of Coal Produced in the United States. 

{Saivarcfs Estimate for iSSf.) 

EXPLANATION. 

The square represents the entire production of coal in the United States, the smaller squares representing the relative proportion 
produced by each State — the State of Pennsylvania producing nearly 65 per cent, of the total amount, and with the exception of 10,000 
tons from Rhode Island, the entire Anthracite supply of the United States. 



1 ; '■ ."I'.J 

CALIFOR- 
NIA. 
236.9BO. 












A 






" 


COLORADO, 

700,000. 


KENTUCKY, 

1,100,000. 


LL OTHE 




WEST VIRGINIA, 
1,500,000. 


R 


MISSOURI, 


Alabama, 




STATES. 


KANSAS, 




1,750,000 


375.o°°- 






750,000. 












TENNESSEE 


INDIANA, 
1,500.000. 


2,26i,gi8. 


IOWA, 

1 ,750,000. 




WYOMING 




OHIO, 




8,250,000. 


PENNSYLVANIA: 




Anthracite. ... 28,500,016 Tons. 
Bituminous, - - 20,000,000 " 
Total, - - 48,500,016 " 










ILLINOIS, 




6,000,000. 







Georgia 150,000 

Michigan 100,000 

Montana 224 

Nebraska 200 



North Carolina 350 

Oregon 43. 2 °5 

Rhode Island 10,000 

Tennessee 750,000 



Utah 275,000 

Virginia 100,000 

Washington Ter 175,000 

Wyoming 225,000 



The Gotten and Macco Production of the United States. 



From the Returns of the Tenth Census. 




COTTON, IN BALES. 

Kentucky, 1,367. 
Virginia, 11,000. 
Indiana, 12,000. 
Missouri, 19,733- 



TOBACCO, POUNDS. 

STATE. TOTAL PRODUCTION. 



Kentucky, - 



171,120,784. 



Florida, 5jj, 997. 



TENNESSEE, 330,644. 




Virginia, 



7g;g88;868. 



NORTH CAROLINA. 389,598 



LOUISIANA, 508,569. 



TEXAS, 803,642. 



ARKANSAS, 608,256. 



ALABAMA, 699,654. 



GEORGIA, 814,441 



Pennsylvania, 



36,943,272. 



Ohio, - 



34-735.235- 



Tennessee, 



2 9-3 6 5.°5 2 - 



North Carolina, 26,986,213. 



Maryland, 



26,082^47. 



Connecticut, - 

Missouri, 

Wisconsin, 

Indiana, 

New York, 

Massachusetts, 

Illinois, 

West Virginia, 

Arkansas, 



14,044,652. 



12,015,657. 



i l o,6o8,423. 



8,872,842. 



6,48 



I.43I- 



5,369.436. 
3>! 



3.935.82S. 



2,296,146. 
970,220. 




MISSISSIPPI, 955,808. 



Explanation.— The U-ft-hand column of this pictorial illustration shows the relative proportion of cotton-producing States, and the amount of 
production in 1879, according to the tenth census. Taken in connection with the illustration on the opposite page, and reducing the number of bales 
to pounds, it will be seen that the United States consumes but 30J/3 per cent, of the production. 5»737. 2 57 bales were raised in 1879; 1,586,481 bales 
were used in cotton manufactures, not including the hosiery mills or any of the mills known as woolen mills. See table of Cotton Manufactures. 



F^OOID e^X!T]PF > IV s f OK THE WOREiD. 

Showing the principal Cereal Productions of the United States and the Proportion of Production of the 

Grain and Meat Supply of the World. 



.£*. 






UNITED STATES, 
3.816. 



RUSSIA, 

2.1 16. 



GERMANY, 

1,340. 



ALGIERS. 



RIVER 
PLATTE, 

>,3'0- 



GREAT 

BRITAIN, 

1,205. 



FRANCE, 
1,002. 



AUSTRIA, 
960. 



DENMARK. HOLLAND. 











287. 








250 








224 




196 




213 


SPAIN. 


SWEDEN. 


ITALY 


TURKEY. CANADA 



Proportion of Production of the Meat Supply of the World. In Thousand Tons. 



EXPLANATION. 

The centre diagram rep- 
resents the cereal produc- 
tions of the United States, 
the entire square repre- 
senting the production of 
corn, in bushels; the entire 
square next in size, that of 
wheat, etc. From this, it 
will be seen that nearly four 
times as many bushels of 
corn are produced than 
wheat. 

The diagrams at top and 
foot of page show how much 
food, grain and meat, is pro- 
duced in the world, and the 
proportion furnished by 
each country. 

The table shows the ratio 
of food (grain only) con- 
sumed and produced per in- 
habitant. Europe has a defi- 
cit of 380,000,000 bushels of 
grain and nearly 853,000 
tons of meat yearly. The 
United States have a sur- 
plus of 370,000,000 bushels 
of grain, and 1,076,000 tons 
of meat, or enough to sup- 
ply the deficit in Europe. 



CORN, 


1,754.86 


[.535- 


WHEAT, 459,479,505. 










OATS, 






407,858,999. 






BARLEY, 








44, ' 13,495- 








RYE 




IC. R3I.59S 










BUCKWHEAT. 


11,817,327. 











GRAIN SUPPLIES. 



A3 *B 
Countries. "f,~ o-s 

%z §£ 

■flv, g u 

*- u 
United States. ...48 ...41 

Russia 20. 2. ..18 

Germany 21.1...23.7 

France 19.9. ..24 

Austria 14. 3. ..13. 5 

Gt. Britain 11.9...20 

Spain 1 7.9... 1 7.6 

Italy 9-4— 9-6 

Canada 4°-3---37-9 

Belgium 1 7. 2. ..22. 8 

Sweden 11. 7. ..12 

Denmark 36. 8. ..30.8 

Turkey n — 9.7 

Australia 21 ...14 

Holland 12. 5. ..16,2 

Portugal 7.1... 8,3 



The Principal Cereal Productions of the United States. In Bushels. 



95- no. 

BELGIUM. AUSTRALIA. 



UNITED STATES, 

2,390. 




Proportion of Production of the Grain Supply of the World. In Million Bushels. 



A 



^THE OCCUPATIONS.^- 

Pictorial Illustration showing the Total Number of Persons Pursuing Gainful Occupations in the United 

States in 1880. 



PROPORTION OF SEX. 



PROPORTION OF SEX. 




Note. — It appears from these diagrams that the aggregate num- 
ber of persons having gainful avocations in the United States is 
17,392,099, being 34.68 per cent, of the entire population and 47.31 
per cent, of the population ten years of age and upward. There 
are 3,991,038 males over ten years of age unaccounted for; this is 
probably made up chiefly of the following classes: children attend- 
ing school, students who are pursuing courses of instruction, those 
who are afflicted by permanent bodily or mental infirmities, the 
members of the criminal and pauper classes, and the number of per- 
sons sixty years of age and upward, of whom there are 518,778. 




MANUFACTURING. 



TRADE AND TRANSPORTA- 
TION. 




PROPORTION OF SEX. 



PROPORTION OF SEX. 




EXPLANATION. 



AGRICULTURE. 



These tables embrace only gainful and reputable occupations. 
The inner circle of the large diagram represents the entire popula- 
tion of the United States ; subdivided, showing the number of per- 
sons having occupations and number unaccounted for. The outer 
circle represents the four great classes, viz: agriculture, professional 
and personal services, trade and transportation, and manufactures, 
including the mechanical and mining industries, and the number 
employed in each ; also accounts for the part of the unemployed as 
under ten years of age. There are 15,378,470 unemployed females 
over ten years of age. This large number is chiefly made up of the 
classes named in above note, accounting for unaccounted males, 
and of the far greater classes of women — wives, mothers, or grown 
daughters, keeping house for their families or living at home without 
any special avocation. The smaller diagrams show the proportion 
of sex in each of the four great classes of occupation. 




PROFESSIONAL. 



^ 



fQAQUFflGnzttRBS SB ¥1B W6RLI0. 

Table showing the Total Value of the Textile, Hardware and Sundry Manufactures of the World. In Million 

Dollars. Also pictorially tabulated. 



COUNTRY. 



Holland. 



161 



205 



Nor. and Sw. 34 34 219 287 



Switzerland I 

and Greece, J ^ ^ 345 384 



Br. Colonies 165 97 146 403 



Belgium, - 146 63 204 413 



Spain, - 107 29 292 42 



Italv, 



122 24 414 



Austria, - 175 73 754 i.°o 



Russia, - - 263 73 778 1,114 



Germany, 462 302 1,314 2,078 L— y& 



France, - 652 199 1,508 2,359 



Gt. Britain, 1036 754 1,897 3,687 



Un. States, 559 530 3,230 4,319 r- — 559 




Textiles, 



Hardware, 



Sundries, - 




EXPLANATION. 

The figures given represent the total value 
of the manufactures of each country in mil- 
lion dollars as estimated by the Balance 
Sheet of the World. The diagram shows the 
relative proportion of each to the other. The 
United States appear as foremost among the 
manufacturing nations, owing to the fact that 
flour, timber, etc., enter so largely into the 
list of Sundries. If table were confined to 
textiles and hardware only, Great Britain 
would be the first, the United States being 
but about 61 per cent, of that of Great Brit- 
ain. Great Britain's manufacture of sundries 
being but a little more than one-half of the 
whole amount, while that of the United 
States is about four times that of hardware 
and textiles together. 



^97- 



3^230- 



*J 






iSMLiH^rBR 6B toe ufyWR® sjpmies. 



PROPORTION OF SEX, 



Pictorial Diagrams, showing the Relative Proportions of the Native and 

Foreign Male and Female, White and Colored Population 

in the United States, according to the Tenth Census. 



PROPORTION OF SEX. 




PROPORTION OF COLOR. 




PROPORTION OF SEX. 



persons having pat 
of color, explain th' 
ulated statement of 



EXPLANATION. 

The inner circle represents the entire population of the United States, 50,155,783, as 
shown by the Tenth Census. This circle is divided, showing the native and foreign pop- 
ulation. It will be seen that the latter are about one-seventh of the whole. The larger or 
'" outer circle shows the relative population of the several States, and can be relied upon as correct. 
4/ The united population of New Jersey and Ohio, for instance, equals that of Pennsylvania, as is shown 
^ on the diagram The space given to the outer circle of diagram shows the nativities of our foreign pop- 
ation— according to the Tenth Census, 14,955,996 persons having one or both parents foreign-born, or foreign-born 
■nts both native-born. The small diagrams representing the proportion of sex in native, foreign and total population and proportion 
mselves. It is here shown that the males predominate both in native and foreign population. For fuller statistics, see page giving tab- 
die population of the United States. 




* DEBTS, CAPITAL ADD EARNINGS 0F NATIODS.* 

Pictorial Illustration showing the National Debts of the World, Debt per Capita, the Total Capital or Wealth 

and Earnings or Income of Nations, and the same per Capita, for the 

Year 1880. In Million Dollars. 





EXPLANATION. 

The diagram in the upper right-hand corner shows the wealth and income of 
nations. Great Britain possessing the largest amount of capital, while the United 
States show the largest amount of earnings as a nation. It should be observed that 
Germany, France, United States and Great Britain are given twice the width of other 
countries. The diagram on the left of page shows the proportion of the debts of all 
nations, space devoted to France, Russia and Great Britain occupying double the 
width of that of other countries. While debt per capita in the United States is but 
§30.85, that of France is $117.79, anc l Great Britain $109.04. There are six countries 
with debts aggregating more than that of the United States, and seventeen countries 
whose debt per capita is also greater. This, with table showing-wealth and income 
of nations, places the United States among the first nations of the world. 

: Including 1,362,000,000 for Alsace and 
Lorraine 

1 Including $^'7,-75 000 for 
Bosnia. 



Zl 



4.683,840,000 117.79- 



Scale. — 360 million dollars to one inch. 




Municipal Debts ef States and Principal Cities of the United States. 

Showing the Aggregate Debt, after deducting Sinking Funds. Column on left half of page shows the Town and 
City Debts of States ; that on the right hand the Debts of Cities. 



MUNICIPAL DEBTS OF STATES. 



DEBT PER 



DEBT PER 
CAPITA. 




■New-York-eitv-N-Y- 



-97^1-2- 



Philadelphia, Pa 



64.02 



Brooklyn, N. Y. 



66.29 



Boston, Mass. 



Cincinnati, O. 
Washington, D. 0. 

St. Louis, Mo. 

New Orleans. 

Jersey City, N. J. 

Pittsburgh, Pa. 

Chicago. 

Kansas City, Mo. 

Baltimore, Md. 

Providence, R. I. 

Cleveland, O. 

Louisville, Ky. 

Buffalo, N. Y. 

Rochester, N. Y. 

Cambridge. Mass. 

Charleston, S. C. 

Richmond, Va. 

Newark, N. J. 

Albany, N. Y. 

Toledo, O. 

San Francisco, Cal. 

Worcester, Mass. 

Hartford, Conn. 

Milwaukee, Wis. 

Nashville, Tenn. 

Allegheny, Pa. 

Syracuse, N. Y. 

St. Paul. Minn. 

Patterson, N. J. 

Columbus, O. 

Minneapolis, Minn. 

Detroit, Mich. 

New Haven, Conn. 

Trov, N. Y. 



Massachusetts. 



Pennsylvania. 



72.82 



96.02 



i53- 2 7 



64.46 



31.41 



-$109,425,414- 



54,223,844 



37,565,369 



26,425,008 



24,500,000 



22,675,459 



22,596,000 



17,397,583 



I5,358,435 



13,772,466 



13,043,000 



11,462,534 



11,009,199 



^,373,055 



S.ifec 



79.000 



127.21 

88.07 

25.90 
203.68 

33-43 

89.38 

50.98 

65.28 

43 - 2 4 

69.42 

9I-5I 
94-55 
70.27 
29.05 
39-81 
69-7S 
12.68 

43-61 
53-6i 
19.42 

39-32 
19.97 
26.91 
32.06 
25.29 
23, 2 4 
23-48 

7.36 8,66,080 

13.88 772,983 

11.69 657,759 

Scale.— Ten million dollars to one inch. 



liiHl 




Nevv-Ybrkr 



Sixteen million dollars to one inch. 



Pictorial Table showing the several State Debts of the United States, and the total State, County and Municipal 

Debts. (From the returns of the Tenth Census.) 



DEBT 
PER CAPITA. 



TOTAL DEBT, *STATE, fcOUNTY AND * MUNICIPAL. 



* NET STATE DEBT. 



S2934S,Z26 



2 7.44<5.43I 



Oregon, - - 84.86 
Nevada, - - 16.45 
West Virginia, J 2.45 
Mississippi,- - 1.78 
Delaware, - 16.01 
FlorWa, - - - 9.75 
Colorado, - - 18.49 
Vermont, - - 13.10 
Nebraska, - - 16.41 
Arkansas, - - 9.89 
Iowa, - - - 4.90 
N. Carolina, J - 5.85 
Minnesota, - - 10.86 
Michigan, - - 5.38 
New Hampshire, 30.91 
Maryland, - - 11.65 
Texas, - - - 7.29 
Wisconsin, - - 9.03 
Rhode Island, 47.38 
South Carolina, 13.41 
Alabama, - - 11.67 
Kentucky, - - 9.08 
Kansas, - - - 16.07 
California, - - 19.38 
Indiana, - - - 9.28 
Georgia, - - 12.76 
Connecticut, - 35.33 
Maine, - - - 34.53 
Tennessee, - 24.25 
Virginia, *[ - - 27.83 
Louisiana, || - 45.60 
Illinois, - - -14.68 
Ohio, - - - 15.24 
New Jersey, - - 43.80 
Missouri, - - 26.48 
Massachusetts, 51.19 
Pennsylvania, 26.63 
New York, - - 43.03 



23437.640 



20,716 285 



EXPLANATION OF REFER- 
ENCE MARKS. 



* The aggregate after deducting 
sinking funds. 

t Including township and school- 
district debt. 

J No state debt except her por- 
tion of the old Virginia debt, which 
has not been adjusted. 

$ March 4, 1879, compromised by 
act of legislature, at which time the 
state debt was $26,850,227. 

j] Constitutional convention of 1879. 

fl Of this amount, Virginia has 
charged $15,239,370 to West Virginia 
as her portion of the state debt at the 
time of separation. 



5 706,616 



5,566,928 



4.998,178 



4,467,600 



4,682,741 



4,039,737 





PER CAPITA. 




4,000 



.t9-47 - % Virginia. 
17.78 - - Tennessee. 
24.92 - || Louisiana. 

4.13 - Pennsylvania. 
11.31 Massachusetts. 

7.50 - - Missouri. 
6.45 - - Georgia. 
7.18 - - Alabama. 

8. 14 - Maryland. 
1.48 - - New York. 
6.67 South Carolina. 
1.72 - - - Ohio. 
4.07 £ N. Carolina. 
3.48 - - - Texas. 
3.53 - - Indiana. 
7.97 - Connecticut. 
7.21 - - Maine. 
5.01 - - Arkansas. 

10.26 N. Hampshire. 
3.81 - - California. 
3.28 - Minnesota. 
1. 71 - - Wisconsin. 
6.63 Rhode Island. 
4.21 - - - Florida. 
Kentucky. 
- - Kansas. 
Delaware. 
New Jersey. 
- Oregon. 
Mississippi. 
Nebraska. 



.66 - 
1.09 - • 
6.01 - 



2-93 
■34 
•83 
•23 

1.09 

.01 
None 



- - - Iowa. 

Colorado. 

- - Vermont. 
- - Nevada. 

West Virginia. 

Michigan. 

■ - - Illinois. 



Scale. — Six million dollars to one inch. 



II4.034.7S9 



218,723.314 



Scale. — Forty million dollars to one inch. 



sPV 



THE MONEY OF THE WOI^IiD. 

Showing the Gold, Silver and Paper Currency of the Nations of the World; also the amount per Capita 

In Million Dollars. 

* t i i 

= < o i — I 

GOLD .. 

SILVER 

PAPER 



COUNTRY. 



TOTAL PER 
CAPITA. 



Canada 5... 5... 39... 49 

Australasia 44"- 5"- 20... 69 



Nor. and Sweden... 44... 10... 44. 



Switzerland.. 



5S .. 34... 20. 



Turkey and Greece 5... 5. ..107 



Japan. 



.136... 5... 4. 



Holland 19... 58... 73.. 

Belgium 107... 63... 63... 233 

Spain and Portugal, 195... S3... 73... 35 

Austria 44... 29.. .311... 384 

South America 15... 44. ..326... 385 

Italy 39... 49. ..316... 404 

Germany 321. ..209. ..204... 734 

Great Britain 603... 93. ..219... 915 

Russia 107... 58. ..866.. .1,031 

United States 375... 151.. .642... 1,1 68 

France 375...414...438... 1,567 





107 



f>3 



195 



44 



EXPLANATION. 

This interesting table shows that the abundance of money has little to 
do with national wealth or prosperity. Spain has the most money compared 
with national industry ; England the least ; Switzerland the most coin per 
inhabitant. The actual gold and silver coin of the world is 68 per cent, gold, 
32 per cent, silver; 45 per cent, more gold and silver was minted between the 
years 1870 to 1880 than was produced. This has given rise to an ungrounded 
alarm that the world will soon come short of gold, since the mines are rather 
declining than increasing in their yield, while commerce and population are 
growing every year. Experience has shown that all gold coin is reminted, or 
at least melted down, every forty years; owing to this fact, the net increase of 
coinage since 1870 has been only 5 per cent, over the yield of the mines. 
Granting that this increase of coinage over production shall 
continue, it is estimated that the stock of gold above ground 
is 8,840 tons, and as all the gold coin only amounts to 4,100 
tons, it is clear that the uncoined bullion will suffice to cover the 
above deficit for 140 years to come. In the meantime, as na- 
tions become civilized, checks take the place of coin, and hence 
the world may in another century use as little gold as they do 
in England, where 10s. of coin are employed for every ^100 
of business. The subjoined table from the report of the 
comptroller of the currency, December, 1881, showing the total 
receipts of the national banks in New York City, in other re- 
serve cities, and of the banks elsewhere in the United States, 
on June 30, 1881, with the percentages thereto of gold coin, 
silver coin, paper currency, and of checks, drafts, etc., will 
prove interesting and illustrate the force of this statement. 
Over 95 per cent, of this im- 
mense amount was in the 
shape of checks, drafts, etc. 



63 



83 



3" 




2457 



11.42 



39-89 



5-35 



2.65 



37-71 



42.32 



17.51 



9-74 



14-59 



'4-35 



16.30 



26.51 



13-14 



23-35 



42.32 



PROPORTION or CHECKS TO CURRENCY, ETC., IN BUSINESS EXCHANGES. 





No. of Banks. 


Receipts. 


Proportions. 




Gold Coin. 


Silver Coin. 


Paper Currency. 


Checks, Drafts , etc. 


New \ ork City, - 
Other reserve cities, - 
Banks elsewhere, - 


48 

187 

i.73i 


^67,437,759 
77,100,715 
40,175.542 


27 per cent. 
0.76 " 
2 . 04 ' ( 


0.01 per cent. 
0.15 " 
0.77 


1.02 per cent. 
4.71 
15.47 


98.70 per cent. 
94.38 " 
81.72 " 


Total, United States, - 


1,966 


£284, 714,016 


0.65 per cent. 


0.16 per cent. 


4.06 per cent. 


95.13 per cent. 



STATISTICS OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN FIFTY 
PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES. 

Prepared by the United States Bureau of Education, iSSi, from official reports and other 

authentic sources.] 



Countries. 



Date 

of 

report 



United States 

Algeria 

Alsace-Lorraine 

Argentine Republic... 

Austria 

Baden 

Bavaria 

Belgium 

Brazil 

Bremen 

British Burmah 

British Columbia 

British India* 

Denmark 

Esrypt 

England and Wales... 

Finland 

France 

Greece 

Hamburg 

Hawaiian Islands 

Hungary 

Ireland 

Italy 

Jamaica 

Japan 

Luxemburg 

Mexico 

Netherlands 

New Brunswick 

New South Waks 

Norway 

Nova Scotia 

Ontario 

Portugal 

Prussia 

Quebec 

Queensland 

Roumania 

Russia.. 

Saxonia. 

Scotland 

Servi.i 

South Australia 

Spain 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

Tasmania 

Victoria 

VVurtemberg 



.S79. 
1S77. 
1S7S. 

•'■■;"■ 
1S7.S. 

'873. 

1S71. 

1S74. 

1S78 
1SS0. 
1S7S. 
1S67. 

'S74. 
1S79. 

.S79. 

1S7S. 

1S77. 

■874. 

1878. 

1S75. 

'S77. 

■S79. 

1S76. 

,879. 

1877 

1S76. 

18-s. 
.878. 

IS7S. 
1875. 

IS79. 

1S79. 

1876. 
IS7I. 

1879. 
IS79. 

IS78. 
1876. 
1878. 

1879. 

.874. 

.s 79 . 
1S70. 
1S76. 
1871. 
IS7S. 
1879. 



Population. 



Age. 



50,152,866 

3 344>749 

",531,804 
2,121,775 

21,752,000 

1,507,179 

5,022,390 

5,403/06 

12,000,000 

143,645 

3- '54,47° 

3"*. 5°° 

iS6,ooo,ooo 

j ,940,000: 

16,952,000 

2 5, 165,33" 

1,041,253 

36,905,788 

i.457,»94 
388,618 

56.S97 
15,666,000 
5.+1 1,416 

2o,Soi ,000 

510,354 
34,245,323 

204,000 
9,i76,oS2 
3.583,529 

302,371 

662,212 
'.813,424 

415,270 

1,733,236 

4,188,410 

25,7*2,404 

1,231,829 

195.092 
5,000,000 
78,500,000 
2,76b,5S6 
3.358.613 
i,33S, 505 

213,-71 

16,507,000 

4.485,542 

2,669,147 

99.328 

867,634 
i,SSi,5o 5 



14-21 
6-13 
6-14 
6-14 
6-14 
6-14 
6-14 
6-13 



6-14 

"5-16 



6-14 



6 3-i5 
7-,6 
6-13 



-14 



School pop- 
ulation. 



No. of 
Schools. 



14.062,336 

5S,ooo 

259,620 

503,07s 
3,122,863 
243.567 
745.251 
772,076 



17,892 



2,734 
240,500 



6 2, 500,000 

342,286 

6,469,087 

240,000 



6-14 


44,310 


6-14 


2,127,950 


6-12 


4.5*7.582 


6-14 

6-13 


5.251,807 
33,ooo 


6-13 

5-15 

'-■4 


596,791 
S1.6S4 

302,000 


5-i6 
6-13 
6-14 

5-16 


491.424 

615.949 

4.396,738 


6-13 
6-14 
6-14 
5-13 


700,000 

10 i5,ooo,ooo 

44 s ,Si4 

561,600 


6-13 

<■ 1 4 

116-14 


2,603,265 
765.045 
441,794 







295,923 



Number of 
Pupils. 



662 

2,734 
1,946 
15,166 
1,937 
7,184 
5,720 
5.890 
52 

3.124 
51 
14.705 
2,940 
5,562 
'17,166 

493 

7L547 

1,227 

230 

242 

I5.4S6 

7.522 

47.4H 

646 

25,459 

o 6 " 

S,ioi 

3,Si3 
1,395 
1,187 
4,736 
1,935 
5,12! 
4,5io 
34.9SS 

4.2S2 

314 
2,319 

28,357 

2,134 

3,003 

5°7 

340 

2S,ii7 

8,770 
5,008 

164 

1,664 
3,955 



9,424,086 

51,592 

217,619 

116,244 

2 . 134,683 

245,369 
841,304 
687,749 

187,915 

'7,315 
80,292 

2.194 

6i5.744 

231,953 

'"7.175 

8 3.7K>,SS3 

20,279 

4.7io,935 

Si, 440 

4\v)^ 

7.755 

1.559,636 

1.031.995 

1,931,617 

52,243 

2,162,962 

30,477 
349.000 
486,737 

54.472 
128,125 
261,622 

S4.356 
487,012 
198,131 
4.007,776 
239.808 

4i,3So 
108,824 
1,213,325 
451,324 
508,452 

22,750 

39,127 

1,410,47" 

598,354 

4",754 

12,453 

231.169I 



No. of 
Teach 



272.6S6 
1,260 
4.364 
5,893 
31,196 
3/03 
1 1,921 
ii.SoS 



400 



58 



3,464 



"69,527 
532 

110,700 
1,205 
1,826 



20,717 
10,489 
47,oS5 



59.825 
660 



I.S24 
4.030 
2,01 
6,596 



57.936 

6,132 

924 

3,"5i 

7.219 
9,477 
627 
7SS 
29,022 
9,3" 
10,156 

4,006 
5,887 



i. There are 17 different school ages in the United States; the longest extends from 4 to 
, the shortest from S to 14. ;ln< ^ tne average length of the school period is 14^ years. 
2. Several States do not report this item separately. 
3- 
4- 
5- 



Kuropean population. 
Exclusive of British subjects. 



Including infant schools. 

Estimated number of children between the ages of 7 and 13. 
7. Day schools, including infant schools. 
S. Of these 3,710,883 pupils, i,2oS,oi6 were between the ages of 3 and 7, 2,333,973 between 
7 and 13, and 168,894 were above 13 years of age. 

9. 29.716 certificated, 6.616 assistant and 33.195 pupil teachers. 

10. Estimated number of children between the ages of 6 and 14. 

11. The school age is fixed by the local school authorities. 



LETTERS EMPLOYED IN 711 
LANGUAGES— ^Prose.) 



Letter A 

" B 

" C 

" D 

■■ E 

" F 

" G 

" H 

" I 

" J 

" K 

" L 

" M 

" N 

" O 

" P 

" Q 

" R 

" S 

" T 

" U 

" V 

■I w 

" X 

" V 

" z 

Total.. 



E , ng h Fr'h. It:U ' \ S )"»- Latin Ger - 
lish ian. ish. iJ ' 1 "" man. 



64 



34 
137 
23 


q 


19 


12 


65 


2 


71 


70 


I 


2 


6 


— 


40 


47 


24 


37 


66 


73 


76 


4 


23 


33 


I 


8 


70 


73 


u 


99 
7° 


,s4 


58 


18 


■7 



99 
2 
40 
42 
131 



103 

4 



48 
55 

"1 



71 


55 


, 


107 


28 


24 


9 


'5 


52 


09 


74 


69 


55 


48 


47 


46 


'5 


10 




5 


6 


3 



120 
4 

? 

62 

44 
50 
32 
11 
77 
79 
66 
106 



64 



71 

178 

■4 

31 

40 

86 

6 

9 

29 

22 

no 

27 



84 

55 
48 
40 
9 



4 
1000 



Where blanks occur it shows either that the let- 
ter is not used, or that the use does not reach I in 
1 ,000, such as " Z," in English, or " X," in Span- 
ish. The Spanish " N," of which 55 are used, 
includes three " fi," equivalent to " ny " in 
English. 



SEXES. 

Ratio to Population. 



United States. 

England 

Scotland 

Ireland 

France , 

Germany. ...... 

Russia 

Austria 

Italy , 

ipain. 



Belgium . . 
Holland.. 
Denmark. 
Sweden. . . 
Norway . . 
Canada. . . 
Australia. 



Per 1,000. 



Male. Female. 



506 


494 


4S5 


515 


4SI 


519 


490 


5io 


496 


504 


489 


511 


497 


503 


485 


5i5 


503 


497 


496 


504 


501 


499 


490 


Sio 


491 


509 


484 


Si6 


491 


509 



EXPENDITURES FOR PUBLIC SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1882-83. 

Prepared by the Commissioner of Education. 



Alabama. 


$420, 1 38 


Arkan>as .... 




California 


2,511,07s 


Color ido .... 


367,556 
1,004.580 
a 138,819 


Connecticut . 


Delaware .... 


Florida* .... 


104,240 






II inois 


5.3iS,6 59 




f 2,97 2, 14. 


Eowa b 


3,075,870 




r 1,296,256 


Kentucky 





Statesand Sal.ir's "f Total Ex - 
Territories. Teachers, pendi'ure^ 



$448,498 
479,471 

3.312,215 
752 361 

1,813.4.86 

a 207,281 

i33,26o 

613,647 

9,097.372 

ff\ ,307,020 

5,5*5, no 

,2.194, '75 

d 1,248,524 



States and 
Territories. 



Louisiana .. . 

Maine 

Maryland.. . . 
Massachus' s 

Michigan 

Minnesota ... 
Mississippi .. 

Missouri 

\ebraska£. .. 
Nevada b. ... 
'New Hainps. 
New Jersey .. 
New York.. . 



Salar's of Tot, 1 Ex- 
Teachers, penditures. 



$148,599 

ci,ooi,470 
1. 195.984 

'4.339.37S 

",495.084 

l.oTb, 637 

7H,3o6 

2,543,582 

702, 1 27 

70,385 

4.30,352 

// 1 ,807,850 

8,265,453 



$'79, 

1,107. 

1,603. 

5,813, 

3.299, 

1.977, 

S03, 

3.767, 

1.3SS, 

i54, 

605, 

2T2.3'5, 
",973, 



States and 
Territories. 



N. Carolina.. 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 
Rhode Island 
S. Carolina .. 
Tenntssee ... 

Texas 

Vermont.. .. 

Virginia 

YV. Virginia b 
Wisconsin. .. 
Arizona 



$483, 
5,603, 
259, 
5,193, 
.342, 
341, 
795, 



Salar's of Total Ex- 
Teachers, penditures 



$582,470 

9.451.M3 

161,809 

9,335.360 



404, 

999, 

553, 

1,187, 



389.S34 

918,863 

_t- i.i 50, .332 

558,290 

1,297,620 

S79,S2o 

2,892,877 

77.99S 



States and 
Territories. 



Dakota ... 
D. of Col'baS 

Idaho 

Indian 

Montana . . 
New Mexico/ 

Utah 

Washington 
Wyoming/. 



Total. 



Salar's of Total Ex- 
Teachers, penditures 



$181,692 

317,229 

52.710 



150,000 

2S,O02 
120,290 
77,6l6 
25,804 



59,202,OlS 



*532.325 

579.312 

66,84s 

li 151,950 
260,030 

2S.973 
182,414 
144. S25 

28,504 



95,709,945 



11. In 1880. b. In 18S2. r. Includes Salaries of Superintendents 
g. Total income; expenditure not given. //. Total appropriation for 
y. United States Census of 1SS0. 



d. In 1SS1. e. Includes some contingent expenses, f. Total tuition revenue, 
salaries of teachers and other . urrent expenses, i. The five civilized tribes. 



;- 



^ 



ik~ 



712 



THE DRINK OF ALL NATIONS. 



Countries 



Great Britain 

United states 

France 

Germany 

Russia 

Austria 

Italy 

Spain 

Portugal 

Holland 

Denmark 

Belgium 

Norway and Sweden. 
British Colonies 



Total. 



Millions of Gallons. 



Wine. Beer. 



15 

30 
760 
120 

30 
300 
4S0 
220 

60 
3 



10S 



2,13.! 



,007 
440 

ion 
SSo 
63 
245 



35 

*s 

I/O 

35 
Si 



3.194 



Spirits. 



37 
76 

34 
60 
■45 
30 



27 



Equiva- 
lent in 
Alcohol 

67. 1 

00. 5 
101.0 

Solo 

53° 
50.2 
24.0 
7.0 
8.2 

5-> 
II. 4 

■5-4 

25 2 



473 5 s 7-2 1 70 



Alcoho. 
Gallons 

per 
Inhabi- 
tant. 

1 .92 

■•31 

2.65 

1 60 
1-05 
' 45 
1.76 
■■4 s 
■■55 
2.05 

2 60 
2.07 
2.27 
1. So 



HOGS, NUMBER AND SLAUGHTER. 

Table showing 1 the number of hog's in the world, number killed yearly, 
amount of meat produced, average number of pounds per carcass, anil 
pounds per inhabitant. 



Thousands Omitted. 



Countries. 



Mulhall states that the following - is the rati 
insane: United States, 26 per cent.; Scotland, 2S 
cent.; Italy, 12 per cent. 



.0 of dipsomaniacs to all 
per cent.; France, 21 per 



United States 

Great Britain 

France 

Germany 

Russia 

Austria 

Italy 

Spain and Portugal 
Belgium and Holland. 
Norway and Sweden.. 

Switzerland 

Roumania, etc 

Canada. 

Australia 

River Platte, S. A 

Cape Colony, Africa. . 



Total 95,754 



No of Killed Meat 
Hogs. Yearly Tons 



,6So 
.190 
,Sio 
,130 
»5M 

,«iN, 
-S70 
.323 
,006 
,040 

335 
■ 3"o 

tl 
302 
164 



32,000* 1,420 

2,100 145 



3,900 

4,Soo 

7.000 

4,700 

1,000 

3,000 

650 

700 

200 

1,500 

900 

500 

200 

100 



63,850 3,212 



240 
2S5 
W5 
275 
55 
■30 
36 
34 
10 
60 
45 



Average 
lbs. per 
Carcass. 



100 
■55 

138 
■33 
140 
129 
124 
Si 

"5 

■09 
112 
88 
112 
00 
90 
90 



■■5 



Lbs. of 
meat per 
Inh.ib. 

60 

9 
'5 
'5 
12 
16 

4 
■4 

9 

? 
■9 
23 
■5 

6 

8 



GROWTH OF NEWSPAPERS. 



THE RELIGIONS OF THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS. 



United States 

Great Britain 

France 

Germany 

Russia 

Austria 

Italy 

Spain 

Portugal 

Belgium 

Holland 

Norway and Sweden 

Switzerland , 

Spanish America...., 

Brazil 

Australia , 

Canada 

India 

West Indies 

Sandwich Islands..., 

Africa , 

Japan 

Turkey, etc 



Total 3,63s 



No. of Papers. 



1S40. 



830 

491 

776 

3°S 

204 

13-: 

210 

Is 

52 
26 
104 

11 



63 

37 



■4 



1882. 



No. of 
Towns in 



11,052 
1,817 

'.230 
2,35° 

436 
865 

1,124 

2;^ 
42 

412 

210 
230 

♦34 

870 
296 
270 
565 
644 
60 
6 
62 
34 
72 



619 
120 
9' 



7 ? 
28 

3 
24 

■9 

■3 
6 

74 



9 

1S0 



30 
'7 



■,QQ3 



Newspa- 
pers per 
Town. 



■5 

■5 
■4 

21 

5 

23 
■5 

9 

'4 



18 
72 
12 
'5 
■7 
62 
4 
6 
6 
5 



Date of 

1st Paper 

A. D. 



■7°t 

If',22 
l605 

■524 
1714 
I550 
I562 
1704 

■704 

■757 
1044 

■73S 

17S0 
■ S03 
'765 
1781 
■731 
■S35 
1S24 

■797 



■ 524 



The Chinese have had newspapers at least ten centuries. 

In the above table only towns of over 20,000 population are counted 



Thousands omitted. 



j Roman 
Catholic 



Protest- 
ant. 



United States 

Great Britain 

France 

Germany 

Russia 

Austria .. 

Italy 

Spain 

Portugal 

Belgium 

Holland 

Denmark . 

Sweden and Norway. 

Switzerland 

Greece 

Servia 

Roumania 

Turkey 

Canada 

Spanish America 

West Indies 

Australia 



Total 192,147 



■43 

;^7 
S67 
7S0 
430 
663 
410 
260 
410 

3 "3 



4 

"J 

2S0 

1,150 

i,!40 

!,4So 

604 



42,Soo 
29,390 

25-580 

4,132 

3,57° 

59 



2, "93 

',930 

6,115 

1,067 

I 

I 

■4 

45 

2,100 

"5 
1,030 
2,220 



■23.567 



28 
r,i6i 
1,520 



,442 

810 



70,034 



Jews. 



1 10 

51 

49 

5" 

2,29s 

■,370 

35 

3 



400 

75 



47 



5,040 



Mahome- 
tans. 



5,662 
449 



3,532 



9,652 



THE PRINCIPAL LANGUAGES OF THE WORLD. 

Table showing' the principal languages spoken throughout the civilized world. 
(Thousands omitted). 



Countries. 



Great Britain 

I'"i ince 

Germany , 

Russia , 

Austria 

Italy 

Spain 

Portugal 

Holland 

Belgium 

Sweden and Norway 

Switzerland 

United States 

British Colonies 

French Colonies 

Spanish America.... 

Brazil 

The East 

The World 



35>200 
1S0 



S 
'5 

3 

5 

50.300 

u,6So 

30 

90 



lOO 

36,400 

600 
200 
100 
840 
60 

10 
20 



99,861 







100 

800 

43.V» 

3.700 

ii.Soo 



,,S20 


240 


40 


60 


608 


2,031 


S40 

1,220 


6..30 


2,360 


10 


'5° 
20 


So 


430 


50 



68,826 



40 
250 



450 
27,330 



162 

160 

40 
50 



420 



29,'?73 



16,390 
30 



3/0 

40 

30 

22,300 

460 

i,iSo 



4n. s \?S 



DO 

S,i 3 o 
370 

12, Sin 



63,200 
3,230 



5 



30 



THE SAVINGS BANKS OF NATIONS. 

Table showing total number of depositors, the percentage of 
depositors to population, total amount on deposit and amount per 
inhabitant, January, tSS4. 



United States 

Great Britain 

France 

Germany 

Russia 

Austria 

Italv 

! Switzerland 

Spain 

Belgium and Holland. 

240 l Norway and Sweden.. 



66,725 



Total . 



Thousands Omitted, 



No. of 
Depos- 
itors. 



3,000 

3.7 "5 

3,900 

4,200 

200 

1,850 

1,970 

i.oSo 
250 

310 

1,600 

22.075 



Total 

Amount of 

Deposits. 




$3,' 14,356 



Depositors. 
Per Cent, to 
Population. 



■S.3 
10.6 
10.3 
9-4 
0.3 

& 

35-3 
i-5 
3-3 

1S.1 



'2.3 



Amount 

per 
Inhabi- 
tant. 



$20 24 

10 97 

S 05 

' 'J 

24 

it 22 

5 8e 

21 46 

73 

3 92 

■6 34 



J 10 05 



-4r 

•fie 



liL 



LEADING AGRICULTURAL CROPS OF THE WORLD. 



7'3 



Countries. 



United States 1S77 

Austria 1S71 

Baden 1873 

Bavaria 1S73 

Belgium 1873 

Denmark 1S71 

Finland 1870 

France 1S73 

Great Britain 1S73 

Ireland 1873 

Greece 1867 

Hesse -Darmstadt 1S73 

Holland 1S73 

Hungary 1873 

Italy.,. ' 

Norway 1S73 

Portugal 1S65 

Prussia 1S67 

Roumania 1S73 

Russia 1870 

Saxe-Altenburg 1S73 

Saxe- Weimar 1873 

Saxony 1871 

Servia 1868 

Spain [857 

Sweden 87 2 

Switzerland j iS' 8 

Turkey i^os 

Wurtemberg 1873 



Date 
of 
Sta- 
tistics. 



Total 
Area. 



Acres. 

2,lS4,COO,0OO 

74,180,173 
3.774.358 
19,360,64s 

7.27S.S72 
9,448,691 

93.37'. 2 5S 

■3o.733.SS" 

57.623.333 

2o,Sn,s57 

11,706,143 

2,072,512 

8,123,200 

80,027,559 
64,080,565 
78,663,021 
22,508,50s 
SS.7SS.437 
89,893,638 

I,26S,SOO,S22 

326,55s 

SSo,7co 

3.704.070 

10,762,876 
125,223,666 
1 10,629,417 

10,234,802 

S9.957.IS3 
4.803,57' 



Land 

under 

Tillage. 



Acres, 

200,000,000 
22,273,312 

1,498,969 
7,666,407 
3,926,704 
3.434.925 

1. 93 1. 659 
64.984,100 
18,317,276 

5,283,92s 



1,043.620 

2,437.0.33 
27,966,121 



1,570,631 
4.55'.4O0 



S,656,77o 



190,579 

49S,665 
1,863,328 



6,257,567 



j.'"i.j); 



Wheat. 



Bus'iels. 

364,104,186 
35.945.699 
4.347.248 
21,026,587 
24,682,369 



53.922 
237.998,066 

104.512,354 

3,871,032 

5, 102, S94 

27S.I3S 

5,238,650 



107,38 1 ,oSo 



5,684,696 
73.731,406 



221,714,919 
425,019 
792,61 1 



4,086,720 
"7.563,372 
2 ,455,429 
V45>528 
40)867,200 
7, ,135 



Bushels. 
21,170,100 
74,407,428 
■,263,47s 
24,550,562 
13,367,392 



9,024,840 
58,971,844 

1,779,420 
178,510 
123,009 

2,259,660 

S, 137,443 



S,740,SS7 



6,240,450 
173,4S5,733 



616,954,569 
i,'75,S46 
>,757,i36 



Sio.S^o 
25.511,775 
'5.9SS.926 

8,684,680 
10,216,800 

1,635.485 



Barley. 



Bushels. 

34,441,400 
46,234,017 

3,343,i64 
17.501.S14 

3,565.090 



4,994,SSo 
53. '63,763 
91,513.013 
8,385,154 
2,059,506 
3,i79.9oS 
4.699,546 



13,321,21s 



1 ..,85,01,3 
86,742,609 



124.255.047 

sv.,^i> 

1.989.665 



5,005,040 

S'M7 '.'"-' 

12,574.379 

'.430,352 

25.5(2,ooo 

5,358,653 



Oats. 



Bushels. 

406,394,0,10 

91.4S6.937 

3,iSS,777 

2S,897,9'4 

21,777,2+8 

27,564,583 

4,S52,oSo 

192,677,482 

123,248,640 

57,o5S, 5 02 

200,028 

2,729,146 

11,110*821 

41,374,609 



9,633,196 

568,449 

227,434,922 

8,449,464 

590,740,010 
".003.390 
2,538.874 

3.969.S45 
5 1 0,^.40 



3',945,5'6 
5,212,736 
3,065,040 

0,2'»J,->32 



Potatoes. 



Bushels. 

170,002,000 

17S.429.626 

20,433,600 

59.77S, 270 

60,803,44 1 

14,625,690 

7,095.000 

374,216,236 

S6,293,26l 

124,509.304 

iS,390 

15.251,505 

53,309,155 

l -'',S-' '-7'i 

-"•'' ' '-T-' I 

lS,S47,584 

(,785,041 

51.9,720,471 

380,292 

326,906,51s 

2.671,353 

5,261,894 

41.304,494 



6,356,016 
44,704,176 



19,850,5 84 



Aver- 
age 
Yield of 
Wheat 

per 
Acre. 



Bu. 

13 i 

■5 6 
16.9 
29.2 
27.9 
195. 

17.1 

29.9 

23- 

13-5 

39-0 

24.8 

12.6 

23 3 
'3 2 
17.6 
■3-8 

2S!7 

17.2 
27- 

16.1 



16.6 



THE LAND OF THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS 

Showing the total cultivated and uncultivated land, its total value 
value per inhabitant, and value per cultivated acre. 



Countries. 



United States.., 
Great Britain. . , 

Canada 

France 

Germany 

Russia , 

Australia 

Italy 

Spain 

Portugal , 

Belgium , 

Holland 

Denmark. 

Sweden , 

Norway , 

Argentine Rep., 
Greece 



_ Total 7^i 7,5^3 



Acres (millions). 



Culti- 
vated. 



170 

47 
16 

% 

195 
57 
27 
22 
4 
5 
5 

6 



Un- 
culti- 
vated. 



1,635 

23 

1,902 

49 

57 
S94 
85 
41 
90 
'7 



S6 

70 

773 

9 



1.S05 

7o 

1,91s 

116 

125 

1,089 

142 

6S 

112 

21 

6 

7 

8 

9S 

73 

777 



Millions 
Dollars. 



9.615 

8.6S5 

900 

13,120 

10,300 

6,930 

6,450 

4,050 

3,.;oo 

790 

1,225 

1,000 

1,050 

1,560 

550 

610 

525 

71,630 



Per 
Inhab- 
itant. 



iS S 
240 

210 

350 
225 
90 

1 So 
140 
200 
1 So 
230 
265 
55o 
33o 
300 
225 
2S5 

'95 



Per cul- 
tivated 



35 

165 
40 
180 
12s 



110 

90 

125 

240 
210 

,6 5 
00 

55 



SHEEP, NUMBER AND SLAUGHTER. 

Table giving number, average slaughter each year. ' Tons of mutton pro- 
duced, per 100 inhabitants. 



Countries. 



J5 



The above does not include public lands in the United States, Canada, 
Australia or the Argentine Republic. 



River Platte 

Australia 

United States. 

Russia 

Great Brittain 

Germany 

f r.ince 

Austria 

Spain and Portugal... 

Italy 

Cape Colony 

Algeria 

\ T orway and Sweden. 

Canada.. 

Greece 

Roumama 

Belgium and Holland. 



rotal 4oS,577 



Thousands Omitted. 



^(ft 



6.000 
4,000 
14,000 
19 600 
11,200 
10,100 
9.300 
8,000 
I0,2OO 
2,S0O 
2,400 
3.000 
2,O0O 
1,300 
900 
2,500 
OOO 



106,500 



IOO 
90 
340 
370 
2§5 

i9S 
16S 
160 
120 

55 
40 

55 
43 
35 
i5 

.6 



2,134 



Per 100 Inhab'ts. 



CO 



2,540 
2,410 
95 
60 
79 
55 

% 

125 

25 

1,070 
290 

57 
75 
138 

77 
16 



109 



200 
140 

27 
24 
32 
22 
26 
23 
50 
10 
230 
100 
23 
30 
55 
31 



HOUSES AND THEIR VALUE. 



Of the Principal Nations of the World. 



Countries. 



United States 

Great Britain 

France 

Germany 

Russia 

Austria 

Italy 

Spain and Portugal . . . 

Belgium 

Holland 

Norway and Sweden. 



Total . 



Houses. 
Thousands 



0.152 
8, s >3 
5.;;o 
9,150 
6,290 
4,420 
3,8 10 
1,060 
720 
1,200 



283,205 



Value. 
Millions, 



$13,000 
1 1,400 
9,450 
7,350 
4.400 
3.850 
J,28o 
2,100 
700 

f° 
650 



57,66o 



Average 

per 

House. 



*i,555 
1,760 
1,065 

■,275 
4S0 
620 
7'5 
555 
660 
775 
545 



1,015 



Average 

per 

Inhab. 



$265 
325 
250 
16S 



260 



Inhab. 

per 
House. 

5^6 
5-4 
<-3 
7 7 
9-1 
5-0 
"3 
5-4 
S-i 

69 



6.6 



AGGREGATE PRODUCTION OF PRECIOUS METALS 
IN ALL COUNTRIES FROM 1493 TO 1875. 

From "Edelmetall-Produktion Beits der EntdPcknng Amerikas," Gotna, '79. 



Germany 

Austria-Hungary. . 
Rest of Europe. . . . 

Russia 

Africa 

Mexico 

New Grenada 

(Peru 

Potosi (Bolivia) ... 

Chili 

Brazil 

United States 

Austria. .... 

Various Countries. 



Silver. 



$269. 7 ',1,330 
264,961,603 
251,888,604 
S2,SSo,29i 



2,600,280,659 



l,o65,357,oS4 

l,2S6,999,947 

89,024,29s 



179,874,123 
6S,a 14,000 



6.159,241,94s 



Gold. 



$226,248,247 



507,749,653 
359.325,340 
[30,174,390 
596,501,675 
80,327,582 
144,39s, 100 
120,467,140 

; 347,107 

095,126,015 
889,063, Soo 

74.45S.340 



4,643.057,395 



Total. 



$269,731,339 

491,200,850 

25i,S8S,6o4 

590,629,944 

359.325,340 

2730,455.055 

596,501,675 

1.1 15,684,666 

1 . 1 j 1 ,308,047 

218,491,438 

509.347. '°7 

1,175,000,138 

bS9,963,8oo 

[42,702,340 



10,802,329,343 



\p- 



l& 



714 



THE ARTILLERY OF THE WORLD. 



There are about 37,000 pieces of cannon, of which only 20,000 
can be said to be in use. 



Countries. 



France 

Germany 

Russia 

Great Britain 

United States 

Austria 

Italy 

Spain 

Norway and Sweden 

Turkey 

Holland 

Denmark 

Brazil 

Japan 

Portugal 

Rouinania . . 

Greece 

Belgium 



Army. 



■,983 

2,040 

2.2S7 

702 

I0O 

1,540 

50O 

34S 

30O 

650 

»5° 
106 

So 
120 

92 
1S0 

96 
204 



'",39* 



Navy. 



2.S34 
570 
836 

1,480 

1,055 
320 
4S0 

525 
672 
200 
560 
245 
166 
149 

36 
70 



10,376 



Fortirica- 
tion.Arse- 
nals, etc. 



2,Sco 

2,770 

2,010 

2,000 

3,000 

1,000 

500 

300 

100 

100 

120 

170 

200 

100 

no 

94 
no 
40 



•5.5*4 



Total. 



7.57* 
5.380 
5.'*4 
4,182 

4.> 55 

2,S6o 

1,480 

'.'7i 
1,072 

950 
S30 

S*i 

416 

369 
3S0 
310 
276 
244 

37,*94 



At the close of the Franco German War the Germans took from 
the l-'rench 7,234 pieces of cannon, including 3,485 field pieces and 
3,300 fortress guns. The cost of heavy guns is as follows per ton: 
Cast iron, $105; Armstrong, $500; Krupp, $850; Whitworth, $875. 



THE PUBLIC WORKS OF NATIONS. 

The value of the Public Works of principal nations, including Roads, Canals, 
Streets, Sewers, Public Buildings, Fortifications, Arsenals, with the total value 
and ratio per inhabitant. 



Countries. 



United Slates 

Great Britain 

France 

Germany 

Russia 

Austria 

Italy 

Spain 

Portugal 

Belgium 

Holland 

Denmark 

Norway and Sweden 

Switzerland 

Greece 

Canada .. 

Australia 

Argentine Republic 
Mexico 

Total 



Value in Million Dollars. 



Roads 

and 
Canals. 



870 

810 

1,485 

'•% 
400 

no 
50 
10 

5° 
••S 
•5 
125 
70 
10 
55 
4° 
5 
'5 



5.065 



Streets, 

Drains, 

etc. 



230 

340 

170 

1S5 

'3° 

65 

•■5 

5° 

10 

4"> 
3° 
10 

■5 
■5 
5 
'5 



Public 
Build'gs. 



695 
570 
475 
375 
220 

"95 
'^ 
85 
20 
35 
30 



30 
30 



3,010 



Fortifi'ns, 

Arsenals, 

etc. 



840 

1 01? 

82b 

610 

390 

2S0 

265 

"5 

35 

to 

450 

20 

65 

45 

10 

50 

5o 



5,160 



Total. 



2,635 


$50 


2,735 


75 


2,950 


80 


2,210 


So 


1,120 


■5 


940 


25 


655 


22^ 


300 


20 


75 


20 


205 


40 


6*5 


■65 


55 


30 


225 


35 


«5o 


55 


35 


20 


150 


35 


140 


So 


30 


■5 


60 


5 



■7,*95 



&a 



S40 



POSTAL STATISTICS OF TWENTY-ONE NATIONS IN 1881. 

[Condensed from the Annual Report of the Postmaster- General of the United States for 1SS3.] 



Countries. 



Argentine Republic. 

Austria 

Belgium 

Canada 

Chili 

Denmark 

France 

Germany 

Great Britain 

Hungary 

India, British 

Italy 

Japan 

Netherlands 

Norway 

Portugal 

Russia 

Spain 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

United Suites 



Number 

of 

Postoffi- 

ces. 



4.033 

852 

6,171 



56. 

6,15! 

n.oSS 

14,91s 

2,414 

4,522 

3.420 

5,094 

1,300 

93S 

903 

4.52" 

2,655 

i.Soo 

2,874 
44.5'* 



Domestic Mails. 



Number of 
Letters. 



7.256 

■79,452; 

65,771 

56,200, 

8,499 

23.57*: 

535.54 ■■ 

5 6 3.225 

■,229.354 

60,966, 

1 25,960, 

'53.73*. 

42.021, 

49.609, 

9.567. 

■4,038, 

0,330, 

82,235, 

27.5"9. 

49.273. 

1,046,107, 



751 
500 

77S 

1KNI 

999 
"5- 
373 
,7°° 
,800 
754 
304 
395 
■ 26 

033 
S44 
5So 
292 

.338 
212 

029 
)4§ 



Number of 
Postal 
Cards. 



No. of Letters 

and Postal 

Cards to each 

nhabitant. 



Q3 i.Soo 
730,o 
300,000 
7S, 4 6g 
211,805 
589,09* 
,992,200 
,329,000 
,780,982 
865,121 

.845.985 

,832,912 

499,73' 
324.506 
992,772 
685,709 
258,640 
,640,979 
188,785 
556,440 



2.9 
9.8 
14.9 
■S-5 
3-8 
12.0 
15.1 
15.S 
3»-7 
4-9 
0.6 
6.1 
1.8 
'5-8 
S-' 
3* 
1.0 

4-9 
6-3 
19.9 

*7-3 



Number of 
Newspa- 
pers. 



",957. 

75.97*. 

74.S69, 

12,005, 
8,276, 

26,990, 
320,188, 
439.0S9, 
140,789, 

29, 1S0, 



09,509 
22,24s, 
36,646, 
",738, 



92,602,626 



25.407.749 
5i,6S7,o75 

^52,1X0,7112 



Length of 

Railroad 

Routes. 

Miles. 



■,5'5 
7,211 
2,598 

43,097 
1,105 
1,004 

16,822 

20,573 
jRep'rt 
8,470 
9,460 
5.5*6 



1,238 



■4,439 
5.032 
3,735 
1,670 

■47.37' 



Length of 
interior 

routes not 
R. R. 
Miles. 



■9,259 
25,166 



3.62S 



33,37* 

44,70* 

NoRep'rt 

20,S&9 

34,6 

17,019 

35,666 

5. '54 

5,9" 

5.625 

77.S04 

37.20* 

■5.744 

2,994 

23'.306 



Gross 
Postal 

Revenue. 

Dollars. 



417,169 

9,052,172 

2,463.7iO 

2,022,oyS 

3'5.S55 

1,205,560 

30,593.7'3 

41,004,843 

35. 138,000 

3,405,527 

4,700,782 

5.957.463 

1,519.497 
1,868,429 

501,130 
558,374 
1 1,850,772 
3,194,820 
1,506,560 
3,608,944 
38,926,088 



Net Postal 
Revenue. 
Dollars. 



J,457.9'8 

8V...7X8 

*437.*58 



3,98o,oSS 
5,881,463 
13,705,020 

r 05,722 



763.3S4 
264,169 
531,166 



•1,278,292 

2,014,220 

216.620 

406,856 

♦2,883,613 



* Deficiency. Since 1SS1 the United States Postoffice has shown a surplus of revenue over e 

VITAL STATISTICS OF FOREIGN AND AMERICAN CITIES. 

Collected from the Reports of Boards of Health, and for the year 1883 in most cases. 


xpenditure. 

COPPER PRODUCTION 
OF THE WORLD. 






City. 


Death 
rate to 
every 
1,000 
inhabi- 
tants. 


City. 


Death 
rate to 
every 

I.OOO 

inhabi- 
tants. 






Death 

rate to 
every 
1,000 

inhabi- 
tants. 


City. 


Death 

rate to 
every 
1,000 

inhabi- 
tants. 


Countries. 


1S70. 


1880. 




Chili 


30,200 
12,650 
7,220 
4,000 
6,850 
5»5oo 
1,100 
2,000 
2,000 
9.700 


36,800 

34,200* 
3.4IO 
5,100 

10,140 
6,100 

21,300 


City. 


United States 








34.20 
26.99 
22.93 
29.04 
21 .01 
33-70 
26 70 
22.76 
3'. 35 
22.04 
23.90 
3'-'0 

19. Q2 
IS.SO 
21 . 12 
I7.46 


Copenhagen .... 
Dublin 


22.00 

25.60 
29.10 
19.20 
28.25 
25-52 
45-7o 
21 .60 
21. So 
24 . 30 
26 60 
20.40 
37-40 
25 50 
3'- 63 
19 45 


Munich . ... 


30.90 
30.60 
19-50 
37-20 
31.98 
33- 10 
25.40 
29.42 
25.81 
22.40 
2S.50 
25-44 
20.34 
20.65 
19.50 
22.90 


Rio de Janeiro.. 


39-40 
26. So 
24.06 
19-74 
5I-40 
19. So 

21. 60 
23.IO 
2O.9O 
25.6O 
64.60 
25.90 
70.50 
2S.27 
23-3S 
25.6O 






St. Petersburg.. 
San Francisco.. 












13,100 






New Orleans. .. 
Nottingham 


82,120 


i33,oSo 






*For the year 1SS1. 


Brooklyn 


The above table does not in- 




Valparaiso . ... 


clude Japan, which produces 




3,000 tons yearly, all being re- 






Pittsburgh 

Providence 

Quebec . 




tained for home consumption. 






Copper ores vary from $15 to $25 




Washington .... 


per ton, and refined 
ages $350 per ton. 


copp 


;r aver- 



srt 



J? «*- 



715 



INCREASE OF COMMERCE AND BALANCE OF TRADE 



Countries 



United States 

Great Britain 

France 

Germany 

Russia 

Austria 

Italy 

Hofland 

Belgium. 

Spain and Portugal . . 
Norway and Sweden . 
Turkey. Greece, etc... 

Australia 

Canada 

South Africa 

India 

West Indies 

South America 



The World 10,192,150 



Gross Trade. 



000 s are 
suppressed. 

187-. 



000 s are 

suppressed, 

1SS0. 



S37 

2,66i 

1,211 

>.3'3 

535 

40S 

360 

345: 
3": 

■99 
204 
40S 
277 
100 

33 
413 

g2 

413 



,000 

•SS 

i3«5 

55 1 

.'5° 

,600 

01 

410 

360 

465 

300 

.... 

305 

,450 
,920 
5*5 
440 
525 



1 ,464,000 

1.336.58° 
[,6i5,iSo 
t,S6S,i6o 
929.215 
oSi.ioo 
467,040 
564.335 
505.055 
248.115 
267,5; 
306,4b;, 

432 985 
170,270 
82,710 
4SI.635 
102,160 
437.S50 



Increase, 
ooo's are 
luppressed. 



627,000 
'575,425 
403.79S 
554.6lo 
304,065 
272,500 
107,030 
2 '8,925 
'94,595 
48,650 

63.275 



i3.96',35o 



i55,0So 

9,S2o 

4?.79o 

68, 1 10 

9.720 

24.325 



3, s 7'.3i5 



Average of Tex Years. 



Imports. 

IS 7 C. 



535,000,000 

[,804,015,000 

758,840,000 

8l7,32O,0O0 

301,630,0 X) 

350,275,000 

248,1 I 5,000 

2*8 >•'•-, 200 

2(8, 1 15,00 
116,760,001 
155,380,000 
126,490,(00 
199.4^5,000 
87,570/ 00 

19,460,000 
170,270,000 

48,650,00 ■ 
204,300,000 



0,430,930,000 



Exports. 
1SS0. 



589,000,000 
r , 35^.470,000 
671,37 '»oo 
773-535>o o 
272,440,000 
321/90,000 
228,655,000 
1 39,735,000 
194,600,00 . 
107,030,000 
121/30.000 
1 11,^5,0 o 

tNj 735.OOO 
72.975.nOO 
24,325,000 

2 77.3°5-oo 
js, 050,000 
223,790,000 



5,769,230,000 



Cl'kkent of Bullion. 



Surplus Im- 
ported 
since 1S70. 



Surplus Ex- 
ported 
since 1870 . 



I 2.476,375 

662,613,000 



51,569,000 

221,746,700 
20Q, ■■ p;,i n 

18,487,1 00 



9."I.87S 
335.052,550 

2,091,^50 



241,304 OOO* 



9S759.500 
6,8l l .' 00 
2,529,So 1 



225,970,250 
v 94.700 



381,902,500 



632,353» I 5° o62,SS ,750 



* Down to iSTSthe United SLites had exported $379,465,0^0, but in the years 1S79 and 18S0 the net importation was 
other hand great Britain no longer imports bullion, but exported $34,055,000 since 1879. 



about $138,166,0:0. On the 



GOLD AND SILVER COINS OF THE UNITED 
STATES AND CHANGES IN COINAGE. 



Gold Coins Authorized by Law. 



Double-eagle March 3, 1849 

Eagle, April 2, 1792 

Eagle, June 2S, 1S34 

Eagle, January 18, 1S37 

Half-eagle, April 2, 1792 

Half-eagle, June 2S, 1834 

Half-eagle, January iS, 1837 

Three-dollar piece, Feb. 21, 1S53. 

Quarter -eagle, April 1,1792 

Quarter-eagle, June 25, 1S34 

Quarter-eagle, January iS, 1S37... 

Dollar, March 3, 1849 

Silver Coins. 

Dollar, April 2, 1792 

Dollar, January, 1837 

[Coinage D scontinued by ac' uf February 

Trade Dollar, February 12, ,$73. . . 

Half dollar, April 2, 1792 

Half-dollar, January iS, 1S37 

Half-dollar, February 21, 1853 .... 

Half-dollar, February 12, 1S73 

Quarter-dollar, April 2, 1792 
Quarter-dollar, January iS, 1S37... 
Quarter-dollar, February2i, 1S53.. 
Quarter dollar, February 13, 1S73.. 
Twenty -cent piece, March 3, 1^75 

Dime, April 2, 1792 

Dime. January iS, 1S37 

Dime, February 21, 1S53 



Fine- 


Weight 


ness. 


Grains. 


9 


5-6 


g:6y, 


270 


899K 


258 


900 


250 


S'6% 


■35 


S99V 


129 


900 


129 


900 


77 4 


9.6^ 


°7H 


S99V4 


64« 


900 


64 V, 


900 


25.8 


892.4 


4l6 


9 


4I2>4 



Total ain't coined 
to J an. 30, 1876. 



• • $765,656,740 00 
v.. 56,651,120 00 

[■-. 69,344,98000 

1,295,56s 00 
i 

26,789,970 00 

!9 343,aiS 00 



r 



Dime, February 12, 1873 

Half-dime, April 2, 1792 

Half-dime, January iS, 1S37.. 
Half-dime, February 21, 1S53 



901 


420 


S92.4 


20S 


900 


206'/ 


900 


192 


900 


192.9* 


892.4 


104 


900 


103H 


900 


90 


900 


90.4.5 


900 


77.16 


392.4 


41 .6 


900 


vK 


900 


3S.4 


900 


38. 5S 


S92.4 


20.8 


900 


zoYt 


900 


19.2 



i . . S,045,S3S co 
2, 1S73.] 
... i5.4 l8 .45o 00 

. 109,123,190 50 



.. 27,189,946 50 
(6}£ grams) 
('5 grmb)269,4iS co 



., 14,086,716 30 
(2 14 grams) 

\ . . 4,006,946 90 
[Coinage discontinued by act of February 12, 1S73.] 



Three-cent piece, March 3, 1S50. . . 
Three-cent piece, March 3, 1S53. .. 



7SO 
900 



12^ 
ix. 52 



1,2.81,850 2S 



* The half-dollar authorized by the law of February 12, 1S73, weighs 
* 2 V& grams, and equals half the value of the five-franc pieces of France, 
Belgium and Switzerland, the five-lire of Italy, five-peseta of Spain, 
five-drachma of Greece, and equals the florin of Austria. 



COIN MINTED SINCE 1870. 



Countries. 



United States 

Great Britain 

Australia 

Germany* 

Austria 

France 

Russia 

Belgium 

Holland 

Italy 

Norway and Sweden 
Mexico, Peru, etc. . . . 

Japan 

India 

The World . 



Gold. 



391,146,000 

197.519.00 > 

133,301,000 

424,228,000 

24,325,000 

156,409,750 

121,630,0 o 

So, 272 500 

58,3,80,000 

' 7.5 8 9.4°o 

10,703,000 

10,216,000 

5,35' -5"o 

180,500 



I- ilver. ' Total 



I5 2 » S 5 S >300 
3 ',622,500 

102,651,500 
72,975,000 
93 ,804,500 
48 650,000 
46,217,500 
973,000 
39>596,25o 
10,216,000 

"4.3 3 7.500 
22,379 o°o 

184,870 000 



1,621,557,650 921,231,050 2,512,788,700 



541.004,300 

229 141,500 

133,301,000 

526,879 500 

97,300,000 

250,304,250 

170,280,000 

1 26,490,000 

59.353.ooo 

t7.i\V5° 

20,9 '9,000 

i24,543.5oo 

27,7 $0, 500 

iS5-3S6,5oo 



PRECIOUS METALS, PRODUCTION SINCE 1870, 



Countries. 


Gold. 


Silver, 


Total. 




383,362,000 
337,631,000 

24,325,000 
233,520,000 


328,874,000 


712,236,000 
337^631,000 
398930,000 
306,495,000 




374,605,000 

72 ..975, coo 










978,838,000 


77" 154.000 









Production of Iron and Steel Works in United States. 



Iron and Steel Products. 


Census year 
1S80. 


Census year 
1S70. 




Net Tons. 

3.7Si,02i 

2,353t24S 

SS^So'i 

91,143 

70,319 

4.956 

72,557 


Net Tons. 
2,052,82 1 
1.14I.S23 


Open-hearth steel finished products 


2S,O0O 

iio,SoS 








7,265,140 


3.' 55-2'S 





V 



Ma_ 



•k 



ne 



LEGISLATURES OF THE WORLD. 





Uppeh House. 




Lower House. 




Countries. 


HOW CHOSEN. 


LENGTH 
TERM. 


NO. 


HOW CHOSEN. 


I. KM. I'll 
TERM. 


NO. 


Remarks. 


tine Republic 


stat'- Legislator 
i rown and hereditary- 
Citizens, property test. 

1 Crown and indirect / 
j flection (" 

Governor General 


Life 

8 yrs. 
Life 
Life 

Q 

Life or 

9 yrs. 

Life or 
9 vrs - 

Life 

4 

Life 

6 

9 

Life 

Life 

6 
3 

6 

Life 

Life 

Life 

12 

ioor 

life 

9 

IO 

6 


28 
104 

6S 

77 

58 

20 
27 

!• 66 
18 

(■300 

59 

537 

188 
7°5 

270 

54 

39 

39 

45 

10 
28 

44 

■33 

3° 
76 

18 

1 
\" 

■37 
44 
16 

36 

7 

7° 


Popular suffrage - 

Property-holding citiz. 11^ 

Property-holding citiZL-n> 


3 yrs. 

4 
4 
5 
3 

3 

4 

Until 
dissolu- 
tion 

3 
5 

2 

4 

5 

4 
3 

2 
4 
3 

5 

3 

5 
3 
3 

3 
2 


5° 
=53 

I 3 5 

122 
206 

"66 

102 

30 

538 

397 
>6 5 8 

445 
508 
331 

86 
102 

88 

1 1 

86 

no 

99 
433 

55 
'57 

46 
332 
204 
135 

32 

86 

M 

3 2 5 


Compensation, $3,500 per annum. 

Elected at different times, as the crown 




may order. 
Only natives eligible. One Representative 




to 40,00^ inhabitants. 
Senators must be 40 years old; Deputies 




Popular suffrage 

Popular suffrage ... 

Popular suffrage 

Citizens 30 years old 

Popular suffrage 

Household suffrage < 


I latnolics; both natives. 
Slight property qualification required of 




voters. 
One Representative for 20,000 inhabitants. 


Culombia(U.S.)— - 


State Legislatures 

Hereditary and elect "v - 

Indirect election 

Appointed by States.. 

( Hereditary, crown ( 
j and church J 

Elected by the people.. 
Hi miliary and church. 

Hereditary and crown. 

State Legislatures 

States, from rich 


Each Statu bus 43 Senators. Representa- 
tives according to population. 

Members of either house must be at least 25 
years old. 

Congress meets annually, September 15. 

Senators must be 40 years old; Deputies 25. 




Prussia has 17 members Upper House; 236 


Great Britain 


of the Lower House. 

The election is by ballot. A member of the 
House must be 21 years of age. No com- 
pensation is allowed. 

Only one body, called Boule. 






The citizens of full age may vote, if they 


Italy 




pay taxes amounting to $4 a year. 

A voter must be 25 years of age, and tax- 
payer to the extent of §8 a year. 

Senators must be 30 years of age; Repre- 
sentatives 25. 

Property test for voters exceptionally high. 
Clergymen disfranchised. 




Netherlands 

New South Wales. . 


People, property test 






tion is by ballot. 
A moderate property test required of voters 

and legislators. 
No propei tv test is required. 












sli ht property test for voters,who must be 






Indirect election 

People, property test 


25 years of age. 
The ratio of representation is one member 






for 20,000 inhabitants. 




Mostly nereditary 


personal tests applied. 
Electors must be at least 25 years of age. 


Queensland 




Voters may vote where they have property 
and where they reside. 


Popular election 

\ Hereditary, elective I 








choose the Legislators. 
Members of the Upper House must be 30 

years of age; of the Lower, 21. 
The Senate has no fixed number of mem- 








bers, nor uniform method of designation. 
Senators receive no pay; Repres ntatives. 




Popular election 

j Elected, smaller prop- 1 
| erty test J 


small salaries. 


Tasmania _ _ 


Elected, property test . . 


to cither house. 

Besides elected Legislators, are ex-officio 
members holding other important offices, 
and resident subjects possessing degrees 

Clergymen and felons are ineligible as 
legislators. 

Slight property test for voters. A legislator 
must bold real estate to the value of $5.00 . 

A Senator must be 30 years of age; a Rep- 
resentative 25. Each house sole judge 
of the election and qualification of its 
members. 


Western Australia. 
United States — 


Appointed 

State Legislatures 


Elected 





Note. — In the preparation of the above tables, reliance has mainly been placed upon the Statesman* s Manual for 1881. No country which 
does not enjoy anv of the rights of self-government, however important in other respects, has a place in this connection. Of the several States of 
the United States it may be added, that each has two legislative bodies, both elected by popular vote, and that, under the 14th amendment to the 
Constitution of the United States, no citizen can be deprived of the right of suffrage on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 
No State allows female suffrage, nor does any require an intelligence test. 



CONGRESSIONAL APPORTIONMENT. 

The number of Representatives in the popular branch of the Congress of the United States to which each State will be entitled, from March 4, 
1883, to March 4, 1893, based on the tenth census, is as follow.-: 



Alabama - 8 

Arkansas 5 

California 6 

Colorado 1 

Connecticut 4 

Delaware 1 

Florida 2 

Georgia 10 

Illinois 20 

Indiana 13 



Iowa.... 11 

Kansas .. 7 

Kentucky _ u 

Louisiana 6 

Maine _. 4 

Maryland 6 

Massachusetts 12 

Michigan n 

Minnesota _ 5 

Mississippi 7 



Missouri 14 

Nebraska 3 

Nevada _ 1 

New Hampshire 2 

New Jersey 7 

New York 34 

North Carolina 9 

Ohio. .21 

Oregon 1 

Pennsylvania 28 



Rhode Island 2 

South Carolina 7 

Tennessee 10 

Texas 11 

Vermont 2 

Virginia 10 

West Virginia 4 

Wisconsin 9 

Total. ..,..325 



LONGEST RIVERS OF THE WORLD AND HIGHEST MOUNTAINS. 

Contrasting the Geographical Features of the Old World with the New. 



717 



River's Name 



Missouri 

Mississippi . 



Amazon 

HoangHo 

Murray 

Obi 

Nile 

Mackenzie 

Yang Tse Kiang 
Congo 



Lena 

Niger 

St. Lawrence . 
Volga ._.- 



Chukiang ... 

Indus ._ 

Danube 

Ganges.. 

Brahmaputra. . . 
Columbia 



Colorado 

Susquehanna — 

James 

Potomac 

Hudson -. 



Country. 



North America . 



Brazil 

China .... . — 

Australia 

Siberia . 

Egypt, Abyssinia. 
B. North America 

China 

Africa 



Siberia . . 
Soudan _ 
Canada 
Russia .. 



Siam . 

Hindostan 

Germany 

British India 

Thibet 

North America . 



Rises In. 



Rocky Mountains 
Lake Itaska — 



Andes 

Koulkoun Mts 

Australian Alps. 
Altai Mountains. 
Central Africa..- 
Rocky Mountains 

Thibet 

Central Africa.. 

Irkutsk Heights 
Base of Mt. Loma 
River St. Louis 
Valdai Hills, Vol 

housky 

Thibet 

Little Thibet .... 

Black Forest 

Himalaya 

Himalaya 

Rocky Mountains 



San Iaba 

Lake Otsego 

Allegheny Mts . 
Gt.BfkBone Mts 
Adirondacks 



Empties In. 



Mississippi Riv.* 

Gulf of Mexico 

Atlantic 

GulfofPechili... 
Encounter Bay 

Sea of Kara 

Mediterranean . 
Arctic Ocean ... 

China Sea 

Atlantic 

Arctic Ocean ... 
Gulf of Guinea 
Gulf Si. Lawrence 

Caspian Sea 

Chinese Gulf 

Arabian Sea .. . 

Black Sea 

Bay of Bengal... 

Pacific Ocean 

Gulf California 
Chesapeake Bay 

Bay of New York 



Length. 



4*5«»* 
3,200 

3,200 
3,000 
3,000 
3,000 
3,000 
3,000 
3,000 
2,500 

2,500 
2,500 
2,060 

2,000 
1,700 
1,700 
1,630 
1,600 
1,600 
i, 090 

2,000 
500 
500 
400 
3«5 



Average 
Breadth. 



800 ft. 

3,oco ft. 

2 miles 
Unknown 
500 ft. 
35o ft- 
500 ft. 



1,000 ft. 
950 ft. 

1,050 ft. 
1,900 ft. 
2 miles 

1. 000 ft. 



800 ft. 
2,500 ft. 
1 mile 
500 ft. 
550 ft. 

650 ft. 
100 ft. 
150 ft. 
200 ft. 
800 ft. 



Distance 
Navigable. 



2,500 miles from 
river Mississippi. 
Arms, inlets,bran- 
ches,&c, 15,000 m. 
2,500 n. 
Unknown 
Sometimes 900 m. 
Unknown 
220 m. 
2,000 m. 
1,500 m. 
280 m. 

3,000 m. 
200 m. 
750m. 

850 m. 
Unknown 
600 m. 
600 m. 
500 m. 
100 m. 
165 m. 

669 m. 



150m. 
140 m. 
160 m. 



Draining Area. 



510,000 sq. m. 

Ter'y of U.S. bet. 

Alleg'y & R'ky M 

2,500,000 sq. m. 

200,000 sq. m. 

500,000 sq m. 
Nearly all Siberia 

150,000 sq. m 



750,000 sq. m. 
800,000 sq. m. 

600,000 sq. m. 

Unknown 
400,000 sq. m. 

500,000 sq. m. 
200,000 sq. m. 
280,000 sq. m. 
250,000 sq. m. 
700,000 sq. m. 
200,000 sq. m. 
250,000 sq. m. 

375,000 sq. m. 
100,000 sq. m. 
150,000 sq. m. 
200,000 sq. m. 
250,000 sq. m. 



Name Signifies. 



Mud River. 

Father of Waters. 
River of Amazons. 
Yellow River. 
Name of Discover'r. 
Unknown. 
Genius of the Wat'rs 
Name of Discover'r. 
Son of the Sea. 
Now changed to 
Livingstone. 

The River. 

Name of Patron St. 



Pearl River. 
Sindhu or River. 
The Gift. 
Stream. 
Sacred River. 
N. of VesT in which 
Capt. Gray dis. riv'r 
The Beauty. 

In hon'r of K... I as. I. 

In hon'r of Disc'v'r. 



*From its source to Gulf of Mexico. 



Mountains. 



ON THIS CONTINENT. 



Names of 
Mountains. 



Sorata 

Aconcagua 

Illimani 

Arequipa 

Chiinborazo — 

Nevadod'Chorolque 

Cotopaxi 

Antuco - 

Antisana 

Tolima 

Popocatepetl 

Orizaba 

Pinchinca 

Descabezado 

Cerro de Potosi 

Mt. Whitney 

Gualtieri 

Mt. Shista 

Gray's Peak 

Pike's Peak 

Breckenridge Pass . 

Fremont's Peak 

MiddlePark 

Long's Peak 

Mt. Lincoln 

Mt. Ranier 

Argentine Pass 

Mt. Hood 

Uncompaghre M'n 

Mt. St. Helens 

Chuquibamba 

Black Mountain 

Analache 

Mt. Washington 

Cayambe 

Mt Marcy .-. 

Evan's Peak 

Mansfield . 

Rosa's Peak _ 

Peaks of Otter 

Torrey's Peak 

Round Top 

St. Elias 

Mt. Brown 

Pass of Antaraugra. 
Mt. Fairweatber .. 

Harvard — . .- 

Yale 

Princeton .......... 



South America. 



New Granada 

South America. 



California ...... 

South America. 

California . 

Colorado 



Wyoming. 
Colorado . 



Washington Ty 

Colorado 

Oregon 

Colorado 

Oregon 

South America 
North Carolina. 
South America 
New Hampshire 
South America. 
New York . . . 

Colorado 

Vermont 

Colorado 

Virginia 

Colorado ... 

New York 

B. North America 

South America. . 
North America.. 
Colorado 



Location. 



Bolivian Andes.. 
Chilian Andes .. 
Bolivian Andes.. 
Peruvian Andes 

Ecuador 

Chilian Andes ... 

Quindiu Andes.. 
Mexico 

Ecuador 

Chilian Andes ... 
Bolivian Andes.. 
Rocky Mountains 
Bolivian Andes... 
Rocky Mountains 



Bolivian Andes 

Appalachian Range 

Bolivian Andes 

White Mountains 

Andes of Ecuador 

Adirondack Mts 

Rocky Mountains 

Green Mountains 

Rocky Mountains 



Rocky Mountains — 
Catskill Mountains. 
Borders of Alaska... 
Rocky Mountains... 
Peruvian Andes 
Russian Possessions 
Rocky Mountains. .. 



Ele- 
vation. 



24,800 
22,422 
2 1 , 1 50 
20.320 
21,422 
16,546 
18,887 
13.050 
19,1 .8 
18,270 
17-540 
17,176 
15,922 
12,102 
16.04a 
14.887 
22,000 
14.442 
14,^50 
M-336 
11,000 
*3>570 

8,800 
14,272 
14,190 
14,444 
13,000 
11,225 
14,540 

9.750 
21,000 

6,707 
18,500 

6,293 
19,648 

5.402 
M 330 

4,279 
14,340 

4,260 

r 4.33 6 
3.804 
19.000 
15 900 
16,199 
14,796 
14*384 
14,150 
14,199 



IN THE OLD WORLD, ETC. 



Names of 
Mountains. 

Himalayas 

Petermann 

Chumulari . 

Hindoo Koh 

Hindu Kush 

Mt.Roa 

Mont Blanc 

Mt. Rosa 

Matterhorn 

Demavend ._._ 

Mt. Berapi 

Mt. Ophir 

Mt. Indrapura 

Mt. Abong Abong.. 

Mt. Ararat 

Lesser Ararat 

Peak of Teneriffe.. 

Miltsin _ 

Mt. Lebanon 

Mt. Perdu 

Mt. Etna 

Monte Corno ...... 

Sneehatten .... 

Jebel Serbal 

M. Sinai, JebH Musa 

Olympus 

Pindus 

Parnassus 

Mt. Hecla 

Ben Attow 

Ben Nevis 

BenMcDhui 

Mt. Vesuvius ' 



Country. 



Hawaii- 
Savoy .. 



Italy-— 
Persia ... 

Sumatra 



Armenia 

Canaries 
Morocco . 

Syira 

France ... 

Sicily 

NapUs ... 
Norway . 
Arabia ... 



Greece . 



Iceland .. 
Scotland . 



Naples . 



Location. 



Thibet . 



Afghanistan . 

Mountain Range . 

Oceanica 

Alps 



Pennine Alps 

Elburz Mountains... 
Indian Archipelago. 



Noah's Mountains .. 



Africa .. 

Atlas Mountains . 

Taurus Range 

Pyrenees- _. 

Mediterranean ... 

Appennines . 

Dovrefeld .... 

Horeb 



The Peleponnesus . 



Central Greece... 

Rangarvalla 

North Highlands. 
Grampians 



South Italy. 



Ele- 
vation. 



28,178 
28.156 
23.946 
20,600 
20.000 
16.000 
15,786 
i5>38o 
M.835 
13.000 
12,400 
13,800 
i.3i5°° 
13,100 
17,212 
15,908 
12,236 
12,000 
10,600 
10,950 
10,835 
9.523 
8,115 
8,278 
9,280 
9754 
7,677 
8,068 
5.106 
3-998 
4.379 
4,296 
3 932 



Lakes. 



5-5 
5-5 
4.6 
4.0 
4.0 
3-i 
3-o 
2.9 
2.9 

2-5 

2.2 

2.6 

2-5 

3.5 

3-4 
3 1 
2.2 
2.2 

2.0 
2.1 
2.1 
i-7 
i-5 
t-5 
i-7 
1-7 
15 
1.6 
1.0 
0.7 
0.7 
°-7 
0.7 



Names. 



Superior 

Baikal .... 
Michigan ... 
Great Slave 
Winnepeg... 

Huron . 

Erie 

Athabasca . 

Ontario 

Nicaraugua . 



Length Area 
Miles. Sq. Miles. 



360 

375 

320 

300 

260 

250 . 

240 

230 

180 



32,000 
i7,75o 
22,4' o 
8,000 
8,500 
21,000 
9,600 
4,600 
6.300 
2,830 



Names. 



Maracaibo .. .. 

Great Bear 

Ladega 

Champlain . .. 
L'ko'the Wo'ds 
Great Salt Lake 

Constance 

Geneva 

George 

Cayuga 



Length 
Miles. 



100 
150 

120 
126 
8S 
75 
40 

53 

38 
38 



Area 

Sq. Miles. 



7,500 

14.000 

6,804 

15,000 

7,650 

2,290 

200 

400 

114 

100 



;r 



7 i8 



FOREIGN MONEYS AND THEIR ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS. 



COUNTRY. 



GOLD COINS. 

Denomination. 



Legal 

weight in 

grains, 



Sterling 
value 



SILVER COINS. 

Denomination. 



Legal 

weight 



Equivalent 
weight of 
standard sil- 
ver in Troy 
ounces. 



Intrinsic value with silver 
Troy ounce. 



it per 



$od. 



S id. 



$*<*• 



53* 



60% d„ t.e. 

Gold to 
silver as 
15.5 is to 1 



America 

Austro-Hungary. . 



See United States. 



Belgium , 

Brazil 

Chili, Colombia, Uru 
guay , 



China 

'Denmark. , 
Egypt. . . . 
Finland.. 
France... 



Ducat 

8-florin or gulden piece 
See France and footnote. 
10 milreis 



doubloon or 5-peso piece 



German Empire. 
Great Britain... . 



Greece 

Holland and Java. 



10- crown piece.... 
100-piastre piece. . 
10-markkaa piece. 
10-franc piece 



Crown of 10 rcichsmarks 
Sovereign of 20 shillings 

See France, and footnote 

Ducat 

io-flonn piece 



India , 

Italy 

Japan 

Mexico 

Netherlands. 



Norway and Sweden. 



Ottoman Empire. 
Persia 



Mohur of 15 rupees. . 
See France, and footnote 
10-yen piece 

-peso piece 

See Holland 

See Denmark and foot 

note 

Turkish pound of 100 pi 

astres 

Thoman of lo^shahis... 



Peru and Venezuela.. 

Portugal 

Prussia 

Roumania 



Russia 

Servia and Bulgaria.., 

Spain 



10-sol piece 

row n of 10 milreis..... 

See German Empire 

See France, and footnote 



3-rouble piece 

See France, and footnote 



Switzerland .. 

Tunis 

Turkey 

United States 
Uruguay . 



Doubloon of loescudos. 

25-peseta piece 

See France, and footnote 

10- piastre piece 

S e I ttoman Empire. . .. 

Eagle of :o dollars . ... 

'See Chili, and footnote. . 

Venezuela \Se * Peru, and footnote.. 



53-SS 
99-57 

"3S.3S 

117.70 



69.14 
132.00 

49.78 
49.78 



6"-45 



53-92 
103.71 



1S0.00 



257-2" 
261.12 



111.36 
58-03 

248.91 
273-70 



129-43 
124.46 

30.09 

25-80 



094 
o 15 I0j^ 

' 2 S % 

o 18 9 



o u 0% 
o 5 
7 "X 

o 7 11K 



9 9% 

1 o o 



9 4^ 

16 6% 

1 9 2% 

2 o 11^ 

2 o S% 



o 18 oJi 

9 5 

' "9 7K 

2 4 43£ 



o TA 
o 19 10 

o 4 9V2 

>'"'"'K 



Florin or gulden of 

100 kreutzer 

y t florin 

milreis of 1,000 reis 

1 peso of loocentavos 
Tael of 10 mace or 100 
conderin or zooocash 
1 crozvn of 100 ore . . 
1 piastre of 40 paras. 
I mark of 100 penni. 

5-franc piece 

1 francot ioocentim's 

1 reiclismark of 100 

pfennige. ...... 

Crown of 5 shillings 
Shilling- of 12 pence. 

Rixdaler of 2% flori's 
Florin of ioo cents. . 
Rupee of 16 annas, 64 
pice or 192 pies 



I yen of loosen..... 
1 pesoof loocentavos 



t piastre of 40 paras. 
Banabat of 10 shahis 
Sol of lodineros or 

100 cents 

Teslon of 100 reis. . . 



Rouble of 100 ko- 
pecks 

Tchetvertak or % 

rouble.. 
scudo (or % dollar) 

of [o reals 

Peseta of ioocentim's 



Piastre 

Trade dollar 

Dollar of 100 cents. 
% dollar of 50 cents 



190.5 

82.4 

196.8 

385-8 

583-3 
"5-7 
■9-3 
So.o 
385-8 
77-2 

85-7 

436-4 

§7-3 

385.8 
"54-3 

1S0.0 

416.0 
417.8 



18.6 
80.2 

3S5-8 
38.6 



320.0 

So.o 

200.3 
77-2 

46.7 
420.0 
412.5 
192.9 



0.3S6 
0.097 

0.406 

0.7S2 

1.28S 
0.209 
0.039 
0.156 
0.7S2 
0.145 

0.174 

0.9C9 
0.1S2 

0.S21 
0.328 

0.372 

0.S43 

0.849 



0.035 
0.163 

0.7S2 
0.0S0 



0.626 
0.156 
0.406 

0.145 

0.095 
0.S5I 
O.S36 

0-39" 



s. d. 

' TA 

> 4% 

1 &y t 
3 3 

5 4K 
o 10% 

2 
TA 

h 

9'A 

9 
\% 



s. d. 

i 1H 
> 5 

> m 
i 4 



Hi 



4 

ta 



3 10 



6% 
6'A 



SH 

4^ 



h 



'H 
o SJi 



3 3 

4 



TA 

TA 

&'A 
TA 

•M. 
6'A 
?A 

TA 



s. d. 

1 8 
> 5 

1 9 

3 4& 

5 7 
1034 

O 2 

O 8 
3 iX 
o TA 

o 9 
3 "H 

9'A 

3 6K 

' 5 

1 TA 



o IX 

8% 



4 3 
4 o 



2 S 

8 

1 8% 
o TA 

4X 

3 7'A 
3 6& 



S'A 

s'A 

9% 

s'A 

5 S'A 



$'A 
S'A 

9% 

o'A 

9% 

TA 
S'A 



7K 

m 

9 



'X 

o 8% 



l 3/ * 

o 8y t 



4X3 S'A 
4Ko 4 Ji 



8% 

S 

1 9 
o TA 



3 8K 

3 TA 



2 9X 
o S% 

' 9A 
o T4 

5 

3 9 

3 I* 



s. d. 






°x 



6'A 
°X 

9 l A 

m 

toy, 
TA 



10% 

3* 

3X 



3 i'A 

\X. 



o g'A 

a oX 

o 8% 

SX 
4 3X 

4 m 

1 11X 



Explanatory Notes. — Fr tnce, Belgium, Italy, Greece and Switzerland constitute what is known as the " Latin " Union, and their coins are 
alike in weight and fineness, occ tsionally differing, however, in name. The same system has been in part adopted by Spain, Servia, Bulgaria, 
Russia, Finland and Roumania, but they have not joined the Union. Francs and centimes of France, Belgium and Switzerland are respectively 
designated lire and centesimi in Italy; drachma! and lepta in Greece; dinars and paras in Servia; pesetas and centiinos in Spain; leys andbanis in 
Roumania; Ievas and stotinkis in Bulgaria. Similarly the Scandinavian countries, \ T orway, Sweden and Denmark, employ coins of the same 
weight and fineness, their names b jing also alike. The Venezolano (of 10 decimos) of Venezuela and the sol (of 10 dineros) of Peru, are alike 
interchangeable, as also are the peso of Chili, Colombia and Uruguay. 



VALUE OF FOREIGN COINS IN UNITED STATES MONEY. 

As Proclaimed by the Treasury Department, Jan. i, 1S83. 



COUNTRY. 



Austria 

Belgium 

Bolivia 

Brazil 

British Poss 

in N. A. . 

Chili 

Columbia. . . 
Cuba 

Denmark 

Ecuador. . . . 

Egypt.. ..... 

France. 
Great Britain 

Greece... 

German Emp 
Hawaii I.. 
Havti 



MONETARY 
UNIT. 

r 1 Lorin 

Franc 

Boliviano... 

Milreis of 

1,000 reis. 

Dollar 

Peso 

Peso. 
Peso 

Crown 

Peso 

Piaster 

Franc 

Pound sterl 

ing 

Drachma. . . 

Mark . .. 

Dollar 

Gourde. . . , 



STANDARD. 



Silver 

Gold and silver 
Silver 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold and silver. 

Silver 

Gold and silver. 

Gold 

Silver 

Gold.... 

Gold and silver. 

Gold 

Gold and silver, 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold and silver 



value 
in u. s. 

MONEY. 



.40,1 

.'9,3 
.81,2 

•54-6 

1. 00 
.91,2 

.Sl,2 
•93.3 

.36,$ 
.8l,2 
.04,9 
.19,3 

4.86,6^ 
•19.3 

.33,8 

1. 00 
•96-5 



STANDARD COIN. 



5, 10 and 20 francs. 
Boliviano. 



Condor, doubloon and 

esc u do. 
Peso. 
1-16, H, %, l A and 1 

doubloon. 
10 and 20 crowns. 
Peso. 

S»>o, 25, co and loopiast. 
5, 10 and 20 francs. 

%. sovereign, sovereign. 
5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 

drachmas. 
5, 10 and 20 marks. 

1. 2, g and 10 gourdes. 



Italy.... 
Japan. . . 

Liberia. 
Mexico . 



Netherlands 
Norway. . . . 

Peru 

Portugal.... 



Russia. 
Spain.. 



Sweden 

Switzerland 
Tripoli ... , 



Turkey 

Venezuela.. 



MONETARY 
UNIT. 



Rupee of 16 
annas. . 

Lira 

Yen 



Dollar., 
Dollar.. 



Florin 

Crown 

Sol 

Milreis of 

t,oo 1 reis. 
Rouble of 
100 copecks 
Peseta of 
100 centimes 
Crown.. 

Franc 

Mahbub of 

20 piasters 

Piaster 

Bolivar 



STANDARD. 



Silver 

Gold and silver. 
Silver 

Gold 

Silver 

Gold and silver. 

Gold 

Silver 

Gold 

Silver 

Gold and silver. 

Gold 

Gold and silver. 

Silver 

Gold 

Gold and silver, 



VALUE 
IN U. S. 
MONEY. 



,jS,6 

■19.3 
.87,6 



.40,2 

.26,S 

.Sl,2 

1.0S 

•65 

•19.3 
.26,8 



•73.3 
.04,4 

■'9.3 



STANDARD COIN. 



5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 lire. 
, 2, 5, 10 and 20 yen, 
gold and silver yen. 

Peso or dollar, 5, io, 
25 and 60 centavo. 

o and 20 crowns. 
Sol. 

2, 5 and 10 milreis. 

% t % and 1 rouble. 

5, 10, 20, 50, 100 pesetas. 
10 and 20 crowns. 
5, 10 and 20 francs. 



2 5* 50, 100, 250, 500 piast. 
5, 10,20. go, lool'oolivar. 



& 


?. 


_fc_ 
























- . 9 


£• 




COMPENDIUM OF REFERENCE, 

Embracing Miscellaneous Tables, showing the Financial, Political, Military and Naval History of the United States from 1789 to 1884 


r 

» 




inclusive, and over One Hundred Thousand Import 
THE FINANCIAL 


int Facts, invaluable for the 


Merchant, the Professions, the Writer, or Speaker. 
UNITED STATES. 






HISTORY OF THE 






From Washington to Arthur, Showing the Public Debt, Gross Revenues, Expenditures, Imports and Exports. 






Y'r. 


President. 


Public 
Debt. 


Revenu's 


Expend- 
itures. 


Exports. 


Imports. 


Y'r. 


President. 


Public 
Deut. 


Revenues. 


Expendi- 
tures. 


Exports. 


Imports. 






.7S9 
1790 
1 791 


Washing't'n 
Washingt'n 
Washing't'n 












■S3? 

■S 3 S 
'S30 


VanBuren. ■ . 


336,957 


27.SS3.S53 
39.019.382 
33,881,242 


37,265,037 
39.455.437 
37.6i4.936 


117.419.376 
ioS,4S6,6i6 
i2i,oSS,4i6 


140,989,217 

"3.717.404 

162,092,132 












20,205,156 
19,012,041 


23,000,000 
29,200,000 


\*.inBuren. . . 


3,30s, 1 24 






75.463.476 


10,210,025 


7.207.539 


VanBuren.. 


10,434,221 






■79 ' 


W^hinyt'n 


77,227,924 


8,740,766 


9.'4'.569 


20,753.098 


31,500,000 


1S40 


VanBuren . 


3.573.343 


25.032,193 


28,226,533 


i32,oS5,93S 


■o7.64',S'9 






1793 


Washing't'n 


80,352,63, 


5,720,624 


7.529.5;s 


26,109,572 


31,000,000 


.S41 


W. Harrison 


5,250,876 


3o.5'9.477 


3'.797.53o 


!2i,S5i,So3 


'27.946,177 






1794 


Washing't'n 


7S.427.404 


10,041,101 


9,302,124 


33,026,233 


34,000,000 


.S+2 


J- Tyler 


i.>.594.48i 


34.773.744 


32,936,876 


104,691,531 


100,152,087 






'795 


Washing't'n 


So,747,5S7 


9,4i9,So2 


io,435.0-;9 


47.9S9,472 


69,756,26s 


1S43 


J. Tvler 


t32.742,922 


20,782,410 


12,118,105 


S4,346,4So 


64.753.799 






1796 


W'ishingt'n 


83,762,172 


8.740,329 


8,367,776 


67,064,097 


81,436,164 


iS+t 


J.Tyler.... 


23,461,652 


31.198,555 


33,642,010 


111,200,046 


108,435,035 






'797 


lohn Adams 


S2,o64,479 


8,758,916 


8,626,012 


56,850,206 


75. 379.406 


1&4S 


J. K.Polk... 


15.925.303 


29.94 '.S53 


30.490.40S 


1 14,646,606 


n7.254.S64 






179S 


John Adams 


79,22S,52U 


8,209,070 


S,6i3,5i7 


61,527,097 


6S.551.700 


1S46 


J. K.Polk.. 


15.550,203 


29.699.967 


27.632.2S2 


ll 3 ,4SS,5i6 


121,691,797 






"799 


lohn Adams 


7S,40S,f6q 


X2.62I.459 


".077.043 


78,665,522 


79.089,148 


1S47 


J.K.Polk.. 


38,826,535 


55.338,168 


60,520,851 


1 53,648,622 


146.54S.63S 






1S00 


lohn Adams 


82,976,294 


12,451,184 


11.9S9.739 


7o,97o,7So 


91,252,76s 


1S4S 


J. K.Polk.. 


47,044 ,S62 


56,992.479 


60,655,143 


154.032,131 


1S4.998,92S 






1S01 


T.Je-fferson. 


83,038,050 


■2,945.455 


12,273,376 


94,115,925 


"1.363,513 


1S49 


Z.Taylor.... 


63,061,858 


59.796,892 


56,386,422 


'45.7S5.S20 


147.S57.439 






1S02 


T.Jefferson. 


80,712,632 


'5.oo'i39' 


13,276,0s, 


72,483,160 


76,333.366 


iSso 


M. Fillmore. 


63,4;2.774 


47.649.3SS 


44,604,718 


l5l.SoS,790 


178,138,318 






1803 


T.Jefferson. 


77.054.6S6 


17,064,097 


",25S,9S3 


55,Soo,oS3 


64,666,613 


1S51 


M. Fillmore. 


68,304,706 


52,762,704 


4S476, 104 


2iS,3SS,on 


216,224,932 






1S04 


T.Jefferson. 


86,427,120 


",835,840 


12,624,646 


77.699.074 


iS5,ooo,ooo 


1S52 


M. Fillmore. 


66,199,342 


49.s93.n5 


46,712,60s 


209,658,366 


212,945.442 






1S05 


T.Jefferson. 


82,312,150 


i3,6S9, 5 oS 


'3.727.124 


95,566,021 


1 20,600,000 


1S53 


F. Pierce.. . . 


59,803, 10S 


61,500,102 


S4.S77.o6' 


230,976,157 


267.97S.647 






1S06 


T. Jefferson. 


75.7*3. 2 70 


i5,6oS,S2S 


I5.07o.o93 


101,5=6,963 


129,410,000 


1S54 


F.Pierce. .. 


42,242,222 


73,802,291 


75.473.119 


278,241,064 


304,562,381 






1S07 


T.Jefferson. 


69,218,39s 


i6,39 s .0'9 


11,292,292 


108,343,151 


138,500,000 


'S55 


F.Pierce ... 


35,586,957 


65.351.374 


66,164,775 


275.156,846 


261,468,520 






180S 


T. Jefferson. 


65. 196.3 '7 


17.062,544 


16,704,584 


22,430,960 


56,990,000 


1S56 


*F. Pierce.. . 


31.972,537 


74,056,899 


73,185.644 


326,964,90s 


314.639.942 






1S09 


J. Madison. 


57,023,192 


7.773.473 


13,867,226 


52,203,333 


59,400,00c 


'857 


J. Buchanan. 


28,699,83 1 


6S,969,2I2 


71.071.713 


362,960,60s 


360,890,141 






1810 


J. Madison. 


53.i73.2i7 


12,144,206 


13.319.9S6 


66,657,970 


S5,4o6,ooo 


1S5S 


J. Buchanan. 


44,91 1, SSi 


70,372,665 


81,690,521 


324.644.421 


2S2.613.150 






1S11 


J. Madison. 


4S.005.5S7 


'4.43 '.S3S 


i3,6oi,SoS 


6i,3i6,SS3 


53,400,000 


'859 J • Buchanan . 


58,496,837 


8',75S,557 


83,756,020 


3S6.789.46 1 


338,768,130 






ISI2 


J. Madison. 


45.209,737 


22,639,032 


22,279,121 


3S.527.236 


77,030,000 


1S60 J. Buchanan . 


64,842,287 


76,841,407 


76,984,84s 


400,122,297 


362,166,254 






18.3 


J. Madison. 


55,962,827 


40,524,844 


39,190,520 


27.S55.927 


22,005,000 


iS6i,A. Lincoln. . 


9o,5So,S73 


83,371.640 


SS,2S3,744 


243.97i.277 3!S.6So,i53 






ISI4 


J. Madison. 


Si,4S7,S46 


3*.559.536 


3S,02S,23o 


6,927.441 


12,965,007 


1S62 A. Lincoln. . 


524,170,412 


5S1.679.915 


570.S59.141 


2io,6S8,675 


205,771,729 






1S.5 


J. Madison. 


99,833,660 


50,961,237 


39.582,493 


52.557-753 


113,041,200 


1S63 A. Lincoln.. 


1,119,772,13s 


8S9.379.652 


895,822,360 


241.997.474 


252.919.920 






1SI6 


J. Madison. 


127.334.933 


57.'7'.42> 


4S,244,495 


Si, 920,452 


147.103.040 


1S64 A. Lincoln.. 


'.81S.784.370 


1,392,500,716 


■.29S.S94.656 


243.977. 5S9 


329,562,895 






1817 


J. Monroe. . 


■23.49',965 


33.833.592 


40,877,646 


87,671,560 


99,250,000 


iS6 5 


A. Lincoln.. 


2,6So,647,S69 


1.805,939,345 


1,907,171,366 


201,558,372 


248,555.652 






1S1S 


J. Monroe 


103,466,633 


2i.S93.93* 


35.'04.S75 


93.2S1.133 


121,750,000 


1S66 


A. Johnson.. 


2.773.236,173 


1,270,884,173 


1,141,072,776 


420,161,476 


445.512,I5S 






1SI9 


J. Monroe.. 


95,529.648 


24,605,665 


24,004,199 


70,141,501 


S7,i25,ooo 


1867 


A. Johnson.. 


2,678,126,103 


1,131,060,920 


',093.070.655 


43S,577.3i2 


4'7.833,575 






IS2& 


J. Monroe. 


91,015,566 


20,881,493 


21,763,024 


69,661,669 


74,450,000 


186S 


A. Johnson.. 


2,611,687,851 


1.030,749.516 


1,270,884,173 


454.30',7'3 


371,624,808 






IS21 


J. Monroe.. 


S9.987.427 


19.573.703 


19,090,572 


64.974.3S2 


62.5S5.724 


1869 


U. S. Grant.. 


2,588,452,213 


609,62 1, S2S 


5S4.777.996 


413.961,115 


437.3 '4.25J 






IS22 


J. Monroe. . 


93.546,676 


20,232,427 


'7.676,592 


72,l60,2Sl 


S3, 241,541 


1S70 U. S. Grant.. 


2,4So,672,427 


696,729,973 


702,907,842 


499,092,143 


462,377.587 






'823 


J. Monroe. . 


90,875,877 


20,540,666 


'5.3'4.'7' 


74.699.O30 


77.579.267 


1S71 


U. S. Grant.. 


2.353.211,332 


652,092,46s 


691,680,858 


562,518,651 


541.493.70S 






1824 


J. Monroe. . 


90,269,777 


24,3Sl,212 


3'.89S,53S 


7S.9S6,657 


89.549.007 


1S72 


U. S. Grant.. 


2.253.251,32s 


079,153.921 


682,525,270 


549.2 19,7 iS 


640,338,766 






1825 


I. Q^ Adams 


8 3 ,7SS,432 


26,840,858 


23.5S5.S04 


99.53S.3SS 


96,340,075 


1873 


U.S. Grant.. 


2,234,482,933 


548,669,221 


524,044,597 


6o7,oSS,496 


663,617,147 






1820 


J. Q± Adams 


81,054,059 


25,260,434 


24. '03,3°S 


77.595.322 


84.974,477 


lS74 


U. S. Grant.. 


2,251,690,46s 


728,751,291 


709.19S.933 


654.913.445 


595,S6i,24S 






.827 


I. Q^ Adams 


73.9S7.357 


22,966,363 


22,656,764 


S2.324.727 


79,484,068 


■S75 


U. S. Grant.. 


2,232,284,531 


675.971.607 


6S2,ooo,SS5 


6o5,574.S53 


553,906,153 






1828 


J. Q. Adam . 


67,475.04! 


24.763.629 


25.459.479 


72,264,686 


SS,509,S24 


1S76 


U. S. Grant.. 


2,180,395,066 


6S4.937.S47 


707,805,070 


596,890,973 


476,677,871 






1329 


A. Jackson . 


58,421.413 


24, 827,627 


25.044.35S 


72,358,671 


74.492.527 


1877 


R. B. Hayes. 


2,205,301,392 


617.872,335 


562,625,432 


658,637,457 


492,097,540 






1S30 


A.Jackson. 


4S.565.406 


24,^44.1 16 


24.SS5.2S1 


73,849,508 


70,876,920 


1S7S 


R. B. Hayes. 


2,256,205,892 


662.345.0S0 


590,641,271 


728,605,891 


466,87^,846 






■831 


A.Jackson . 


39.123.19' 


2S,526,S20 


30.03S.446 


81,310,583 


103,191,124 


1S79 


R. B. Hayes. 


2,349.567.482 


1,076,634,827 


966,393.692 


735.436.SS2 


466,073,775 






.832 


A. Jackson. 


24.322,23; 


31.S65,56l 


34. ?56,69S 


S7. 176,943 


101,029,266 


1SS0 


R. B. Hayes. 


2,120,415,370 


545.340,713 


700,233,238 


SS2,7Si,S77 


7' .0,959,056 






>S33 


A. Jackson. 


7,001,032 


33.94S,42'- 


24.257.29S 


90. 140,443 


ioS,iiS,3ii 


1SS1 


J. A.Garfield 


2,069,013,569 


486,949.423 


43S.2S1.S19 


92'.7S4.193 


753,240.125 






'834 


A.Jackson. 


4,760,0S T 


21,791.935 


24,601,982 


'04,336,973 


126,521,332 


I8S2 


C.A. Arthur 


i.9iS,3i2,994 


403.525.250 


}4oS,6S2,oi5 799,959,736 


767,111,964 






1S35 A. Jackson. 


37,733 


35.430.0S7 


'7.573. '4' 


121,693,577 


i49.S9S.742 


ISS3 


C. A. Arthur 


1,884,171,72s! 39S,2S7,5S2| 265,4oS,i3S| 825,846,813! 751,670,305 






1S36' A. Jackson. 


37.5'3 


50,S26,706 


3o,S6S,i64 


128,663,040 


iS9,9So,oS5 


:SS4 


C. A. Arthur 


1,830,528,923 34S,5i9,S7o| 244,126,244 775,'9°.4S7 7oS.l23.9S5 


1 


1 


* The figures given from 185b to 1S79, inclusive, are from the report of John Sherman Secretary of the Treasury, to the .Senateof the U. S., June I0> 
1SS0, and can be relied upon as correct. The amounts given under head of Public Debt, represent all outstanding principal The cash in Treasury 
has not been deducted from amount, f Fiscal year changed from Jan. 1 to July 1. J Includes $150,700,575 Redemption of the Public Debt. 




J 


y. 


"7 


r~ 


T 
























"• « 


V 

< 



72Q a POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Shnwino the Number ol Votes Cast, both Popular and Electoral, for each of the Candidates for President and Vice President, from the Foundation of the 
s Grvernmenttotho Present Time; Together with an account ct the Number of States Voting at Each Election. 



£ 



■7S9 



1796 






1812 



,816 



[8ao 



1S24 



7. 



135 



■38 



»4 



-35 



►d 
p 

■3 



Candidates 

for 
President, 



F. 

F. 

F. 

F. 

F. 
A. F. 
A. F. 

F. 
A. F. 
A. F. 

F. 
A. F. 

F. 
F. 
R. 
R. 

n. 

F. 
R. 
F. 
R. 
R. 
A. F. 
R. 
F. 
F. 
F. 
F. 
F. 
F. 
R. 
R. 
F. 
F. 
F. 
R. 
F. 
R. 
F. 
R. 



R. 
F. 



R. 
F. 



R. 
O. 



R. 
C. 
R. 
R. 



Geo.Washington 

John Adams 

John Jay 

R, I f . Harrison. . 

John Rutlege 

John Hancock... 

Geo. Clinton 

S. Huntingdon.. 

John Milton 

J. Armstrong. . . . 

Benj. Lincoln.. .. 

Edw'd Tellair. . . 

Vacancies 1 



Geo.Washington . 

John Adams 

Geo. Clinton 

Thos. Jefferson.. . . 

Aaron Burr 

Vacancies 2 .... 

John Adams 

Thos. Jefferson. . . 
Thos. Pinckney.. 
Aaron Burr. . 

Saml Adams 

Oliver Ellsworth. 

Geo. Clinton 

John Jay 

Jumes Iredell 

Geo.Washington 

John Henry 

S.Johnson 

C. C. Pinckney... 
Thos. Jefferson 3 . 

Aaron Burr 

John Adains 

C. C. Pinckney . . . 

John Jay 

Thos. Jefferson . 
(*. C. Pinckney. 
James Madison. 
C. C. Pinckney. 
Geo. Clinton. .. 



Candidates 

tor 

Vice President. 



Vacancy 6 . . 
James Madison. 
Dcwitt Clinton. 

Vacancy 7 

James Monroe. . 
Rufus King. .. 



Vacancies 8 . . 
James Monroe. . 
J. O^ Adams — 



Vacancies*. 



And'w Jackson 10 , 

J. Q. Adams 

W. H. Crawford 
Henry Clay 



Vacancy 11 .. 



. a -a 
CO .r P. 



ill 

si § 

rt u I) 

■>bS 
•oW =J 



&3* 



■3»32 

o ox c 

M w in ti 

u cfl U k. 

>-j; t; 
o o rtJ2 

SlfuE 

<~ b «.S 
c v~~ u 
mX tn o 

E - W 

w o >.2 
O u" g 



i >■ c £ 

0;»o 






■55.S72 

!05,321 

44,2S2 

46,^57 



,., 



t> V u 



S"o§ 



it teg 

CO cs 



■gg-a 

uc.2 

4J O U 



w ^ 5 *d 





77 




5= 




4 




3 




6, 




59 




3" 




15 




1 1 




7 




5 




3 



S. rt _2. 



Geo. Clinton*... 

Rufus King 

Geo. Clinton... 

Rufus King 

John Langdon.. 
J Lines Madison. 
James Monroe. . 



E.Gerry 8 . 
J. Ingersol. 



D. D. Tompkins. 

J. E. Howard 

James Ross 

J. Marshall 

Robt. G. Harper, 



D. D. Tompkir-s. 
Rich. Stockton. . 
Dan'l Rodney 
Robt. G. Harper, 

Richard Rush. ., 



J. C. Calhoun 

Nathan Sanford. 
Nat'l Macon. . . 
Andrew Jackson . 
M. Van Buren.. . 
Henry Clay 



►0 

p 

5 



Candidates 

for 
President. 



828 



>'■:>-' 



1S36 



1844 



1S4S 



'852 



1851 



1864 



186S 



1S72 



isy, 



288 



294 



»7S 



33 



296 



3"' 



309 



1SS0I3SI369 



[8S4 38 401 



D. 
R. 



D. 
R. 

A.M. 



W. 

W. 
D. 
L. 



D. 
W, 

L. 

W. 

D. 
F. S. 

D. 

W. 
F. R, 

V. 

R. 

A. 

R. 

D. 
C. U. 
I.D. 

R. 

D. 

R. 
D. 

R. 

D.&L. 

D. 

T. 



R. 
D. 

G. 

P. 

R 
D 
G 
P 

D 
R. 
G. 
P. 



Andrew Jackson. 
J. Q. Adams 



Vacancies 12 
M. Van Buren. la 
W.H. Harrison 
hite 
Webster. 
Man gum 
W. H. Harrison" 
M. Van Buren.. 
Jas. G. Birney. . 



Andrew Jackson. 

Henry Clay 

' John Floyd 

Wm. Wirt.. ... 



, W.H. Harri: 
J Hu S h L. Wl 
") Dan'l Webst 
( W. P. Mang 



I 



Jas. K.Polk.... 

Henry Clay 

Jas. Cj. Birney. . 
Zach. Taylor 16 . 
Lewis Cass.. . . 
M. Van Buren. . 
Franklin Pierce 
Winfield Scott.. 
John P. Hale... 
Jas. Buchanan. . 

J. C. Fremont 

M. Fillmore 

A. Lincoln 

J.C. Breckenridge 

John Bell 

S. A. Douglas. . . . 

A. Lincoln 17 

G. B. McClellan.. 

Vacancies 18 .. .. 

U. S. Grant 

Horatio Seymour 

Vacancies 19 . . . . 

U. S.Grant 

Horace Greeley. . . 
Chas. O'Connor . . 

James Black.- 

T. A. Hendricks. 

B. Gratz Brown . . 

C.J.Jenkins 

David Davis 



Vacancies 21 

R.B. Hayes 22 .... 

S.J.Tilden 

Peter Cooper. ... 

G. C. Smith 

Scattering 

Jas. A. Garfield" 
W. S. Hancock.. 
James B. Weaver. 

Neal Dow 

Scattering 

Grover Cleveland 
James G. Blaine. 
Bern. F. Butler . 
J. P. St. John. . 



Candidates 

for 

Vice President. 



647. 2 3 ■ 
5°9.°97 



657,So: 
530,18. 

33. 1 oS 



761.549 
■ 736.656 

1,275,017 

1,128,702 

7,o59 



1. 337. 2 t3 
1,299,06s 
62,300 
1,360,101 
1,220,544 
291,263 
1,601,47 

i,386.S78 

156,149 

1,838,169 

1,341,264 

074,534 

1.865,352 

845.7 6 3 
5S9, 5 Si 

",375. "5: 
2,216,007 
i,SoS,725 



3.o!5.o7! 
2,709,613 



3.597,o7 
2A34,o79 
29,40s 
S,6o8 



J. C. Calhoun. . .. 
Richard Rush . . , 
Wm. Smith 



'o5 



M. Van Buren. .. 

John Sargent 

Henry Lee 

Amos Ellmaker. . 
Wm. Wilkins.... 



R. M. Johnson 18 
Fr. Granger .... 

John Tyler 

Wm. Smith 



John Tvlcr 

R. M. Johnson.. 



L. W. Tazewell.. 

Jas. K.Polk 

Geo. M. Dallas .. 
T. Frelinghuysen 



M. Fillimore. . . . 
Wm. O. Butler... 
Chas. F. Adams. 
Wm. R. King".. 
Wm. A. Graham. 
Geo. W.Julian... 
J. C. Breckinridge 
Wm. L. Dayton. . 
A.J. Donelson. . . 

H. Hamlin 

Joseph Lane 

Edw. Everett 

H. V. Johnson . . . 
Andrew Johnson . 
G. H. Pendleton. 



4,284,265 

Si, 740 

9,-522 

2,636 

4,450,921 

4-447.SSS 

3 7.740 

10,305 

1,696 

4.S71.9 1 * 

4,851,981 

'75,37o 

150,369 



1S2 



'"5 



Schuyler Colfax. 
F.P.Blair, Jr... 



Henry Wilson". 
B. Gratz Brown.. 
Geo. W.Julian. . . 
A. H. Colquitt.., 
Jno. M. Palmer.., 
T. E. Bramlette.. 
W. S. Grocsbeck, 
W. B. Mackin.... 
N. P. Banks 



W.A.Wheeler.. 
T. A. Hendricks . 



Chester A .Arthur 
Wm. H: English. 
B. J. Chambers. . . 
H. A. Thompson. 

T. A. Hendricks. 
John A. Logan. .. 

A. M. West 

Wm. Daniel 



tip— In the column showing t which party th ■ various candidates belonged, we have only used the initial letter: F. stands for Federalist; A. F., Anti- 
tii-"f R Republican; O., Opposition; C, Coalit.on; A.M.. Anti-Mason; D., Democratic; W ,Whig;L.. Liberty; F.S., Free Soil; A., American; C. U., 
tutional Union- I D., Independent Democrat; D.& L., Democratic and Liberal; T., Temperance; G-, Greenhack, ana P., Prohibition. 



Note 
Federuli--. _ 
Constitutional Union; I. D-, Independent 

1 Electoral votes not cast: Va„ 2: I'a.,2. 

'i Electoral votes not cast: Md.»2; V'., 1. 

3 The vote for Thos. letlVr on ami Varon Burr 
heingatie, the election devolved upon The House of 
Itepresentati^es.resultin-'. on the afith 1 allot, in the 
Choice of Jefferson as President. Burr, receiving 
the next highest number of votes, wa^ declared 
Vice President. ., „ 

4 George Clinton, Vice President; died April 20, 
1812. 

5 Klort'ral vote not cast: Ky., 1. ^. o 

6 Elbridge Gerry, Vice President; died Nov. 23, 1813. 

7 Electoral vote not cast: Ohio, 1. 

8 Electoral votes not cast: Md., 3; Del., 1. 

9 Electoralvotesnotcaat:Mi93.,l; Pa.,1; Tenn.,1. 



10 There being no choice for Pres dent, the elec- 
tion devolved upon the House of Representatives, 
a choice teing made at the first ballQt. Adama re- 
ceiving the vote of 13 St tes, Jackson 7 States, and 
Crawford 4 States. 

11 Electoral vote not cast: for Vice Pres.: R. I., 1. 

12 Electoral votes not cast : Md.,2. 

13 N<> candidate having received a majority of the 
lectoral v> ites f orVice President.the Senate elected 

R M Ji lmson, by a vot ■ of 33 to 16 for Francis 
Gr inner. 

11 President Harrison died April 4, 1841. Vice 
President John Tyler became President. 

15 Presidpnt Taylor died Julvfl, 1850. Vice Presi- 
dent Fillmore became President. 



16 W. R. King, Vice President; died April 18, I8f>3. 

17 President Lincoln assassinated April 14, 1865, 
died April 15. 1865. Vice President JohDson became 
President. 

18 Electoral votes not cast: Nevada, 1; States in 
r -t.ellion 80, viz.: Ala. 8, Ark. 5, Fla. 3, Ga. 9. La. 7, 
Miss. 7. N. C 9, S. C. 6, Tenn. 10, Texas 6, Va. 10. 

19 Elect '1 votes not cast: Mias.,7: Texas. 6; Va., 10. 

20 Henry Wilson, Vice President; died Nov. 22, 1875. 

21 Electoral vo e* thrown out: 3 of Ga. for Greeley, 
then deceased; Ark. fi. La. 8, because of double 
n'tnrn< from both States. 

22 Decided by an Electoral Commission appointed 
bv Congress. 

23 Assassinated July 2, 1881; died Sept. 19, 1S81. 



7. 



-4? 



THE MILITARY HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, 721 

Showing all the Battles of the War of the Revolution, War of 1812, Mexican War, and Civil War 1861 -'65. 



THE PRINCIPAL BATTLES OF THE REVOLUTION. 



776. 



April 19, 1775 
May 10, " 
June 17, " 

Dec. 6-31, " 

Dec. 9, " 
M'ch 17, 

June 2S, 

Aug-. 26, 

Sept. 16, 
Oct. 2S, 
Nov. 16, 

Dec. 26, 
Jan. 3, r 
July 7. 
Aug. <5, 

Aug. 15,16 
Sept. 1 1, 
Sept. 19, 
Oct. 4, 

Oct. 4-6, 

Oct. 7, 

Oct. 22, 
Oct. 22, 

Nov. 16, 
June 2S, 
July 2, 
July 3, 
Aug. 29, 
Dec. 29, 
Jan. 9, 
March 3. 
June 20, " 
July 16, " 
Aug. 13, " 
Aug. 29, " 
Oct. 9, 

May 12, 17S0, 
May 29, " 
June 25, " 
July 30, " 
Aug. 7, " 

Aug. 15, w 

Aug. iS, " 
Oct. 7, " 
Nov. 12, " 
Nov. 20, 
Jan. 17, 
Feb. 25, " 
March 15, " 
April 25, " 
May -June," 
June 1-4, " 

Sept. 6, " 

Sept. S, " 
Oct. 16-19, " 



177S, 



1779. 



17S1. 



Names and Places of 
Battles. 



Lexington, Concord. 

Ticonderoga 

Bunker Hill 



Quebec 

Norfolk, Va 

Boston 

Charleston (Ft. Moultrie.) 

Brooklyn, L. I 

Harlem Plains, N.V 

White Plains, N.V, . . 
Fort Washington, N. Y. . 

Trenton, N.J 

Princeton, N.J 

Hubbardton, Vt 

Fort Schuyler, N.Y 

Bennington, Vt 

Brandvwine, Pa 

Bemis* Heights, N.Y... 

Germantown, Pa 

j Forts Clinton and I 
( Montgomery .... ( 

Stillwater (Saratoga) 

Fort Mercer, N.J 

Red Bank, N.J 

Fort Mifflin, Pa 

Monmouth, N.J 

Schoharie, N. Y 

Wyoming, Pa 

Quaker Hill, R. I 

Savannah, Ga 

Sunbury» Ga 

Brier Creek, Ga 

Stony Ferry, S. C 

Stonv Point, N. Y 

Penobscot, Me 

Chemung, N. Y 

Savannah, Ga. . . 

Charleston, S. C 

Waxhaw, S. C, 

Springfield, N.J 

Rocky Mount 

Hanging Rock, S. C. ... 
) Camden, S. C. (San- | 

( der's Creek) \ 

Fishing Creek 

King's Mountain, S. C. 

Fishdam Ford. S. C 

Blockstock's, S. C 

Cowpens, S. C ... 

Battle of the Haw 

Guilford C. H., N. C. ... 

Hobkerk's Hill, Va 

Fort 96, N.C 

Augusta, Ga 

New London, ( Conn 
Fort Griswold, f 

Eutaw Springs, S. C 

Yorktown, Va 



COMMANDERS. 



j Col. Barret and Major / 

] Buttrick f 

j Col. Ethan Allen and ( 

Col. Eaton* ) 

Gens. Warren, Pres- ( 

cott, and Putnam. . . f 
j Schuyler, Montgomery, | 

"j and Arnold J 

Col. Woodford 

The British Evacuate the 
( Moultrie, Lee, and Arm- ( 
( strong* j 

Gens. Greene and Sullivan. 

Washington 

Washington. 

Col. Magaw 

Washington* 



Washington* , 

Warner, Francis and Hale. 
J Gen. Herkimer and Col. f 

1 Gansevoort* f 

Gens. Stark and Warner*.. 

Washington 

Gates* 

Washington 

James Clinton 

Gates* 

Col. Greene* 

Col. Greene* 

Major Thayer 

Washington* 

Col. Brown* 

Col. Z. Butler 

Sullivan* 

Robert Howe 

Lane.... 

Gen. Ashe 

Gen. Lincoln 

Gen. Washington* 

Lovell 

Sullivan* 

Lincoln 

Lincoln 

Col. Abr. Buford 

Gen. Greene* 

Sumter 

Sumter* 

Gen. Gates 



Sumter 

Campbell* 

Sumter* 

Sumter* 

Gen. Morgan l . . . 

Col. Lee* 

Gen. Greene 

Gen. Greene 

Gen. Greene 

Maj. Eggleston*. 

Col. Ledyard 

Gen. Greene 

Washin gton*. . . . 



British. 



j Col. Smith and Lord ( 

'( Percy* j" 

Capt. Delaplace 

Gens. Howe and Pigot*. . . . 

M' Lean and Carleton* 

Lord Dunmore .... 

City and Harbor. 

Gen. Clinton 



SGens.Howe, Clinton and 
Cornwailis* 



Howe* , 

Gen. Howe* 

\ Lord Cornwailis & Col. 

* Rahl 

Col. Mawhood 

Gen. Frazer* 



Gen. St. Leger 

Cols. Baum and Beyman. 

Howe* 

Burgoyne 

Howe* 



SirH. Clinton* 

Burgoyne 

Donop 

Sir William Howe. 

Gen. Howe* 

Sir Henry Clinton. . 

Indians 

John Butler* 

Pigot 

Campbell* 

Prevost* 

Prevost* 

Col. Maitland* 

Clinton 

McLean* 

Brant.. 

Prevost* 

Clinton* 

Tarleton* 

Gen. Knyphausen.. 

Turnbull* 

Col. Brown 



Cornwailis* 

Tarleton* 

Ferguson 

Wemyss. 

Tarleton 

Cornwailis and Tarleton.. . 

Col. Peyle 

Cornwailis* 

Rawdon* 

Col. Cruger* , 

Col. Brown 

\ Benedict Arnold & Col. 

"| Eyre* 

Lord Ra wdon 

Cornwailis 



American. 



En 
gag'd 



83 



ro.ooo 



1,600 
3,000 

2,400 

3,000 
700 



2,000 
11,000 

2,500 
11,000 

600 

S,ooo 

450 



400 
12,000 



400 

5,000 

900 

200 
I.200 

Soo 
1,200 

900 
4,000 

4,500 
3,700 

400 
3,000 

600 

600 

3,000 

700 
900 
500 
500 
900 



4,400 

1,200 
1,000 



150 

2,000 

16,000 



Loss. 



. . . 50 k. 34 w 

5P- 

450 k. & w. 
160 k. & w. 



10 k. 22 w, 

2,000 k. w. & p. 



,.300 k. & w. 
. 100 k. & w. 



.100 k 300 p. 
. 324 k. & w. 



... 150k. & w, 

200 k. & w. 

300k.600w.400p. 



152k.521w.400p. 



. S k. 2S ■* 



— 67 k. 160 w. 
. . . . . 14 k. 10 w. 

Massacre. 

30 k. 132W. 440 m. 
.... 100k. 453 p. 



150k. (62 p. 

146K.&W. 155 m. 
15 k. t>3w 



113 k. 150W.53P. 
13 k. 58 w. 



12 k. 41 w. 



70 k. & w. 

none. 

.. .1.300 k. & w. 
. .260 k. w. & m. 
.. 150 k. w. & m. 
23 k. 2S w. 

16k. low. 12m. 

152k.355w.40m. 
300 k. A: w. 



En 
r ag'd 



4S 
4,500 



4,000 



2,000 
5,000 

1,000 

1, .Soo 
1,200 



1,200 
iS.ooo 

3,000 
15,000 
3,000 

6,000 



mix'd 

11,000 



1,000 
5,000 
2,000 
2,000 
1,800 
2,000 
600 
3,000 
1,500 
2,000 
9,000 



5.000 
500 
500 

2,200 

3.50O 

1,100 

450 

400 

1,100 



2,400 
900 
550 



Soo 
2, Soo 

To'" 10 



Loss. 



65 k. iSow. 2Sp. 

4S p. 

1,050. 

20 k. & w. 

it w. 



.62 k. 



. . 225 k. & w. 

400 k. 

iS k. 90 w. 

. . 300 k. A w. 
. 1 ,000 k. & w. 

. .36 k. 1,000 p. 



.... 1S3 k. & w. 

unknown. 

200k.34w.900p, 
500 k. 

. . . 100 k. 400 w. 



5,79i p. 

500 k. 

. 400 k. & w. 



300k.300w.100p. 



222 k. & w. 
. . 20 k. & w. 



.100 k. & w. 
•63 k. 543 p. 



150 p. 



..5 k. 15 w. 
■35 k. 50 p- 



.150 k. 



. Soo k. w. & p. 



.600 k. & w. 
, .25S k. & w. 



52 k.334w. 

52 k. 20 w. 

1S7 k. & w. 

. .693 k.w. & m. 

7,5ook.w.m.&p. 



The British sent 134 000 soldiers and sailors to this war. The Colonists met them with 230,000 Continentals and 50,000 militia. The British let 
loose Indians and Hessians. The colonies had for their allies the brave Frenchmen. The leading battles oi the war particularly worthy of 
celebration are printed in small capital letters. 

The * denotes the successful army; k., killed; w„ wounded; p., prisoners; m., missing; s., surrendered. 



CHIEF COMMANDERS OF THE ARMY. 



The following is a complete list of the various officers who have c 
nanded the army of the United States since the foundation of oursei 



_■ com- 
manded the army of the United States since the foundation of our service 
to the present time, giving the rank held bv each, with the period of 
command: General and Commander-in-Chief, George Washington, 
June 15, 1775, to' the close of the Revolution. From that date to Sep- 
tember, i7Sq, the army consisted of eight companies of infantry and a 
battalion of artillery (act of September, 17S5), when Brevet Brigadier- 
General Josiah Harfner, Lieutenant-Colonel commandant of the inlantry, 
was assigned, and held until March, 1791. Major-GeneralArthur St. 
Clair, March, 1791, to March, 1792. when he resigned. Major-General 
Anthony Wayne, March, 1792, to December 15, 1796, when he died at a 
hut on the bank of Lake Erie, in Pennsylvania, while en route from 
Maumee to the East. Brigadier-General James Wilkinson, December 



16, 1796, to July 2, 179S. Lieutenant-General George Washington, July S, 
179S, till his death, 'December 4, 1799. Brigadier-General James Wil- 
kinson (again), June, 1S00. to January, 1S12, when he was promoted to 
Major-General. Major-General Henry Dearborn, Januarv, 1S12, to June, 
1S15, when he was mustered out. Major-General Jacob Brown, June, 
1S15, till his death, February 24, 1S2S. Major-General Alexander 
Macomb, May, 1S2S, until his death, in June, 1841. Major-General 
W T infield Scott, June 25, 184.1, to November 1, 1S61, being also Brevet 
Lieutenant-General from May, 1861. Major-General Geo. B. McClellan, 
November 1, 1S61, to March i'i, iSto. Major-General Henry W. Halleck, 
July 33, iS6a, to Mar. u, iS6f. Lieut. -Gen. U. S. Grant (appointed Gen- 
eral July 25, i860), Mar. [2, [S64, to Mar. 4, 1S69. Gen. W.T. Sherman, 
Mar.S, "iS(_>9, co Nov. 1, 1SS3. Lieut. -Gen. P. II. Sheridan, Nov. 1, 1SS3. 



■+-? — 



— 1 v^ 



722 



PRINCIPAL BATTLES OF THE WAR OF 1812. 



Names and Places of 
Battles. 



COMMANDERS. 



American. 



British. 



American. 



En- 



British. 



En- 
gag 'd 



Loss. 



Aug-. 5, 1S12. 

Aug. 9, " 

Aug. is, " 

Oct 13, " 

Oct. 21, " 

Jan. 22, 1813. 

April 27, " 

May 5, " 

May 27, " 

May 27, " 

May 29, " 

June S, " 

Aug. 2, " 
Oct. 5, 

Nov. 11, " 

Mar. 30, 1814 

April 25, " 

July S, 
July 25, 

Aug. 15, " 

Aug. 24, " 

Sept. 11, " 

Sept. 12 " 

Sept. 13, " 

Sept. 15, " 

Sept. 17, " 

Dec. 19, " 

Dec. 23, " 

Jan. S, 1S15. 



Brownslown, Canada... 

Maguauga 

Detroit 

Queensto wn 

Ogdensbnrg 

Vrenchtown 

York ( Toronto) 

Kort Meigs 

Fort George, Canada 

Fort Minims 

Sackett's Harbor 

Stoney Creek 

Fort Stephenson 

Thames, Canada 

Chrysler's Field.. 

LaCoell Mill.. 

Washington 

Chippewa 

Lunav's Lane 

Fort Erie (assault) 

Bladensburg 

Plattsburg 

North Point 

Ft. McHenry, Baltimore 

Ft. Bowyer 

Fort Erie (sortie) 

Fort Niagara 

9 miles from N. O 

New Orleans 



Van Horn 

Miller* 

Hull 

Van Rensselaer 

Forsyth 

Winchester 

Pike* 

Clay* 

Dearborn* 

Beaseley 

Brown* 

Winder 

Croghan* 

Harrison* 

Boyd* 

Wilkinson 

Brown* 

Brown* 

Gaines* 

Winder 

Macomb* 

Strieker 

Armistead* 

Lawrence* 

Brown* 

Leonard 

Jackson 

Jackson* 



Tecumseh* 

Tecumseh 

Brock* 

Brock* 

# 

Proctor* 

Sheaffe 

Proctor 

Vincent 

Tecumseh.* 

Prevost . . 

Vincent* 

Proctor 

Proctor 

Morrison 

Hancock* 

Ross* 

Riall 

Drummond 

Drummond. . . . 

Ross* 

Prevost , 

Brooke* 

Cochrane 

Nicholls 

Drummond 

Br. and Indians* 

Keane 

Pakenham 



200 

600 

[,500 

,200 

1,200 



... . Surrender. 

99 k. 900 w. 

.. . . 20 k. & w. 

20 k. & s. 

. . 300 k. w. & m. 
..Soo k. w. & p. 

72 k. & w. 

3°o k- 

100 k. & w. 

.. 100 k. w. & p. 

1 k & 7 w. 

50 k. & w. 

. . . 200 k. & w. 

... 150 k. & w. 
nl and building's 
< i k. ' 7 w. & p. 



000 
000 
1,300 
2,500 
roo 
1,500 
1,500 
2,000 



1,000 



84 k 

..Surrendered 



'.'.'..'.'. 8 kY&w 

300 k. & w 

350 k. & p. 

. . 240 k. w. & p. 
.. .71 k. w. & p 



1,300 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 

burnt. 
2,100 
5,000 
5,000 
5,000 

12.000 
5.000 

Ships. 

Mix'd 

3.500 
1,200 
2,500 
12,000 



.6ok.& w. 



60 k. 

. 100 k. w. & p. 



. Slight. 



PRINCIPAL BATTLES OF THE MEXICAN WAR. 

The Americans were victorious in every battle. 



Dates. 



May S, 
May 9, 
Sept. 24, 
Dec. 25, 
Feb. 23, 
Feb. 28, 
Mar. 27, 
April iS, 

Aug. 20, 

Sept. S, 
Sept. 13, 
Sept. 14, 
Oct. 9, 



*$*': 



1S47. 



Names and Places of 
Battles. 



Palo Alto 

Resaca de la Palma. 

Monterey 

Bracite 

Buena Vista 

Sacramento 

Vera Cruz. 

Cerro Gordo 

i Contreras 

) Churubusco 

Moline del Key. 

Chapul tepee 

Mexico 

lluamanth.i 



COMMANDERS. 



American. 



Taylor 

Taylor .... 
Taylor .... 
Doniphan. 

Taylor 

Doniphan. 

Scott 

Scott 

Scott 

Scott 

Worth.... 

Scott 

Scott 

Lane 



Mexican. 



En- 



Arista 

Arista 

Ampudia 

Ponce de Leon. 
Santa Anna.... 

Trias 

Morales 

Santa Anna. .. 

Valencia 

Santa Anna. ... 

Alvarez 

Bravo 

Santa Anna 

Santa Anna 



2,300 
2,000 
6, 600 

500 
4,700 

900 
12,000 
S.soo' 
4,000 
S.ooo 
3-50O 
7,200 

500 



,.4 k. A* 40 i 
. 1 20 k. & 



.i2ok.&3^Si 



. 723 k. & w, 



. . 19 k. & w 
,501k. & w 

Slight, 

. 7"o k. & w, 
. 7^7 k. & w. 
Slight 



. 14 k. & 



Mexican. 



En- 
gag d 



6,000 
5,000 
10,000 
1,200 
17,000 
4,000 
6,001 
12,000 
7,000 
25,000 
14,000 
25,000 



Loss. 



500 k. & 



.2,000 k. & w. 



.2,000 k. & w. 
. ..500 k. & xv. 
.2,500 k. & w. 
...7^0 k. & w. 
. ..230 k. & w. 
. . . .Heavy. 
. . . Surrender. 
. . . Unknown. 



The only naval engagements of importance during the war with Mexico was the bombardment of Vera Cruz, Commodore Connor, which 
lasted four days, and the city compelled to surrender, and the bombardment of Monterey, by Commodore Sloat. 



LENGTH AND COST OF AMERICAN WARS. 



War of the T evolution 

Indian War in Ohio Ter , 

War with the Barbary States. 

Tecumseh Indian War 

War with Great Britain 

Algerine War 

First Seminole War. 

Black Hawk War.. 

Second Seminole War 

Mexican War 

Mormon War . , 

Civil War 



years — 177 5 — 1 782 

1S03 — 1S04 

1811 
years — 1S12— 1S15 

1815 

1S17 

XS32 

1S45 
years— 1846 — 1S4S 

1S56 
years — 1S61 — 1865 



$135. '93.703 



107,159,003 



66,000,000 
6,500.000,000 



FEDERAL PRISONERS RECEIVED AT ANDERSONVILLE, GA. 

First detachment of prisoners received Feb. 15, 1864. Total number of prison- 
ers received, 49,4-85. Largest number imprisoned at one date (Aug. 9, 1S64), 
33.006. 

Total No Deaths ( In hos P ital 8 .735 

lotal wo. ueaths- ( Jn stock:ide 3.727—12,463 

Average number of deaths per month, for the thirteen months 958 

Largest number of deaths in one day (Aug. 23, 1S64) .97 

Number of escapes 328 

PRINCIPAL DISEASES RESULTING IN DEATH. 



Diarrhoea .3,952 

Scurvy J,<74 

Dysentery 1.040 

Unknown . 1 ,26S 

Anasarca 377 

Typhoid fever 220 



Pneumonia 22 r 

Debility 19S 

Intermit'ttfc remit't f S..177 

Gunshot wounds 1 49 

Pleurisy *. ..109 

Bronchitis 93 



Rheumatism S3 

Varioloid .'.63 

Gangrene 63 

Catarrh 55 

Ulcers 51 

Phthisis 36 



INDIAN WARS. 

1676. King Philip's War. 

1704. Deerfield, Massachusetts, burned. 

1705. Haverhill, Massachusetts, burned. Capture and escape of Mrs. 
Hannah Dustan. 

1713. The Tuscaroras expelled from North Carolina. 

1755. Braddock defeated by the French and Indians. 

1763. Conspiracy of Pontiac. 

177S. Massacre of Wyoming. 

1794, Treaty with the" Six Nations. 

1804. Treaty with the Delawares. 

1813-' 14. War with the Creeks in Florida. 

1817. War with the Seminoles. 

1S32. War with Black Hawk. Stillman's defeat on Rock River, 



[S3S- 1 42. War with tile Seminoles. 

1S37. Capture of Osceola. 

1S55. Defeat of the Rogue River Indians. 

1856. War with the Indians in Oregon and Washington Territories. 

1S62. Indian war and massacres in Minnesota. 

1S64. (Nov. 29.) " Chivington's massacre " near Fort Lyon; over 500 
Indians, men, women and children put to the sword. 

l873« (April 2.) Gen. Canby and Rev. E. Thomas, peace commission- 
ers treacherously slain by the Modocs. 

1 S?3. (Oct. 13.) Execution of the Modoc murderers of Messrs. Canby 
and Thomas — Captain Jack, Schonkin, Boston Charley and Black 
Jim. 

1876. (June 25.) The command of Gen. Custer defeated by the Indians 
on Big Horn River, and Gen. Custer and the greater portion of 
his force slain. 



PRINCIPAL BATTLES OF THE LATE CIVIL WAR. 



723 



Apr.12,1861. 

" IQ 

June 20 

July 5 



Aug. 10 
Sept. 12-14 



Nov. 



Dec. 


]S 


Jan. 19, 


1S62 


Feb. 


S 


" 


S 


" 


16 


Mar. 


S 




'4 
2.1 



Apr. 6-7 



May 



" 


*i 


" 


29 


" 


.Y> 


" 


3' 


June 


1 


•• 


9 


*' 


26 


" 


27 


July 


1 


Aiff. 


5 



Sept. 



30 
29-30 



Oct. 



19-20 
3-5 



J any. 



Feby. 
May 



' 27-29 
1S63 



lS-22 



June 



Names and Places of 
Battles. 



Bombard in' t Ft.Sumpter 

Riot Baltimore 

Big Bethel, Va 

Carthage, Mo 

Rich Mountain, W. Va. 

Bull Run, Va 



Wilson's Creek, Mo. . . . 
Cheat Mountain, W.Va. 

Lexington, Mo 

Ball's Bluff, Va 

Belmont, Mo 



Pt. Royal, S. C 

Piketon.Ky 

Milford, Mo 

Mill Spring-, Ky 

Roanoke Island, N. C. 

Ft. Henry, Tenn 

Ft. Donelson, Tenn. . . 

Pea Ridge, Ark 

Newbern, N. C 

Winchester, Va 



Pittsburg - Land'g, Tenn 
Island No. 10 



Williamsburg", Va.. . . 

Winchester, Va 

Hanover C. H., Va... 

Corinth, Minn 

Fair Oaks, Va 

Fair Oaks, Va 

Cross Keys, Va 

Port Republic, Va.. . 
Chickahominy, Va. . . 

Gain s Mills," Va 

Malvern Hill, Va.... 

Baton Rouge, La 

Cedar Mountain, Va. 

Gallatin, Tenn 

Kettle Run, Va 



Gr >veton, Va 

Bull Run 2nd 

Richmond, Kv 

Chantilly, Va. 

South Mountain, Md . . 
Harper's Ferry, 3 days 

sieg-e 

Antietam, Md. 

Tuka, Miss 

Corinth, Miss 

Perryville, Ky 



Prairie Grove, Ark.. 



Fredericksburg 1 , Va. 
Vicksburg 1 



Stone River, Tenn . . 

Fort Hindman, Ark.. 

Fort Donelson, Tenn., 

Suffolk, Va , 

LaGrange, Ark 

Fredericksburg, Va. . . 

Chancellorville, Va. . . 



Jackson, Miss 

Champion Hills, Miss.. 
Big- Black River, Miss. 

Vicksburg, Miss 

Port Hudson 

Milliken's Bend, Miss.. 

Beverly Ford, Va 

Winchester, Va 

Shelbvville, Tenn 



COMMANDERS. 



lM--.ni- RAI.. 



Ma). Anderson 

6th Regt. Mass. Vols. 
Brig. Gen. Price .. 

Col. Sigel* 

Gen. McClellan* 



Gen. Irwin McDowell. 

Gen. Lvon* 

Gen. J. J. Revnolds. . 

Col. Mulligan 

Col. E. D. Baker 

Gen. Grant* 



j Com.Dupont&Gen, I 
I W. T. Sherman* . )' 

Gen. Nelson*,. 

( Col. J. C Davis and f 

1 Gen. Steele* f 

Gen. Thomas* 

j Com.Goldsborough, 1 
I Gen. Burnside* . . f 
Surrendered to Com. 
( Com. Foote & Gen. / 
\ Grant* f 

Gen. Curtis* 



Gen. Burnside* 

Gen. Shields* 

Gen. Grant and Buell*. 

j Com. Foote & Gen. I 

I Pope* J 

1 Gen. Kearney and ' 
1 Hooker* f 

Gen. Banks 

Gen. Morrell* 

Gen. Halleck* 

Gen. McClellan 

Gen. McClellan* 

Gin. Fremont 

Gen. Shields 

Gen. McClellan* 

Gen. Porter 

1 Jen. McClellan* 

Gen. Williams* 

Gen. N. P. Banks* 

Gen. Johnson 

Gen. Hooker* 

j Gens. Hooker, Sigel, I 
"/ Kearney, Reno*. . j 

Gen. Pope 

Gens. Mason & Craft*. . 

Gen. Pope 

Gens. Hooker & Reno*. 
Col. Miles 



Confederate. 



Gen Beauregard. 



Maj. Gen. MacGruder 
Price and Jackson . . 
Col. Pegram 

Gen. Beauregard*. .. . 

Gens. Price &McCulloch 

Gen. R. E. Lee 

Gen. Price* 

Gen. Evans* 



Gen. Drayton. 



Gen. Zollicoffer , 

Gen. Wise 

Foote, by Gen.Tilghman. 
Gen. Buckner 



Gen. McClellan* 

Gen. Rosencrans* 

! Gens.Ord.Hurlburt, | 
'/ and Veatch* [ 

Gen. Buell* 



Gens. Blunt and Heron* 



Gen. Burnside. 
Gen. Sherman.. 



Gen. Rosencrans*. . ... 

t Adm. Porter & Gen. 

/ McClernand*. .... 

Col. Harding- 

Col. Nixon* 

Capt. DeHuft 

Gen. Sedg-wick 

Gen. Hooker* 



Gen. Grant* 

Gen. Grant* 

Gen. Grant* 

j Gen. Grant, Adml's. | 
) Porter&Farragut. ' 

Gen. Banks 

Gen. Thomas* 



Gens. Buford & Gregg 1 . 
Gen. Milroy 



Gen. Rosencrans* . . 



Gens. VanDorn & Price 

Gen. Branch 

Gen. T. J. Jackson 

j Gens. Johnston and ( 
'( Beauregard J 

Gen. Makad 



Gen, Longstreet. . 



Gens. Ewell A Johnson* 

Gen. Branch 

Gen. Beauregard 

Gen. J. E.Johnston*.... 

Gen. J. E.Johnston 

Gen. T.J.Jackson* 

Gen. T.J.Jackson* 

Gen. R. E. Lee 

Gen. R. E.Lee* 

Gen. R. E. Lee 

Gen. J. C. Breckcnridg:e. 

Gen. Jackson 

Gen. Morgan* 

Gen. Ewell, 



Gens. Jackson and | 



Longstreet 

Gen. Lee* 

Gen. Kirby Smith* 
Gen. Lee* 

Gen. Lee 



Gen. A. P. Hill* 

Gen. R. E. Lee 

Gen. Price 

J Gens. Price, Van- I 
j Dorn and Lovell. . f 

Gen. Bragg 

( Gens. Hindman, 1 
•< Marmaduke, Par- > 

( sons and Frost... ) 

Gen. R. E. Lee* 

Gen. Johnston* 



Gen. Bragg 

Gen. Churchill 

Wheeler and Forrest. 



Gen. Longstreet* . 

Gen. R. E. Lee.... 

(Jen. Johnston 

Gen. Pemberton. . 
Gen. Pemberton. . . 



Gen. Pemberton* 

Gen. Gardner 

Gen. McCullough 

( Gens. J. E. B. Stuart I 
1 & F.Hugh Lee... j 
Gen. Ewell* 

Gen. Bragg" 



KIL'D, WOUND'D, PRIS'RS 



Federal. 



..no one hurt. 

3 k - 7 w. 

16 k. 34 w. 6 m. 

....13 k. 31 w. 

... u k. 35 w. 
4500 k. w.p. 28 c. 
4S1k.1011w.700p 
223k.721w.292 
[3 k. 20 w. 60 p. 
|3k.ioSw.i6a4p, 
220 k.2'i6w.5oop, 
S4k.2S8w.285m. 

S k. 23 w. 250 p. 



...6 k. 24 w. 
, . ..2 k. 17 w, 
.39 k. 207 w 
.50 k. 150 w 



Confederate. 



1351 k. w. & in 

91 k. 466 w 

... 100 k. 400 w 
.1614 k. 7721 w 
3963 '»■ 



2073 k & \v.623p 



.fftk. 52^ m 



S90k.3627wj2.i2p 
.... $739 k. & w, 
. . 125 k. 500 w. 
37 k. 361 \v.574m. 
.... So k. 150 w. 
7500 k. w. & m. 
1000 k. w. & in. 

250 k. w. & in. 

500 k. w. & in. 

64 k. 1 00 w. 200p. 

.Soo k. w. & m. 

. . .6000 k. & w 

Sook 40oowj3ooop 
200k. 700 W.2COOp 
1300 k. & w 

443 k. 1S06W.7611 

Sok.i20w. 115S3P 

12500 loss 



135 k - S27 w. 

3i5k.iSi2W232m 

3200 k . w. & m , 

- ■ -495 k. 600 w. 

( 1 5 1 2 k. 6000 t 
I w. 207S p. f 
191k.9S2w.756m, 

.1533 k. 6000 w. 
1000 k. w. & m, 

12 k. 20 w, 

30k. 7iSw. 5 m. 
2000 k. w, & 111, 
. . . .2000 k. & w, 
I 15000k. & w. I 

1 17000 p f 

40 k. 240 w. 6 m. 

.420 k. 1S42 w. 

...29 k. 242 w. 

2500I0SS. 

900 k. w. & in. 
127k. 2S7W. 157m. 

.3S0 k. w. & m. 

2000 k. w. & m. 

S5 k. 46S w. 13 m. 



5 w. 

....7 k. &8w, 
. . ..no report. 

...250 k. & w 
. ..140 k. 150 w. 

. ..1S52 k. & w. 

421 lc.1317w.3m, 

100 k. & w. 20 p, 



..25k. 75 w. 

36 k. 264 w. 2 p 

261k.427w.27S m 

k. & xv. no 1 

report 2500 p > 

42g-unscapd ) 

4<jok..& W.2000J) 



"300 P 

.... 192 k. 1 40 p 
jok.50 W.2500P. 

\ 231k. 1007 w. I 
I iSooop.... J 
J 1 100 k. 2500 [ 
) w. 1600 p. 1 
50k.200w.200p. 
000 k. & w. 30op. 
' 172S k. S012 ( 
w. 959 m. 1 



I 

17 k. 6300 p 

j 700 k. 1000 



w. 300 



no I 
P-f 



400 k. & W.OOOp 



. .2S00 k. 3S07 w, 

S000 k. & w. 

600 k. & w, 

1000 k. w. & m, 

. 1000 k. & xv. 

About the same, 
. , .Nearly 5000, 
. .600 k. w, <y m, 
..1000 k. 1500 w. 

1 10 k. & w. 

Sook. & w, looop. 

(2000 k. w. & m, 

. ..700 k. 3000 w. 
. . ..250 k. 500 w. 
Soo k. & w. 

\ 500 k. 2^43 I. 

t w. 1500 p. ( 
1500 k. «Sr w. 

.. .. 15000 loss. 
26 ( k.400 w.hoo p. 

1 1421 k. 226S^ 

) p. 5^92 w. J 
j 1300 k. 3000 ( 
( w. 200 p. f 

1500 k. & w. 

.... 1S00 k. & w. 
no report. 

9000 k. w. 1000 p. 
\ 550 k. & \v. 1 

'i 5000 p $ 

look. 400 w.3oop. 
. . 1 500 k. w. & m. 



1Soook.1t w. I 

5000 p. . . . J 

. . ..400 k. & xv. 

. .400 k. w. & m. 

2,600 k. xv. & m. 



no report. 

.600 k. w. it m. 
. ..200 k. 500 w. 

.750 k. w. & m. 

.Sjok. w.& m. 
( 1634 p. no » 
i rep't.k.&w. f 



REMARKS. 



150 p. and loss of camp. 
j Beaureg-ard's report, 
"j Federal " 

Gen. Lyon killed. 



Col. Baker killed. 



70 wagons with stores 
and equipage. 

Gen. Zollicoffer killed, 
1200 horses and mules, 
100 large wagons, and 
2000 musk'ts were capd. 

6 Forts, 65 g-uns, 17500 
small arms captured. 

Gen. Buckner raptured; 
Gens. Floyd and Pillow 
escaped. 

Gens. McCulloch, Mcin- 
tosh, and Slack, killed. 

6 forts caplu ed. 
Confed. report. 



Fed. retreated. 

2000 p. and large amount 

of supplies captured. 
Fed. were driven back. 



Gen. Williams killed. 
Confeds. repulsed. 
Gen. Johnson captured. 



Feds, lost Gens. Kearney 

and Stearns, 
Gen. Reno killed. 
Col. Miles killed. 



Confed. repulsed. 



2Q cannon captured. 
17 cannon captured. 



Cavalry fight. 



■r 






£kn 



724 



PRINCIPAL BATTLES OF THE LATE CIVIL WAR.— Continued. 



Dates. 



July u-j 
4 
4 



Sept. 



Dec. 



],, 
9 
19-20 

H 

4 

23-25 

25 



" 27-3° 
1S64 
Mar. 25 
Apr. S-9 

" 17-20 
May 5-7 



June 



12-15 
13-15 

25-2S 
I 



Jj|y 



AU£ 



Sept. 



27-30 
S-20 

15-1S 
'9 
25 
3< 
10 



29 Oct. i 
Oct. 19 



Nov. 30 

Dec. IS 

1S65 

Jan. 15 

" 20-22 

Feb. 27 



Mar. 19 

" 25-37 

April 1 

" 2 

" 2-3 



May 



Names and Places of 
Battles. 



Gettysburg", Pa 

Vicksburg- surrenders . 

Helena, Ark 



Bolton, Miss 

Port 1 ludson, surrender 

Ft. Warner, S.C 

Cumberland Gap 

Chickamauga 

Bristow Sta., Va . . 

Knoxville, Tenn 

Chattanooga ( 

Missionary Ridge. ... j| 



COMMANDERS. 



Federal. 



Confederate. 



Ringold, Ga 

Locust Grove, Va Gen. Meade 



Paducah, Ky 

Mansfield, La 

Plymouth, N.C. ...... 

W ilderness, Va 

Spotsylvania, Va 

Spotsyl vania, Va 

Ft Darling, Va 

Resaca, Ga 

Dallas, Ga 

Cold Harbor, Va... . 

Petersburgh. Va 

WeldonR. R., Va 

Kennesaw Mt., Ga. . . . 

Monocracy, Md 

Peach Tree Creek, Ga. 

Atlanta, Ga , 

Petersburgh, Va 

Mobile Bay, Ala 

Deep Bottom, Va 

6 Mile Station, Va. 

WeldonR. R., Va 

\tl inta, Ga , 

Winchester, Va , 

Fisher's Hill 

Ironton, Mo... 

Petersburg, Va 

Cedar Creek, Va 

Nims' Creek, Mo 

Hatcher's Run, Va.... 

Franklin, Tenn 

Nashville, Tenn 



Ft Fisher.. 



Wilmington, N. C... 

Waynesboro', Va.... 

Kingston, N. C 

Avernsboro', N. C... 

Bentonville, N. C 

Petersburg, Va 



Five Forks, Va 

Selma, Ala 

Petersburg & Richmond 
Farmville and Sailors ) 

Creek f 

Surrender of Gen. Lee's 

Ft Blakely, Mobile... 
Surrender of 

Salisbury, N. C 

Surrender of 
Surrender of 
Surrender of 
Surrender of 
Near Boco, Chico, Tex. 
Capture of 
Surrender of 



(Jen. Meade*. . . 
Gen. Grant*..., 

Gen. Prentiss* . 



Gen. Grant* 

Gen. Banks* 

Gen. Gilmore 

Gen. Burnside*.. 

Gen. Rosencrans. 

Gen. Warren* .... 
Gen. Burnside* .. 

Gen. Grant* 

Gen. Hooker*.... 
Gen. Hooker* .... 



Col. Hicks* 

Gun. Banks* 

ien. Wesseils 

Gen. Grant 

Gen. Grant 

Sen. Grant. 

Gen. Butler* 

' Sen. Sherman* 

Gen. Sherman* 

Gen. Grant 

Gen. Grant 

Gen. Meade 

Gen. Sherman* 

Gen. Wallace 

Gen. Sherman* 

Gen. Sherman* 

Gen. Grant 

Adm. Farragut and I 
Gen. Granger*... ( 

Gen. Grant 

1 Jen. Warren* 

Gen. Grant 

Gen. Sherman* 

Gen. Sheridan 

Gen. Sheridan* 

Gen. Ewing* 

(ien. Grant 

(ien. Sheridan* 

Gen. Pleasanton* 

Gen. Grant 

Gen. Schofield* ....... 

Gen. Thomas* 



Gen. Terry* 

3 Adm. Porter and ( 
1 Gen. Schofield* . . j 

Gen. Sheridan* 

Gen. Schofield* 

Gen. Sherman 

Gen. Sherman* 

Gens. Grant & Meade*. 
Gens. Sheridan and ( 

Warren* f 

Gen. Wilson* 

(ien. Grant. . 

Gen. Sheridan 



Army at Appomattox . . 
t Adm. Thatcher and ( 
) Gen. Canby .... \ 
Montgomery, Ala., to.. 

Gen. Stonerhan* 

Gen. Joe Johnston's 

Gen. Morgan^ 

Gen. Dick Taylor with.. 

Tallahassee, Fla. ....... 

Con. Barrett . 

Jefferson Davis 
Gen. Kirby Smith 



Gen. R. E. Lee 

Gen. Pemberton 

Gens. Price, Holmes I 
and Marmaduke.. f 

Gen. Joe Johnston 

Gen. Gardner 

Gen. Beauregard* . . 
Gen. Frazier 

Gen. Bragg* 

Gen. A. P. Hill 

Gen. Longstreet 

Gen. Bragg 

Gen. Bragg 

Gen. Hardee 

Gen. Lee 



Gen. Forrest 

Gen. Kirby Smith 

Gen. Hoke* . . 

Gen. Lee 

Gen. Lee 

Gen. Lee 

Gen. Beauregard 

Gen. Joe Johnston. 

Gen. Longstreet 

Gen. Lee* 

en. Lee* 

Gen. Lee* 

Gen. Johnston 

Gen. Early* 

Gen. Hood 

Gen. Hood 

Gen. Lee* 

( Gen. Page & Adm. I 
j Buchanan. f 

Gen. Lee* 

Gen. Pickett 

Gen. Lee* 

Gen. Hood 

Gen. Early 

Gen. Early 

Gen. Price 

Gen. Lee* 

Gen. Early. 

Gen. Price 

Gen. Lee* 

Gen. Hood 

Gen. Hood 



Gen. Bragg". .. 

Gen. Early..., 
Gen. Bragg... 
Gen. Johnson . 
Gen. Johnson . 
Gen. Lee 



Gen. Lee 

Gen. Forrest. 
Gen. Lee 



Gen. Lee 

C. H., to Gen. Grant... 

Gen. Taylor 

Gen. Wilson . 

Gardner , 

Army to Gen. Sherman, 
old command to Gen 
all forces west of Miss 

Gen. McCook, Sr 

Gen. Slaughter 

at Irwinsville, Ga 

and his army 



KIL'D, WOUND'D, PRISONERS 



total loss ZS19S 
245k.j6SS W.303P 

.. ..250 k. w. & m, 



.700 k. w. & m 



j 1644 k. 9262 w. I 
( 4945 m f 



.51k. 329 w 
. . . 600 k. & w, 
. . .4000 k. & w. 



..Sook. w.&i 
. 1000 k. w. & 1 



. . . 14 k. 46 w 
500 k. Ar w. 1500 p 
. . 150 k. 1700 p 
.... loss 30,00c 
.... loss 10,000 



. 5000 k. w. & ir_ 
. ..700 k. 2S00 w 
.... iSqo k. & w. 
. 9000 k. w. A: m. 

loss 10,000 

x>o k. & w. 1250 p. 

. . . 1000 k. & w. 

— 1000 k. & w. 

1713 k. w, & m, 

....3521 k. & w. 

5000 k. w. & m, 

, .. 120 k. SS w, 

, loss 4000 

,. ..3000 k. & w. 
1000 k.& w. 3000 p. 
50 k. 50 m. 439 w 
. . 3000 k. & w. 
. . too k. & w. 

9 k. 60 w 

. . 5000 k. & w, 
4000 k.<& w. 1300P 
2000 p. 1000 k. & w 
Soom.40ok. 1500W 
1S9k.1033w.u04n 
6500 k. w. & m 



. . 110 k. 536 w. 

. . . 250 k. & w. 

.... 69 k. & w. 

loss iooc. 

...74k. 774 w. 

loss 1646. 

iSok. i240w.99om. 

loss 3000. 



.Sooo k. w, & m. 



Hobson, 

River to Gen. 
... 70k. Adm 
7o. 



Confederate. 



, total loss 37000. 
0000k. & \v.30000p. 

500 k. & w. looop. 



4000 p. 

S5oo p, 

5ook. 331 w, 

2000 p, 

.. 17000 k. w. & m, 

1200 k. & w. Soo p. 

1600 p. 

..16000 k. w. & in. 



REMARKS. 



300 P 

. . 2500 k. w. & p. 



. . .1000 k. & w. 

2000 p, 

.. .1500 k. & w, 

.... loss 30000. 

.... '.oss 1 0000. 

4000 p. 

no report. 

no report. 

300 p. 4000 k. & w. 
Sooo k. w. .v. ni. 

no report 

no report. 

no report. 

no repoit, 

;ooo k.& w. tooop. 
. . . 10000 k. & w. 
. 1200 k. w. & m. 
\ no report k. & ( 
\ w. 1756 p... f 
loss 2500. 

1500 p. 

1500 k. & w. 

5000 k. & w. 

500K.4000W. 25oop. 
400 k. & w. 1 100 p. 

1500 k. & w. 

2S00 k. & w. 

■Soo k. At w. 1300 p. 

900 k. 3SC.0 p. 

. 1600 k. w. & m. 

j750k.3S00w.702p. 

23000 k. w. & m. 



440 k. & w. 2500 p 

1072 p, 

....5 k. 13S2 P. 
d k.Ar \v.2400p, 

■ ■■327 k. 373 P 

.. 167 k. 1025 p, 
2200 k. tfc w. 2S00 p. 

- • 5°°° P 



3000 P- 

9000 k. w. A- in. 

6000 p. 

261 15 p. 

500 k. & w. 4300 p. 

. 2700 p. 100 g. 

1S00 p. 

27500 p. 

1200 p. 

Canby 10000 p.... 
.... Jones, Sooo p. 



. 20000 p. 



Rear guard Johnston' 
army. 



Longstreet wounded. 

2 Confed. Gens. 30 guns 
captured. 



Johnson flanked. 

McPherson killed. 
150 guns captured. 



Confeds. repulsed. 
Confed. Gens. Rhodes 
and Gordon killed. 

Feds, captured 26 pieces 

artillery. 
Gens. Marmaduke and 

Cabell captured. 

Gen. Johnson captured 

iind 47 guns. 
Fort and 72 g. captur'd. 



All of Early's guns. 



All of Lee*s artillery 

captured. 
Gen. F'orrest & Rhoddy 

captured. 
Richmond captured. 
Confed. Gens. Ewell, 

Kershaw, Corse, and 

Custis Lee captured. 
^2 guns captured. 

14 guns. 



This was the last en- 
gagement of the Civil 
War. 



* In addition to the battles given above there were 421 battles, engagements, and skirmishes; a complete list can be found in the National Hand- 
Book of American Progress, published by E. B. Treat, 757 Broadway, N. Y. 

TOTAL NUMBER OF TROOPS CALLED INTO SERVICE FROM THE NORTHERN STATES DURING THE CIVIL WAR. 



Date of President's Procla 
mation. 



April 15, 1S61 

May 3, 1S61 

July 22 and 25. 1861 . 
May and Jun . 

July 2, 1S62 

August 4, 1S62 

June 15, 1S63 



Number 
Called for 


Period of 
Service. 


Number 
Obtained. 


75,000 
82,74$ » 
500,000 \ 

300,000 
300,000 
100,000 


3 months. 

3 years. 

3 months. 
3 years . 
9 months. 
6 months. 


93,326 

"H.231 
15,007 

43 r i95 s 

S7,5& 
16,361 



Date of President's Procla- 
mation. 



Oct 17, 1S63.... 
Feb. 1, 1S64.... 
March 14, 1S64. 
April 23, 1S64. . 
July lS. 1864.... 
Dec. 19, 1S64. .. 



Total. 



Number 

Called for. 



300,000 1 
200,000 I 

„•■■. i,,»i 

S5,ooo 

500,000 

300,000 

2,942,74s 



Period of 
Service. 



2 years. 



3 years. 
100 days 



, 3 years 
, 3 years. 



Number 
Obtained. 



374.&>7 

2S4.02I 

83.652 

3S4,8§a 

204,56s 

2,690,401 



This does not include the militia that were brought into service during the various invasions of Gen. Lee's army into Maryland and Pennsylvania. 



Si 



COST OF THE CIVIL WAR. 

The statement of the Secretary of the Treasury of the amount of money expended for all 
purposes necessarily growing 1 out of the CivilWar, brought down to Jan. i, iSSo, will prove 
an interesting and remarkable exhibit of the cost of war. The footing's as reported are 
$6,189,929,908.00; this does not include expenditures from 1S61 to 1SS0 of the Government for 
expenditures of the general Government other than tor the war; the latter item was 8654,641,522. 



Expenses of National loan and 
currency •. $ 51,522,730 

Premiums 59i73$,i67 

Interest on public debt 1,761,256,19s 

Subsistence of the army 351,417,54s 

Quartermaster's Department. . . . 299,481 ,917 

Incidental expenses of Quarter- 
master's Department 85,342,733 

Transportation of the army 336,793,385 

Transportation of officers and 

their baggage 3,025,219 

Clothing of the army 34fv543>88o 

Purchase of horses for cavalry 

and artillery 126,672,423 

Barracks, quarters, etc 31,070,846 

Heating and cooking" stoves 448,731 

Pay, mileage, general expenses, 
etc., of the army 97,084,729 

Pay of two and three years' vol- 
unteers 1,040,102,702 

Pay of three months* volunteers. S6S,305 

Pay, etc., of 100-days' volunteers. 14.3*°.77^ 

Pay of militia and volunteers. ... 6,126,952 

Pav, etc., to officers and men in 

Department of the Missouri ... 844,150 

Pay and supplies of 100-day vol- 
unteers 4,824,877 

Bountvto volunteers and regulars 

on enlistment 38,522,046 

Bountv to volunteers and their 

wido ws and legal heirs Si ,760,345 

Additional Bounty Act of July 2S, 

1S66 69,998,786 

Collection and paymentofbounty, 
etc., to colored soldiers, etc.... 268,158 

Reimbursing States for moneys 
expended for payment of mili- 
tary service of United, States. .. 9,635>5 12 

Defraying- the expenses of min- 
utemen and volunteers in Penn- 
sylvania, Maryland, Ohio, In- 
diana, and Kentucky 597,17s 

Expenses of recruiting- 1,297,966 

Draft and substitute fund 9>7*3>$73 

Medical and Hospital Departm't. 45,108,770 

Medical and Surgical History and 
Statistics 196,04s 

Providing for comfort of sick, 
wounded, and discharged sol 
dicrs 8,232,785 

Freedmen's Hospital & Asylum. 123,487 

Artificial limbs and appliances.. 509,283 

Ordnance service 4,553153' 

Ordnance, ordnance stores, and 

supplies S5-933.932 

Armament of fortifications 10,218,472 

National armories, arsenals, etc. 23,603,489 

Purchase of arms for volunteers 

and regulars 7 6 >37S,935 

Payment of expenses under Re- 
construction acts 3, 128,905 

Secret service 681,587 

Medals of honor 29,390 

Support of National Home for 

disabled volunteer soldiers .... 8,546, 1S4 

Publication of official records of 



War of the Rebellion 170,09s 

Contingencies of the army and 

Adjutant- General's Departm't. 2,726,69s 

Preparing register of volunteers. 1,015 

Arm v-pensions 407,429, 192 

Telegraph for military purposes. 2,500,085 

Maintenance of gunboat fleet 

proper 5,244,684 

Keeping, transporting, and sup- 
plying prisoners of war 7,659,411 

Construction and maintenance of 

steam- rams 1 »37°»73° 

Signal service '43,797 

Gunboats on the Western rivers. 1,239,314 

Supplying, transporting, and de- 
livering- arms and munitions 
of war to loyal citizens in States 
in rebellion agninst the Govern- 
ment of the United States..... 1.649,596 

Collecting, organizing, and drill- 
ing volunteers 29,091,666 

Tool and siege trains 702,250 

Completing the defenses of Wash- 
ington 91 2,283 

Commutation of rations to prison- 
ers of war in Rebel States 320,636 

National cemeteries 4,162,848 

Purchase of Ford's Theater SS,ooo 

Headstones, erection of head- 
stones, pav of Superintendents, 
and removing the remains of 
officers to National cemeteries. 1,080,185 

Capture of JeflfDa vis 97,03 1 

Support of Bureau of Refugees 

and Freedmen iM54- 2 37 

Claims for Quartermaster's stores 

and commissary supplies 850,220 

Claims of loyal citizens for sup- 
plies furnished during the Re- 
hellion 4,170,304 

Horses and other property lost in 
military service 4,281,724 

Fortifications on the Northern 
frontier 

Pay of the navy 

Provisions of the navy 

Clothing of the navy 

Construction and repair 

Equipment of vessels 

Ordnance 

Surgeons 1 necessaries 

Yards and docks 

Fuel for the navy 

Hemp for the navy 

Steam machinery 

Navigation 

Naval Hospitals 

Magazines 



Marine Corps, pay, clothing, etc. 

Naval Academy 

Temporary increase of the navy. 
Miscellaneous appropriations . .. 

Naval pensions 

Bounties to seamen 

Bounties for destruction of ene- 
mies' vessels 

Indemnity for lost clothing. . 



Expenditures in the District of Columbia from 1790 to 1876. 



6S3,74S 
7+,4 n -o'H 
io,y>S,"2* 
1,594.790 
1 34»' 78,096 
25,174,614 
3 1, 422,094 

1,957-744 
30,300,302 
11,340,232 
S9S.252 
49,297.3 >8 
2,526,247 
499,662 
404,531 
7.757.615 
1,862,132 
S, 123,766 
2,614,044 

6,590,043 
2,821,530 

271,309 

289,025 



The total amount of money expended by the Government in the District of Columbia for all 
purposes from July 16, 1790, to July 30, 1S76, is §92,112,395. This sum was divided as follows: 



Capitol $17,184,691 

Library of Congress* 1 ,575,847 

White" House , ... 1,640,449 

Purchase of woflks of art 602,569 

Botanic Garden 722,813 

Department of State, etc 4,989,94s 

Treasury Department 7,062,942 

War Department 2,044,065 

Navy Department 3,899,136 

Post-Office Department 2,124,504 

Department of Agriculture 3,174,192 

Smithsonian Institution 2,305,420 

Patent Office 13,197,90s 

Benevolent institutions 4,732,44s 



Penal institutions 4>4'S,329 

Courts 78,486 

Aqueduct 4,ooo,S22 

Fire Department 104,299 

Canals 5, j;, * T s 

Bridges 1,290,56s 

Public grounds 1,867,537 

Streets and avenues 5 ,975,294 

Loans, reimbursements, etc 4,927,299 

Miscellaneousf 3,505,400 

* First appropriation for Congressional Li- 
brary, 1800. 

tFirst appropriation for the support of Public 
Schools, 1S66. 



The Federal Army During the Civil War ot 
1861-65. 

The following statement shows the number 
of men furnished by each State: 





Men furnish- 






ed under Act 


Aggregate 


STATES. 


of April 15, 
iS6t, for75,ooo 


No. of men 
furnished un- 




militia for 3 


der all calls. 




months. 






77" 
779 
7S2 


7>.745 
3t,6o5 


New Hampshire. 




35. 2 46 


Massachusetts. . . 


3.736 


152,04s 


Rhode Island. .. 


3.H7 


23,7" 




2,402 


57,374 


New \ ork 


13,906 


C'7."t7 




3>* 2 3 


79.5" 


Pennsylvania.. .. 


20,175 


366.326 


Delaware 


77=; 


'3.65' 






49-73" 


West Virginia. . . 


900 


32.003 


Dist. of Columbia 


4,720 


16,872 


Ohio 


13.357 

4.6S6 


3 '9,659 
'97- '47 




Illinois 


4,S20 


258,217 




I s ' 
S17 


90,1 '9 




96,118 




930 


25.034 




9& 
10,501 


75.S60 
■o8,773 








7 S .54Q 




650 


20,097 
'1% 








North Carolina. . 




3.IS6 






15 










6'7 
S95 


Washington Ter. 








1.279 
1,762 








2.57 6 




1,290 




Louisiana 


$,224 






54 5 




Texas 


1.965 








181 


New Mexico. . .. 


1,510 


2.395 


Total 


93.3^6 


2,6SS,523 



The Provost Marshal General's report shows 
that there were killed in action or died of their 
wounds while in service: Commissioned offi- 
cers, 5,221; enlisted men, 90,86s. Died from 
disease or accident: Commissioned officers, 
2,321. Enlisted men, 182,329; a total loss in 
service of 280,739. Deaths, from wounds or dis- 
ease contracted in service which occurred after 
the men left the army are not included in these 
figures. 

Losses of the Government for Every Adminis- 
tration from 1789 to 1876. 

The following table exhibits the losses of the 
Government through frauds, carelessness and 
from all causes, and the amount of loss on 
each thousand dollars, for every Administra- 
tion from the beginning of the Government 
till the end of President Grant's Administra- 
tion, as follows: 





Period 
of ser- 
vice, 
years. 


Total 
Losses. 


Loss on 
$1,000. 




S 

s 
s 

8 
4 
S 
4 
4 
4 
4 

4 
4 
4 
4 
8 


$ 250,970 

235,4" 

603,467 

2,191,660 

3.229,7*7 

SS5.374 

3,761,111 

3.343,792 

1,565,003 

',732.<5' 
1,814,409 

2,167,982 
2,659, I0 7 
7,200,084 

4.6'9.599 
2,846,192 


$ 2.22 
2-59 
2-75 
4.16 
8.5S 

4-39 
7.52 
11. 71 

6.40 

4.0S 

4.19 

3-56 

3-81 

76 

57 

34 








Tyler J 

Polk 














$3Q,ioS,6o5 


S 1.29 



Vl<r 



+ 



726 



THE NAVAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 



Showing Navy of the Revolution, Naval Battles of the War of 1812, Mexican War, Civil War, the Number of Vessels 

Captured and Destroyed for Violation of the Blockade, and Federal Vessels Captured or 

Destroyed by Confederate Cruisers. 



THE NAVY OF THE REVOLUTION. 

In December, 1775, Congress passed an Act ordering the building of 
thirteen vessels, three of 24 guns, five of 28, five of 32, with Ezekiel Hop- 
kins as Commander-in-Chief, as follows : — 



Name. 



Hancock . 
Congress. 



Montgomery . 

Delaware 

Randolph 



Washington - 



Effingham, 
Raleigh.... 
Virgit-ia 



Warren . 

Providence. 



Boston 

Trumbull . 



History. 



Captured by the British in 1777. 

Destroyed in the Hudson River to avoid cap- 
ture in 1777, never having been to sea. 

Do. do. do. 

Captured in the Delaware River 1777. 

Blown up in action with the British Ship Yar- 
mouth, 64 guns, in 1778. 

Destroyed in the Delaware by the British 
before getting to sea, in 1778. 

Do. do. _ do. 

Captured by the British in 1778. 

Captured by the British in 1778. off the capes 
of the Delaware, before getting to sea. 

Burned in the Penobscot River in 1779, to pre- 
vent falling into the enemy's hands. 

Seized by the Btitish at the capture of Char- 
leston, S. C., in 1780. 

Do. do. do. 

Captured by the British ship Watt, in 1781. 



Owing to the superiority of England on the sea, and the great difficulties 
with which Congress had to struggle during the war, it was impossible to 
give any great attention to our naval armament ; but, notwithstanding this, 
the waters swarmed with American privateers, and many hundreds of 
British merchantmen were captured. Probably the mo=t daring naval ex- 
ploit during the war was fought off the coast of Scotland, September- 23, 
1779, between the Bon Homme Richard, of 40 guns, Paul Jones, com- 
mander, and the Serapis, a British frigate of 44 guns. Captain Pearson, 
The Serapis surrendered, with a loss of 150. Jones lost 300 in killed and 
wounded, and while his ship was sinking transferred his crew to the Serapis. 

The navy was disbanded at the close of the war, the few remaining 
vessels were sold. 

In addition to the ''thirteen" vessels above named, about ten other 
vessels, ranging from 24 guns down to 10, were purchased and fitted out as 
cruisers while the others were building. 

1799 — The Frigate Constitution captured the French Frigate LTnsurgente. 
1803 — The Frigate Philadelphia captured bv the Tripohtans. 
1804 — Commodore Decatur destroyed the Frigate Philadelphia. 



PRINCIPAL NAVAL BATTLES OF THE CIVIL WAR. 

1862, Feb. 6— Fort Henry, Tenn., captured by Commodore Foote. 

Feb. 8 — Roanoke Island, N. C., captured by Commodore Goldsborough 
and Gen. Burnside. 

Feb. 16 — Fort Donelson, Tenn., combined forces of Gen. Grant and 
Commodore Foote. 

Mar. 8— Confederate Ram M err i mac "sinks" U. S. Frigates Cumber- 
land and Congress, Hampton Roadi, Va. 

Mar. 9 — Federal Monitor disables the Merrimac. 

April 6 — Pittsburgh Landing. 

April 8— Capture of Island No. 10. 

April 11 — Fort Pulaski, Ga., captured by land and naval forces. 

April 24— Forts Jackson, St. Phillip and New Orleans. 

May 13 — Natchez, Miss., captured by Admiral Farragut. 

July 1— Malvern Hiil. 

1863, Jan. 11 — Fort Hindman, Ark.. Admiral Porter. 

Jan. 11 — U. S. Steamer Hatteras sunk by Confederate Alabama. 
"an. 17 — Monitor Weehawkei. captures Confederate Ram Atlanta. 
lay 18 — Vicksburg, Miss., Admiral Porter. 
July 8— Fort Hudson, Miss., captured. 
July 8— Natchez, Miss. 

1864, June 19 — U. S. Steamer Kearsage "sinks the Alabama " off Cher- 

bourg, France. 
Aug 5 -Mobile, Ala.. Admiral Farragut. 

1865, Jan. 15 — Fort Fisher, N. C, captured by Gen. Terry and Commodore 

Porter. 

During the Civil War the Federal Navy was increased in two years 
to over 400 vessels, the greater part of which were used in blockading 
Southern ports; notwithstanding their vigilance and effectiveness, many 
Confederate cruisers managed to escape the blockade and destroy the 
Northern merchant vessels. 

At the present time (1880) not one-half the vessels belonging to the navy 
are in active service ; the greater portion of those in commission are em- 
pjoyed in what is called squadron service. There are seven squ.-drons, 
viz., the European, the Asiaiic, the North Atlantic, the South Atlantic, 
the North Pacific, the South Pacific and the Gulf Squadrons. These 
squadrons are under command of a high naval officer of the rank of com- 
mO''ore or rear admiral, whose ship is called the flng-ship of the squadron. 



FEDERAL VESSELS CAPTURED OR DESTROYED BY 
CONFEDERATE "CRUISERS." 

Ships - - 80 

Brigs 46 

Barks .... . 84 

Schooners . 67 

Steamboats — .... 4 

Gunboats — - — ...... .. ..... 2 

Cutter 1 

Tug - 1 



NAVAL BATTLES, WAR OF 1812. 



1813 



1814 



Aug, 13 
Aug. 19 
Oct. 18 
Oct. 25 
Dec 2o 
Feb. 24 
June 1 
Aug. 14 
Sept. 5 
Sept. 10 
Oct. 5 

Mar. 2 S 

Apr. 20 
Apr. 29 
June 28 

Sept. 1 
Sept. 11 
Sept. 15 
Dec. 9 
, Jan. 15 

Feb. 20 

Mar. 23 



WHERE FOUGHT. 



Off Newfoundland ... 

Off Massachusetts 

Off North Carolina... 
Near Canary Islands . 

Off San Salvador 

Off Demerara 

Massachusetts Bay ... 

British Channel 

Off Coast of Maine... 

Lake Erie 

Lake Ontario 

Harbor of Valparaiso. 

Off CoaVto? Florida "" 
Near British Channel. 

Stonington, Ct. 

Near Africa 

Lake Champlain 

Mobile Bay 

Lake Borgue 

Off New Jersey 

Off Island of Madeira 

Off Brazil 



*M. VESSELS AND COMMANDERS. 



Frig. Essex, Porter* 

Frig. Constitution, Hull* 

Sloop Wasp, Jones*t 

Frig. United Mates. Decatur* .. 
Frig. Constitution, Bainbridge* 

Sloop Hornet, Lawrence* 

Frig. Chesapeake, Lawrence 

Brig. Argus, Allen . .. 

Brig. Enterprise, Burrows* 

9 vessels 54 guns, Perry* 



BR. VESSELS AND COMMANDERS 



Sloop Alert, Laugharne. 
Krig. Guerriere, Dacres. 
Frig. Frolic, Whinyates.t 
Frig. Macedonian, Carden. 
Frig. Java, Lambert. 
Brig Peacock, Peake. 
Friy. Shannon, Broke*. 
Sloop Pelican, Maples*. 
Brig Boxer, Blythe. 
6 vessels 63 guns, Barclay. 



Commodore Chancey captures British Flotilla 



Frig. Essex, Porter 

Sloop Frolic „__ 

Sloop Peacock, Warrington*. 
Sloop Wasp. Blakely* . 



Brig Phoebe Hillyar*. 
Sloop Cherub, Tucker. 
Brie- Orpheus. 
Brig Epervier, Wales. 
Sloop Reindeer, Manners. 



British fleet attack the town ; are repulsed. 



Sloop Wasp, Blakely* 

14 vessels 86 guns, McDonough* 

Fort Boyer, Maj. Lawrence*.. . 

66 gunboats, Jones 

Frig. President, Decatur 



Frig Constitution, Stewart* 

Moop Hornet, Biddle* 



Sloop Avon, Arbuthnot. 
17 vessels 95 guns, Downie. 
4 ships, goguns, Col. Nichols. 
40 barges, Lockyer*. 
Squadron, Hayes*. 
Ship Cyane, Falcon. 
Sliip Levant, Douglas. 
Brig Penguin, Dickenson. 



VESSELS CAPTURED OR DESTROYED 
FOR VIOLATION OF THE BLOCKADE 
OR IN BATTLE, FROM MAY, 1861, TO 
MAY, 1865. 

Schooners 735 

Sloops 155 

Steamers 262 

Barks . 27 

Brigs 30 

Ships 13 

Ironclads and Rams 16 

Brigantines . , 2 

Gunboats . . 3 

Propellers 4 

Pilot Boats 2 

Boats 8 

Yachts 2 

Tugs 3 

Barkatine . s 

Pungy 1 

Miscellaneous 86 



The British vessels captured during the war 
of 1812 were 1,750, the American 1,683. 

The only naval engagements of importance dur- 
ing the war with Mexico was the bombardment 
of Vera Cruz, Commodore Connor, which lasted 
four days, and the city compelled to surrender, 
and the bombardment of Monterey by Commo- 
dore Sloat, July 6, 1846, ;md the capture of Mon- 
terey on the California coast, by Commodore Sloat. 

Oct. 25, 1846 — Tobacco captured and Mexican 
vessels in port destroyed. 



* Indicates the victorious party. 

t Afterwards captured, with her prize, by the Poictiers, a British 74. 



^T*' 



iiL 



UNITED STATES PAPER MONEY AND PENSION STATISTICS. 



/-'/ 



AMOUNT OF PAPER MONEY AND FRACTIONAL CURRENCY OUTSTANDING IN THE UNITED STATES AT 
THE CLOSE OF EACH FISCAL YEAR FROM 1860 TO 1881 INCLUSIVE. 

Prepared at the Treasury Department, July i, 1SS1. 



Year end- 
ing June 
3°- 



1S00 

1^,1 

1862.... 
1S63.... 
1S64 .... 

! 365 ... 

lS60 

l367 

1S0S 

1S69 

1870 

1871 . .. . 

>$' 

187J 

i874.». 

■^75 

1876 

1877 

187S 

1S79 

iSSo .. . 
1SS1 



State Bank 
Circulation, 



102, 477 
005,707 
792,079 
677,21s 

■57.7'7 

919,63.8 
,996,16) 

l6),77I 
55^7+ 
,222,795 
,o6S,05S 
,700,915 
,294,47° 
,009,021 
7S6.841 
658,938 
521,611 
426,504 
35 2 >452 
299,700 
24-.9^7 



National 

Bank 

Circulation. 



31,235,270 
146,137,800 
281,479,90s 
298,625,379 
299,762,855 
_•,»,..,;',"- 1 
299,766,984 
318,261,241 
337,664,795 
347,267,061 
351,081,032 
55 1,408,0. ,8 
332,998,336 
317.0(8,872 
524,514,284 
329,691,607 
344,505,427 
355,042,075 



Legal 
Tender 
Notes. 



96,620,000 
297,767,114 
451,178,671 
432,687,966 
400,619,20c 

371,7^3,597 
356,000,000 
356,000,000 
356,000,000 
356,000,000 
357,500,0-0 

; V.< .' <"' 

382,000,000 
'.75,77 1,580 
3 r >9,772,2S4 
359,764,332 

; |f,,<iSi,ip]h 
346,6Sl,OIO 

346,6Si,oi6 
346,681.016 



Demand 
Notes. 



53,040,000 
"3,351,020 
780,999 
472,603 
272,162 
208,452 
I41.723 
12.3.739 
06,256 
96,505 
SS,206 

79,967 
76,71.2 
70,107 

66,917 
63,962 

62,297 
61,470 
60,075 

6Q.5S5 



One and two 

Vear Notes 

of 1S63. 

(See Note l) 



Compound 
Interest 
Notes. 

(See Note i) 



89,S79,475 

■53, (7 '.45o 

42,338,710 

3,454.230 

1,123,630 

555,492 

347.772 

248,272 

198,572 

1^7,522 

142,105 

127,625 

"3 375 
104,705 

95.725 
90,485 
86,185 

S2,.S 5 

79.9S5 



15,000.000 

195,756,080 

159,012,140 

122,394,480 

28,161,810 

7,871,4m 

2,152 910 

70S, 500 

593.520 

479,400 

415.210 

367.300 

328,760 

296,630 

274,920 

259,090 

242 59o 

250,250 



Fractional 

Currency, 

Paper. 



20, 192,456 
22. 894, --77 
25.005. 829 
27.07''. s 77 
28.307.521 
32,626,952 
32,114.637 
;o7 s -''M 
40,582,874 

40.855.-35 
44,799.365 
45,881,296 
42.129.124 
34,446,595 
20,405,157 
i6,547,7 r '9 
15,842,606 

7,2M,954 
7.1Q5.9 53 



Fractional 

Currency, 

Silver. 

(See Note 



10926,93s 
33, 185,273 
39.i55.6i3 
39.360,529 



"v,7l 



n 



Total 
amount in 
Currency. 



102,477 
.005,707 
.452,079 
,807,283 
,7iS,9S 4 
,3iS,686 
,.» |,',s6 
i927,i54 
,412,603 
.946,057 
375,899 
875,751 
570,904 
,062,369 
,490,916 
,646,729 
i30.3.474 
.379.543 
.215,50s 
,801,095 
522,956 
584.809 



Amo't 

per 
Capita 



Valueof 
Paper 
Dol. as 
compar- 
ed with 
Coin, 
July 1 of 
each yr. 



6.5S 
6.30 
10.19 
■9-44 
24,4s 
2S.29 

25.14 
22.S3 
19.4S 
lS-37 
1S.16 
iS 14 
1S.1S 

17.9s 
18.23 

17-55 
16.5.3 
15-68 
15.19 
14.87 
14.46 



o 86.6 
o 76.6 
o 38.7 
o 70.4 
66.0 
o 71.7 
o 70.1 
o 73-5 
o S5.6 
o S9.0 
o S7.S 
o S6.4 
o 91.0 
o S7.2 
o S9.5 
o 91-7 

99.4 

1 00.0 
1 00.0 
1 00.0 



Value of 

Currency in 

Gold. 



288,769,500 
497-798,539 
322,649,247 
692,256,355 
588,657,093 
592,906,769 
505,009,235 
5i»,050,3S2 

599. ?2 1,770 
638,909,418 
646.249541 
648,053 SS 7 
7il.lS6.734 
674,619.947 
67i.773.93S 

694.175. 2 47 
725.0S3.92; 
734,Soi,995 

7?5,S2',956 
780,584,809 



Note l. — The one and two-year notes of 1863, and the compound interest notes, though having a legal-tender quality for their face-values, were in 
fact interest-bearing securities, payable at certain times, as stated on the notes. They entered into circulation but for a few days, if at all, and, since 
maturity, those presented have been converted into other interest-bearing bonds, or paid for in cash, interest included. 

Note 2. — The amount of fractional silver in circulation in 1S60, 1661, and 1862, cannot be stated. The amounts state 1 for 1S76, 1S77, 1S78, and 1S79, 
are the amounts coined and issued since Januarv 1876. To these amounts should be added the amount of s'lver previously coined which has come into 
circulation. 

PENSION STATISTICS OF THE UNiTED STATES. 

Ltst of Pension Agencies, Nantes of Pension Agents, number of Pensioners on the roll of each Agency, June jo, /SSI, and the amount disbursed for 
pensions during the year, together ivtlh a comparative statement of the number of pensioners on the roll at the beginning and close of the year ending 
June 30, 1SS1. 

From the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Pensions for 1SS1. 



Locat*n of Age'y. 



Boston, Mass. . .. 

Chicago, 111. ..... 

Columbus, Ohio. . 
Concord, N. H. .. 
Des Moines, la. . . 

Detroit, Mich 

Indianapolis, Ind. 
Knoxville, Tenn.. 
Louisville, Ky. . .. 
Milwaukee, Wis.. 
New York, N.Y.. 
Philadelphia, Pa.. 
Pittsburgh, Pa... 

St. Louis, Mo 

S. Francisco, t al. 
Syracuse, N. Y. . 
Washington, D.C. 



Name of Pen- 
sion Agent. 



D. \V. Gooch... 
AdaC. Sweet.. 
A. T. Wikoff... 

E. L. Whitford 

Jacob Rich 

Samuel Post 

Fred. Knefler . . 
D.T. Boynton.. 
R. M.Kelly.... 
E. Ferguson . . . 
Chas. R. Coster 
H. G. Sickel . . . 
\V. A. Herron . 
N. A. Adams.. 

Henrv Cox 

T. S. "Poole 

Theo. Gaines . . 



Total number of pensioners on roll 



Increase during the year. , 
Decrease during the year. 



Invali's Wid's. 



10.156 

■3.997 
14,070 
10,482 
9,676 

7.5-1 
10,740 
4.699 
2,594 
8,201 

7384 
10,417 
9,175 
9,432 
1,301 
■ o,5S3 
■2,597 



153.0 5 



19,813 



7,oS6 

5,914 
7,515 

6,SS4 

2:747 

2,761 
4,47s 
4,561 

2.780 

3.113 

5.S26 
5,569 
4.109 
2,993 
252 
5.946 
4.M4 



7","-; 



2.089 



Invalids Wid's 



500 
83 
SO 

149 



24 

"77' 
9 
2S 
473 
31.5 
49 
34 
5i 



2.1S7 



127 



74 
US 



92 
16 

23 
404 
321 
51 
21 
30 

"358 



2,OOS 



War of 1S12. 



Survi- 
vors. 



715 

405 
720 

1,161 
21S 
326 
219 

1,921 
3SS 
215 

9 

23s 
309 
55 
S69 
353 



S.S9S 



1,240 



\V i'ws 
of. &c. 



2,074 
1,030 
2,104 
3,164 
547 

IV 6 

6,396 

1,011 
416 

',337 
1,000 

795 

834 

105 

2,311 

1,308 



26,029 



1,279 



Disbursements on account of pensions during the 
year. 



F or regular 
pensions. 

$3.6o4,673.6S 
4,637.481- 68 
4,352,166 21 
3.407,494.23 
3,220,988.8a 
2,024,640.30 
3,002,155.28 
2.667,932.69 
1,007.906.60 
2,So6, 721.05 
2,609,984.41 
3,172.870.08 
2,731,350-38 
2,853,226.37 

361,320.39 
3,364,960.30 
3,896 075.05 

49,723 147-52 



$12,676,961.63 



For Arrears 
of Pensions. 



$29,647.03 
6i,602.SS 
63,381,22 
40, 178.64 

33,449-55 
30,285.46 
54,442.7S 
50,i5S.74 
24,1 51,22 
25,985.6s 

44.39S-79 
37,010.34 
31,21982 
45 S5S.S5 
5,272.96 
43.93S60 
57.723.17 



67S.6S5 73 



Salaries 
and expen- 
ses of pen- 
sion ag'ts. 



$14,883.22 
I5.752.71 
1S.144.96 
16,9" 59 
11,721.16 

■0,533-54 
12,587.94 
13 144-60 
7.255-17 
9.S59-99 
17,431. So 
15.2S1.60 
12,630.23 
1 1.636. 11 
4,991.88 
iS,439.S3 
16.49S.S7 



224,705.26 



$19,291,485,10 



$521.84 



Total dis- 
bursements. 



June 30, 
1SS1. 



$3,649,203.93 
4,7i4,S37-27 
4,433.692-39 
3,464,584.46 
3,266,159,53 
2,065,459.30 
3 0^9,486.00 
2,731,236.03 
1,039,292.99 
2,842,566.72 
2,671,815.06 
3,225.162.02 
2,775,200.43 
2,910.721.33 
37i,5S5.23 
3.424.33S-73 
3.971.197-09 



50.626.53S.51 



6,614,001.63 



Whole number 
of pensioners on 
the roll. 



June 30, 
1SS0. 



20,961 
21,481 
24,533 
21,955 
13,188 
11,375 
16,253 
17,746 
6,798 
11,906 

■5,9^9 
I7,ScO 

14,414 

13,62s 

1,794 

19.709 

19,170 



26S 830 



18,028 



I9.SS6 
19,370 
2336S 
21,031 

m 

15,145 
17,192 
6,701 
10,652 
15,30s 
16,584 
12,919 
12,472 
1,595 

lS,46S 



Amount paid for pensions during the past 2 1 years . . .$5°^>34S»044.2i. 



Average annual pension to each pensioner, $107.01. 



During the year 28,740 new names were added to the roll, 1,344 of which had formerly been on the roll, but dropped for various causes. During same 
period the name's of 10,712 pensioners were dropped. The salaries of pension agents under the existing laws are $4,000 /(.r annum, and an extra allowance 
or perquisite of 15 cents for each pension voucher above 4,000 issued in anv year. Out of this, however, pension agents must pay all clerk hire, office rent, 
postage, And contingent expenses of their offices. 



£2 



728 



THE PRESIDENTS AND THEIR CABINETS. 



»h 



THE PRESIDENTS AND THEIR CABINETS FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE GOVERNMENT. 



President. 


T3 

u 

3 

b£ 
3 
rt 

C 


V 1 ce-Prbsident 


3 
Q 


Secretary or State. 


c 
'5 
a 
a 

< 


Secretary of Treasury. 


•6 
u 

a 


a 
0. 
< 




17S9 
1793 




I7&J 
1793 




17S9 
'794 
1/95 




17S9 
■79S 






Oliver Wolcott 
























'7^7 




1797 




■797 
iSoo 


Oliver Wolcott 


'797 
iSoo 


























































iSot 

1S05 




1S01 
1S05 




1S01 


S. Dexter 


^ 


















































1S09 
1S13 


















1S09 




iSco 
1811 




1S09 
1814 
1874 
































1S17 




1S17 




.8.7 


W. H.Crawford 


1817 
























































is, 5 




1825 




1S2S 




1815 
























Andrew Jackson 


1S29 

1S33 




1S29 

'SJ3 




■829 
1831 
iS'33 
•334 




1S29 
tSy 

'833 
1833 




































Levi Woodbury 


■Si4 
















1837 




"337 




1837 




'S37 










































1S41 
1S41 




1S41 


Daniel Webster 


1841 
■843 
1S43 

1844 
1S44 




1841 








1841 










■841 














































184S 




lS 4S 




■S4S 


Robt. ). Walker 


.845 








































1849 

1S50 




1S49 




1849 
1S50 
1S52 


W. M. Meredith 








is^r> 






Edward Everett. . . 




















'S53 




■S53 




iS53 




185J 














' S S7 




1SS7 




1S57 
1S60 


Howell Cobb 


18^7 






















iSrtr 




















1861 




1S61 




1S61 




iRfir 








isn,. 














Hugh McCulloch 


iRrtc 




i86 S 

1S65 




1S65 










Andrew Johnson 


























































1S69 
i873 




1S69 
■S?3 




1S69 
1S09 


Alex. T. Stewart... 


1869 
1S69 
.S 7 , 






























L. M. Morrill 






















1S77 


Wm. A. Wheeler 


"77 


Wm. 11. Evarts 


1S77 




.S77 




























1SS1 

1S81 




1S81 




1SS1 
1SS1 




18S1 








1S81 












1SS4 
iS34 














Hugh McCulloch 


















iSS S 




1SS5 


Thomas F. Bayard 


ISS5 




1S85 









i^ 



i£- 



THE PRESIDENTS AND THEIR CABINETS. 



729 



THE PRESIDENTS AND THEIR CABINETS FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE GOVERNMENT. Concluded. 



Secretary of War. 


-a 

V 

c 

'3 
c 
a. 
< 

17S9 
1794 
1796 


Secretary of N avy. 


V 

c 
'5 

a 
a. 

< 


Sec'y of Interior. 


T3 
V 

a 
'0 

Q. 
Q. 
< 


Postmaster General. 


■d 
u 

_c 

'0 
0. 

a 
< 


Attorney General. 


•6 

c 
'0 
a 
a 

< 


Henry Knox 


Henry Knox 


17S9 
'794 

1700 

179S 
.79S 


Interior Department 
created 1S49. 






17S9 
1791 
'795 


E. Randolph. . 


'7S9 
'794 
'795 


1. Pickering 1 . 




Wm. Bradford 












"797 

18OO 

1S00 
1S01 








Jos. Habersham 


'797 




'797 




B. Stoddert 














































1S01 
1S02 
1805 
















1S01 


B. Stoddert 






Jos. Habersham. 


1801 
1S02 












Levi Lincoln 














1S05 
iSoj 
1S07 


















































1SC9 
1813 

1S14 
iSi 5 




1S09 
■ 8.3 
.S14 








1809 
1S14 


C. A. Rodney. . . 


1S09 
1S11 
.SI4 














































.S.7 
1S23 








.8.7 

1817 


B.W. Crowinshield... 


1S17 
lS.S 
1S23 
.S23 








William Wirt. 


1S17 
























1825 
1828 
































S, L. Southard 


■825 








1S25 


William Wirt 


1S2S 




























1829 

IS3. 




1829 
1S31 
'S34 






W. T. Barry* 


1S2Q 
'835 


















IR31 










































1S37 




'83S 








'S37 

1840 


B.F Butler 

Felix Grundy 

H.D. Gilpin 


.S37 














































John Bell. 


IS41 
1S4I 
>s« 

'8+4 




.S4. 
1S41 
'S43 
1S44 
.844 






C. A. Wickliflfe 


1841 
1841 




1841 








1841 


































1S4S 


Geo. Bancroft 

John Y. Mason 


1S45 
1S46 








'S45 


J.Y.Mason 

N. Clifford 


1841; 








IS46 






1848 






















G. W. Crawford . 


1849 
iS<;o 
1S50 


Wm. A. Graham 

J. P. Kennedy 


1S49 
1S50 
1852 




1849 

:Sso 


Nathan K. Hall 

S. 1). Hubbard 


.S49 
1S50 
.S52 








>Sso 


















■SS3 




'S53 


R. McClelland 


'S53 


James Campbell 


1S51 




■8fl 










■SS7 
1 8C0 




.857 




'S57 


Joseph Holt 

HoratioKing.. . 


'857 
1859 
1S61 


J. S. Black 


.8^7 








1S60 
















1861 
1861 


Gideon Welles 


1S61 




1861 

IS63 

1S65 




.86. 
1S64 


Edw. Bates 


1861 




John P. Usher 






.S64 




































1S67 
1 863 









1S66 


A. W. Randall 


1866 




1S6S 




iSfifl 


J. M. Schofield 














■ StS 




1S69 
1869 

1S69 
iS7'j 


AdnlphE. Borie 


1S69 


J. D. Cox 

C. Delano....- 


1 - ' ■ 1 
i57o 
.X75 


Marshall Jewell 


1S69 
lS74 
.S74 
1S76 




.S«j 


J. A. Rawlins 

W. W. Belknap 




1870 

.87-; 






iSVft 




A.Taft 


.876 




.S77 



















G. W. McCrary 
Alex. Ramsey 


R. W.Thompson 


'^77 
1&S1 




'^77 




1S77 




.877 


























1S81 


Wm. H.Hunt 


18S1 




1SS1 




.SS. 
1SS1 


B. H.Brewster 


1SS1 

1S81 






























1884 






William C. F.ndicott... 


1SS5 


William C. Whitney. .. 


I8S5 


L. Q. C Lamar 


1SS5 


William F. Vilas 


.SS5 


A. H. Garland 


,ss s 



* Before the accession of Andrew Jackson to the Presidency the Postmaster General was looked upon as the head of bureau, but President 
Jackson invited Mr. Barry to a seat in his cabinet meeting's, since which time the Postmaster General nas been considered a regular member of 
the Cabinet. . _ 



Tp 



ivr 



RIGHT OF SUFFRAGE IN STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



State. 



Alabama ... 
Arizona ... 
Arkansas 
California.. 
Colorado. . 
Connecticut 
Dakota. ... 
Delaware 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho .. 

Illinois...!. 

Indi na 

Iowa 

Kansas 



*: 


•r. - 











W 7. ■ 






O H H 
H g K 






u 


S H ^ 
M H F 




£ w 
n a 

W £- 

K 


Q ° 




7 u 




i yr. 


3 mos. 


30 (.Is. 




i yr. 


10 < . S . 






i yr. 


6 mos. 


30 ds. 




i yr. 


90 ds. 


30 ds. 




6 mos. 









i yr. 


6 mos. 


6 UK'S. 




90 ds. 





— 




1 yr. 


1 mo. 


— 




1 yr. 


6 mos. 






1 yr. 


6 mos. 







4 mos. 


30 ds. 






1 yr. 


90 d*. 


30 ds. 




6 mos. 


60 ds. 


30 ds. 




6 mos. 


60 ds. 


10 ds. 




6 mos. 




30 ds. 







State. 



Kentucky , 

Louisiana . 

Maryland 

Maine 

Massachusetts., 

Michigan 

Minnesota. .... 

Mississippi 

Missouri. ...... 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New Hampshire 
New Jersey .. . 
New Mexico 



£ 


z - 











£ < 


§1 




W a 


w 




2w 


° 


W E- 


^ 


2 yre. 


1 yr. 


(0 ds. 


1 yr. 


mos. 


30 ds. 


1 yr. 


6 mos. 


6 mos, 


3 mos. 






iyr- 


6 mos. 




3 mos. 




10 ds. 


4 mos. 





10 ds. 


6 mos. 


1 mo. 




1 yr. 


60 ds. 




6 mos. 


40 ds. 


10 ds. 


6 mos. 


30 ds. 










6 mos. 


1 yr. 


5 mos. 




6 mos 


3 mos. 


30 ds. 



State. 



New York 

North Carolina 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania . 
Rhode Island.. 
South Carolina 

Texas 

Tennessee 

Utah... 

Vermont 

Virginia 

West Virginia . 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 



W H 
% < 



a p 

<- H 

«s 



1 yr. 
1 yr. 
1 yr. 
6 mos. 
1 yr. 
1 yr. 
1 yr. 
1 yr. 
1 yr. 
6 inos. 
1 yr. 
1 yr. 
1 yr. 
1 yr, 
90 ds. 



4 mos. 
90 ds. 
30 ds. 
90 ds. 

2 mos. 

60 ds. 
6 mos. 
6 mos. 



6 mos 
60 ds. 






) ds. 
> ds. 



mos. 
mos. 



6 

6 mos. 

3 mos. 



Note.— In the abbreviations above, yr. stands for year, mos. for months, ds. for days. Registration is required in all the States except Delaware, Indiana, 
Kentucky, Michigan, Texas, Tennessee and Vermont. Rh'ode Island, North < 'arolina, Delaware. Massachusetts, Connecticut and New Hampshire require a property 
qualification. In Georgia) delinquent taxpayers are disfranchised. Delinquency tin- two years disfranchises in 1'ennsylvania. The payment 1 f u null-tax is required 
in Tennessee. Paupers or Indians not taxed are not allowed to vote in Delaware, Massachusetts, Maine, Texas. Virginia, West Virginia or Wisconsin. Women 
can v*te in the Territories of Utah and Wyoming. Chinamen are expressly denied the right of suffrage in California, and do not Tote in any State. Women 
are allowed, by statute law, to vote in school elections in some of the States. Foreigners who have gamed a residence, even if they have nut been naturalized, can 
vote at State and local elections in Indiana. Iowa, Michigan and Minnesota. In Congressional and Presidential elections. Federal Supervisors of Flections are author- 
ized bv Congress, in certain emergencies, mid under the general direction of the U. S. Courts, to prevent intimidation at the polls and fraud in counting the ballots. 
In Kentucky alone the voting is not by ballot, but vive voce. Where no time of residence is specified in the foregoing table, the Constitution of the Stale or Laws of 
the Territory are silent, or the time for the county and the town are the same. 



NEW TESTAMENT CANON. 



Irenreus, 180 

Muratorian Canon, 180 

Clement, 210 

Tertullian, 220 

Peshito, Syria 

Old Latin Version, African 

Origcn, 250 

EusebiUB, 340 

Cyril. 356-.. 

Laodieea, 365 

Athanasius, 365 

Amphilocluus,365 

Gregory, 3^9 

St. Chrysoetom, 4^7 

Theodore of Mopsucstia 

Theodoret of Cyrus 

Sinai MS - 

AlexandrianMS 

Clermont MS., Latin 

Apostolic Canons 

Council of Constantinople, 629.. 
Johannes Dainascenus, 750...... 

Nicenhorus, 810 ... 

Photms 

(Ecumenius _- 

Theophylach 

Gregory the Great __ 

John of Salisbury, 1165 

Ebed Jesu, 1318 ." 

Council of Trent, 1546 

Council of Jerusalem 

Erasmus, 1500 

Luther 

Calvin - 

Westminster Assembly. 1647 



Acts. 


Phil. 


iThes. 


2TUES. 


He- 
brews. 


James. 


1 
Peter. 


2 
Peter. 


1 John. 


2 John. 


3 John. 


JUDE. 


in 


in 


in 


in 


om 


om 


d 


om 


in 


a 


om 


om 


in 


111 


in 


in 


om 


om 


om 


om 


om 


in 




in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


d 


in 


in 


in 


in 


d 


in 


d 


in 


in 


in 


in 


om 


om 


om 


om 


in 


om 


om 


ora 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


om 


in 


om 


om 


om 


m 


in 


in 


in 


om 


om 


in 


om 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


d 


in 


d 


in 


d 


d 


d 


m 


in 


in 


in 





d 


in 


d 


in 


d 


d 


d 


in 


In 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


m 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


1U 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


m 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


d 


in 


in 


d 


in 


d 


d 


d 


in 


in 


in 


111 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


m 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


om 


m 


om 


om 


om 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


om 


in 


om 


in 


om 


om 


om 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


om 


in 


om 


om 


om 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


m 


in 


m 


in 


m 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


om 


om 


om 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


m 


in 


in 


in 


d 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


m 


in 


m 


in 


in 


m 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


HI 


in 


in 


in 


m 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in- 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


m 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


om 


in 


om 


om 


om 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


om 


in 


in 


in 


in 


om 


om 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


d 


d 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


d 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 











in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


in 


111 



Rev. 



om 
om 
om 

in 

d 

om 
om 
om 
om 



om 
om 
om 
om 



om 
d 



NOTE.— In this table, in denotes inserted ; om, omitted ; d. doubtful. The Council "f Trent .settled the < 'anon f. r the Roman Catholie Church ; the Council of 
Constantinople for the Greek Church ; the Westminster Assembly for the Protestants. They all agree as to what writings constitute the New Testament. 



THE CHINESE EMPIRE. 



Provinces. 


1 POPULA- 
AREA. tion. 


POP. PER 
BQ. MILE. 


Provinces. 


AREA. 


POPULA- 
TION. 


POP. PER 
SQ. MILE. 


Provinces. 


AREA. 


POPULA- 
TION. 


POP. PER 
SO,. MILE. 


Ohihli 

Shantung 

Shansi 

Honau 

Kiangsu 


58,949 

6s. 104 

55,268 
65,104 
44.500 
48.461 
73,176 


27,990,871 

28,958,704 
14,004,210 

37.843.501 
34,168,059 
23,046,999 


475 
44 + 
2 53 
354 
850 
705 
320 


Chehkiang .. 
Fukien 

Hunan 

Shensi 

Kansu 

Szechuen 


39. »so 
. 53.480 
70,450 
84,010 
67,400 
86,608 
166,800 


26,256,784 

14.777,410 
27,370,098 
18,652,507 
10,207,256 

15,193.125 
21,435,678 


671 

276 
389 
223 

'5 s 
'75 
128 


Kwangtung . 
Kwangsi ... 
Kweicnow . . 
Yunnan 

Totals . . 


79.45'' 
78,250 
"4.554 
107,969 


'9.174,03° 
7.3'3. 8 95 
5,288,219 
5,561,320 


241 
93 
82 
5' 


Kiangsi 


1,307.826 


360,279,079 


»77 






te- 



NUMBER OF ELECTORAL VOTES TO WHICH EACH STATE HAS BEEN ENTITLED AT EACH 

PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION, 1789-1884. 



/o' 




RATIO OF REPRESENTATION IN THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. 



From 17S9 to 1792, according to Constitution 
" 1793 to 1803, based on 1st census, 1790. 
" 1803 to 1S13, " 2d 



1S13 to 1S23, 
1S23 to 1S33, 
1S3.I to 1S43, 



30,000 

790 3?.°°° 

1S00 33,ooo 

3d " 1S10 35,000 

4th " 1S20. 40,000 

5th " 1830 47,7O0 



From 1S43 to 1853, based on 6th census, 1S40 70,6So 

" 1853101863, " 7th " iSso 93,423 

" 1S63 to 1873, " Sth " 1S60 i27,jSr 

" 1S73 to 1SS3, " 9th " 1S70 131,425 

" 1S83 to " 10th " 1SS0 151,912 



PAY TABLE OF THE LEADING CIVIL OFFICERS OF THE UNITED STATES. 



President of the United States, per annum, $50,000. 

Vice President of the United States, per annum, $S,ooo. 

Cabinet Ministers, per annum, $S,ooo. 

Chief -Justice Supreme Court, per annum, $10,500. 

Justices of the Supreme Court, per annum, $10,000. 

Senators and Representatives in Congress, with mileage, per annum, 
$5,000. 

Speaker House of Representatives, with mileage, per annum, $S,ooo. 

Secretary of the Senate, per annum, $5,000. 

Clerk House of Representatives, per annum, $5,000. 

Assistant Secretaries of Departments, per annum, $3,500 to $4,500. 

Heads of Bureaus, per annum, $3,000 to $5,000. 

Superintendent Coast Survey, per annum, $6,000. 

Judges District of Columbia, per annum, $4,000. 

Se retary Smithsonian Institution, per annum, $4,000. 

Ministers Plenipotentiary to Great Britain, France, Germany, and 
Russia, per annum, $17,^00. 

Ministers Plenipotentiary to Spain, Austria, China, Italy, Mexico, 
Brazil, and Japan, per annum, $12,000. 

Ministers Resident and Plenipotentiary to Chili, Peru, Central American 
States, per annum, $10,000. 

Ministers Resident to Belgium, Netherlands, Sweden and Norway, 
Turkey, Hawaiian Islands, Hayti, Colombia, Venezuela, Argentine 
Republic, and Greece, per annum, $7,500. 



Ministers Resident to Denmark, Switzerland, Bolivia, Paraguay, and 
Uruguay, $5,000. * 

Minister Resident to Liberia, $4,000. 

Interpreter and Secretary of Legation to China, per annum, $5,000. 

Dragoman and Secretary of Legation to Turkey, per annum, $3,000. 

Consul-General to Cairo, per annum, $4,000, 

Consul-General to London, Liverpool, Paris, Havana, and Rio Janeiro, 
per annum, $6,000. 

Consul-General to Calcutta and Shanghai, per annum, $5,000. 

Consul-General to Melbourne, per annum, $4,500. 

Consul-General to Kanagawa, Honolulu, Montreal, and Berlin, per 
annum, $4,000. 

Consul-General to Vienna, Frankfort, Rome and Constantinople, 
Halifax, Bangkok, per annum, $3,000. 

Consul-General to St. Petersburg and Mexico, per annum, $2,000. 

Charge d' Affairs to Portugal, $5,000; to Roumania, $4,000. 

Secretaries of Legation, from $1,500 to $2,625. 

Consuls, from $1,000 to $7,000. 

The Postmasters, Collectors of the Revenue, Territorial Governors 
and Judges, and other officers employed throughout the country, are too 
numerous to be designated in this place. 



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POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES IN l88o. 



733 



THE POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1880, 

AS ISSUED BY THE U. S. GOVERNMENT. 



The following table presents the final official figures of the population of the United States at the Tenth Census, 
with a column showing, for comparative purposes, the population of 1S70. 

The figures for Indian Territory and Alaska are omitted, as their inhabitants are not considered citizens. All Indians 
not subject to taxation are also omitted, in conformity with the census law. 

The column headed " Colored " comprises only persons of African descent. 





total 
population. 


1880. 


States and Territories. 


I88O. 


1870. 






> 


a 

.if 

'v 


15 


u 






c 




a 

rt 
'-3 

a 


The United States 


5o.i5S.7S3 


3S.55S,37i 


25,518,820 


24,636,963 


43,475.S4o 


6,679,943 


43,402,970 


6,580,793 


105,465 


14S 


66,407 




49,37 I »340 


38,155,505 


25.075,619 


24,295.721 


42,871,556 


6,499,784 


42,7H,479 


6,518,372 


93,782 


141 


44-566 








1,262,505 

'^' (■'">» 
'94,327 
622,700 

146,60s 
269,403 

1,542.18° 

3.077.S7' 
',97 s .3 01 

1,624,615 
996,096 

[,648,690 
93y»94 6 
648,936 

934.9*3 
1,783,085 
1,036,037 

780,773 

V3'> 597 

2,i6S,3So 
452,402 

62,2fx> 

34<J.99> 
1,131,1 16 

5,oS2,S7i 
i.399,75o 
3,198,062 
174,76s 
4,282,891 

276,53' 

995-577 

',542,359 

1,591,740 

332,zSn 

',5'2.5 fi 5 

6lS ,;; 

i.3'5-4"7 


996,992 

4S4.47I 
560,247 
39,-864 
537,454 

125,015 

187.748 
1,184,109 

2,539.89! 
1 ,6So,637 

1,194,020 
364,390 

1,321,01 i 
726.915 
626,91 5 

780,894 
i.457.35i 
1 184,059 

439.7°" 

S27,922 
1,721,295 

122,993 

42491 
318,300 

906,096 

4,382,750 

1,071,361 
2,665,260 

90,923 
3,521,951 

217.353 
705,606 
1,358,520 
Si8,579 
330,551 

1,225,163 

442,014 

1,054,670 


622,629 
416,270 
518,176 
129,131 
305,782 

74,ioS 

136,444 

762,981 

1,586,523 

1,010,361 

848,136 
536,667 
832,590 
46S.754 
324,05s 

462,187 
85S.440 
862,355 
419,149 
567,177 

1,127,187 
249,241 
42 019 
170,526 
559.922 

2,505,322 
6S7.908 

1,613,936 
103.3S1 

2,136,655 

■33.03* 
490,408 
769.277 

s ;;,No 

l66,SS7 

745. 5S9 
314.495 
oSo,o69 


639.876 
380,246 
346,5lS 
6s,IO& 
3l6,9lS 

72,500 
13;,049 
779,199 
1.491, 4S 
967,940 

776.479 
459.429 
8l6,IOO 
471.192 
324.S7S 

472,756 
924.6(5 
774.58- 
361.624 

S%42° 

1,041,193 
203,161 
20,247 
176,465 
571,194 

2,577 54° 

711.842 

1,584.126 

7L3S7 
2,146,236 

143.S01 
505,1^9 
773 .0S2 
753.909 
165,399 

766,976 
303,962 
635,428 


1.252,771 
792,175 
571,820 

154,537 
492,70s 

137,140 

259,584 

1,531,616 

2,494.295 

I.S34.123 

1, $2,965 
886,010 

1,589,173 

SS5,Soo 
590,053 

852,137 
l,339-59( 
1,248,429 

51*097 
1,122,388 

1,956,802 

354.9SS 

36,613 

300,697 

909,416 

3,871,492 
i,3o6,ooS 
2,803,119 
144,265 
3,695,062 

202.53S 

987,891 

1,525.657 

i,477,i3.3 

291,327 

1,497,869 
600,192 
910,072 


9,734 
10,350 

292,874 
39,79o 

129,992 

9,46S 

9,909 

I0,5'4 

58.3,576 

144,178 

261,650 
1 io,oS6 
59,517 
54,H6 
$8,883 

82,So6 

443,491 

388,50-8 

267676 

9,209 

2ii,S78 
97,4H 
25,653 
46,294 

221,700 

i,2ii,379 

3,742 

394-943 

30,503 

587,829 

73.99.3 
7,686 
16,702 
1 14,616 
40,959 

14,696 

18,265 

405,425 


662,lS5 

591,531 
767,lSl 
191,126 
6lO,769 

120,l60 
142,605 

Si6,oo6 
3,031.151 
I.93S.79S 

1,614,600 
952.155 

1.377,179 
454.954 

''t", s 52 

724,693 

1,763,782 

1,614. 5^° 

776.SS4 

479,398 

2,022,S26 

449.764 

5.3,556 

346,229 

1,092,017 

5,016,022 
" S67,a42 
3,117.920 
I63 075 
4,I97,Ol6 

269,939 

391.105 

1,138,8.31 

1,197,237 
331,218 

8So,S5S 

592.537 

1,309,618 


600,103 

210,666 

6,oiS 

2,435 

■1,547 

26,442 
126,690 
725.133 
46,368 
39.22S 

9,Sl6 

43,107 

27L45 1 

4S3.655 

1,451 

210,230 

18,697 

15,100 

'■?' 1 

650,291 

145.35° 

'4SS 

6S5 

3S,SS3 

65,104 

531,277 

79,000 

487 

85,535 

6.4SS 
604,332 
403,151 
393,384 

1,057 

631,616 

25.SS6 

2,702 


4 

133 

75,132 

612 

123 

1 

iS 

17 
209 

29 

33 

■9 

10 

489 

8 

5 

229 

27 
24 
51 

9 ' 
iS 

5.4i6 

14 

170 

9°9 

109 

9,510 

14S 

27 

9 

25 

136 

6 

S 
16 


"86 
"6 

8 
1 

3 

'7 
1 

3 
2 
S 


213 




'95 




16,277 




154 




25S 




5 




180 




124 




140 




246 




466 




S15 




50 

84S 
625 




15 
309 


Michigan 


7.249 
2,300 




■.S57 




"3 

2,803 




63 




74 
8,9 


Ohio 


1,230 

'.V 

'. "1 

1S4 


Rhode Island 


77 




'3' 


Texas 


352 

992 

1 1 




S S 




29 




3,161 




7*4.415 


1 >-. ' ,J - 


443,2oi 


341.242 


jo (,284 


1 So, 159 


6SS.491 


62,421 


H.6S.3 


7 


21,841 




40,4(0 

■35-177 

177."- 1 
32,6m 

39.159 

■19.565 
■43,96? 
75,110 
20,789 


9,65S 
14,181 
131,700 
14.999 
20,595 

91,874 

S6.7S6 

23.955 
9.1 18 


2S.202 

S2.296 

83,578 

2I,SlS 

2S,i77 

64,496 
74.509 

45,973 
14,152 


12,23s 
52,S8i 
94046 
10,792 
10,982 

55,009 

69,454 

29,143 

6,637 


24.391 
83,382 
160,502 
22,636 

27.63S 

111.514 
99.969 
59.313 
14,939 


16,049 

51.795 
17,1 22 

9,974 
11,521 

S,o5i 

13-' "1 
15,803 
S.S50 


35,i''o 
■33,147 
1 18,00" 
29,013 
3S,3 S 5 

ioS,72i 

1(2.4-" 

67,199 
19,4.37 


155 

401 

59,596 

346 

1,015 
232 

32 § 
29S 


1,630 

23S 

■3 

3,379 

i.7"5 

57 

501 

3,186 

9H 


4 
1 


.3,493 




1.391 

5 

.65 

1,663 




9,772 
S07 


Utah 


Wyoming - 


4.405 
140 



\a_ 



-te* 



734 POPULATION OF THE PRINCIPAL CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES AND THE WORLD. 



POPULATION OF THE 100 PRINCIPAL CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES, IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER— CENSUS OF 1880. 



Cities. 



State. 



Albany N. V. . 

Allegheny Pa 

Atlanta Ga 

Aubim N. Y.. 

Augusta Ga 

Baltimore Md . . . 

Bay City Mich. . 

Boston Mass. . 

Bridgeport .. .Conn. . 

Brooklyn N. Y. 

Buffalo X. Y.. 

Cambridge Mass.., 

Camden N.J... 

Charleston S. C... 

Chelsea Mass. . 

Chicago.... Ill 

Cincinnati Ohio.. 

Cleveland Oh o . . 

Columbus Ohio. . 

Covington Ky. . . . 

Davenport Iowa. . 

Dayton Ohio. . 

Denver Colo.. . 

Des Moines Iowa.. 

Detroit Mich. . 

Dubuque Iowa.. 

Elizabeth N.J... 

Elmira N. Y.. 

Erie Pa.... 

Evans ville Ind. 

Fall River Mass.. 

Fort Wayne Ind.. . . 

Galveston Tex s. 

Grand Rapids Mich.. 

Harrisburg Pa 

Hartford Conn . . 

Hoboken N.J... 

Holyoke Mass . . 

Indianapolis Ind. . . . 

Jersey Citv N.J.. . 

Kan as City Mo.... 

Lancaster Pa 

Lawrence Mass. . 

Louisville Ky. ... 

Lowell Mass. . 

Lynn Mass. 

Manchester N. H. . 

Memphis Tenn. . 

Milwaukee Wis..., 

Minneapolis Minn.. . 



Total Popula'n. 




1SS0. 




iSSo. 


1S70. 




■ *J 

u — 


X J 

zS 




9°,7SS 


69,422 


43,7/0 


46,98s 


06,993 


23,765 


7S.6S2 


53->So 


38,489 


40,193 


59,245 


■9,437 


37,409 


21,789 


■7,677 


■9 732 


35,993 


1,416 


31,924 


17,225 


10,940 


10,984 


16,9s 1 


4,913 


2I,Soi 


■5.389 


9,827 


12,064 


20,693 


1,198 


33 2 .3'3 


267,354 


'57,393 


174,920 


276,177 


56,136 


20,693 


7,064 


11,318 


9.375 


",385 


9,304 


36 2 339 


^50.526 


172,26s 


■00,571 


248.043 


■■4,796 


27,643 


iS.oo^ 


■3,42' 


14,222 


rS^ 


7,439 


566,663 


396,099 


272,248 


294,4'5 


38S.9S9 


■77.094 
51,26,8 


■55, "34 


U7.7H 


76,004 


7V30 1 


103,866 


52,669 


39 634 


25,024 


27.645 


37.001 


15,668 


41AW 


20,045 


•9.923 


21,736 


37,'64 


4 495 


49,9S4 


48,956 


22,585 


27,399 


4<VW 


3,950 


21,782 


■8,547 


10,02, 


■ i,759 


17.187 


4,595 


S°3.iSS 


298,977 


256,905 


246,2.80 


298,326 


204,859 


255, '39 


1 16,239 


■25,49- 


129,647 


l8.3,1*o 


71.659 


160,146 


92.S2Q 


So, 174 


79.972 


100,737 


59,4o? 


5 '.647 


3 ',274 


26,409 


25,238 


41,576 


9,071 


29,720 


24,505 


14,192 


■5.52S 


23.233 


6487 


21,531 


20,038 


10,004 


11,227 


■4.936 


6,895 


38,678 


30,473 


■ S.969 


'9.709 


3 ,432 


7,246 
8,705 


35,620 


4,755 


2 ',539 


14,09- 


26,924 


22,40s 


■2,035 


■',53' 


' ,877 


18,205 


4.203 . 


1 16,340 


79.577 


56 70.1 


59.577 


70.695 


45.6l : 


22,254 


■8.W4 
20,832 


10,855 


■■.399 


16,107 


6,147 


28,229 


13.60S 


14,021 


20,644 


7.585 


20,541 


■5,863 


9,749 


10,792 


16,967 


3.574 


27.737 


19,646 


'3.752 


■3.98S 


20,03 ' 


7,706 


20.2N3 


21,830 


14,228 


■S.OS2 


23,177 


6,103 


4S,96l 


26,766 


23,163 


2S79S 


25,380 


23.575 


26,SSo 


■77'S 

'3,8"3 


■3.7i~ 


■3.163 


21 02S 


5,852 


22,24s 


11,066 


11,182 


■7,202 


5,046 


32,016 


■ 6,507 


16,183 


■5.S33 


22,016 


1 ,^00 


30,76 


2.i,i°4 


■ 4,760 


16,002 


-8,446 


2,316 


42,015 


37,<»< 


2 1,146 


21,869! 


31,420 


■0,595 


3°,999 


20,297 


'5.251 


■5.745 


■ 8,o r 4 


■2,995 


21.915 


■N731 


10 308 


1 1,607 


11,000 


■ ',015 


75 056 


4.8, '41 
82,546 


30S03 


3S,'93 


62,446 


12,610 


121,722 


59.9 '9 


6,Si 3 


81,464 


39.258 


55.785. 


32,20 


3'.999 


2 i.786 


46. |S, 


9.3oi 


25.769 


20,233 


12,212 


'3.557 


22,391 
21,885 


3.379 


39,'5' 


28,921 


■7.78- 


21,366 


17,2-6 


123.7S8| 


■co,753 


58,982 


6(,776 


100,602 


23.>56 


59.475, 


41,92s 


2'',SS3 


31.622 


3^4*1 


2.!. 54 


3S.274| 


28,233 


■8,--43 


20,031, 


3 '.-2.34 


7,040 


32,630 


23,5'6 


14.698 


■7-932 


20,151 


■2,479 


33.5921 


40,226 


16,302 


■ 7.290 


29,621 


3,97 ■ 


"5'£>°i 
46,SS 7 


7". 44° 


57.475 


58,112 


60,514 


46,' 73 


■3.066 


25.291 


21,596 


3i,S74 


■5,oi3 



Mobile AJa.... 

Nashville Tenn. . . 

Newark N.J... 

New Bed lord Mass.. 

New Haven Conn.. 

New Orle ins L,±. . .. 

Newport Ky.. . . 

New York N. Y.. 

Norfolk Va 

Oakland Cal.. . 

Omaha Neb.. 

Oswego N.Y.. 

P.iterson N. J.. . 

Peoria Ill 

Petersburg Va. 

Philadelphia Pa 

Pittsburgh Pa 

Portland. Me. 

Poughkeepsie N. Y. . 

Providence , ..R. I. . . 

Quincy Ill 

Reading .Pa... . 

Richmond Va 

Rochester N. Y. .. 

Sacramento Cal.. .. 

St. Joseph Mo.. . 

St. Louis Mo 

St. Paul Minn... 

Salem Mass. . . 

Salt Lake City Utah... 

San Antonio Texas.. 

San Francisco Cal 

Savannah Ga 

Scranton Pa 

Somer ville Mass.. . 

Springfield Ill 

Springfield Mass.. . 

Springfield Ohio.... 

Syracuse N. Y... 

Taunton ; Mass... 

Terre Haute Ind 

Toledo Ohio... 

Trenton.. N.J... 

Troy N. Y... 

Utica N. Y... 

Washington D. C. .. 

Wheeling. W. Va. 

Wilkesbarre Pa 

Wilmington Del 

Worcester Mass. . . 



Total Popula'n. 


1SS0. 


1880. 


1S70. 




E 


H 


i c 


29,132 


32,i34 


■3,iS9 


'5,943 


26,195 


2,957 


43.3SO 


25.805 


20,912 


22,43 s 


40,325 


3,' 25 


136,50s 
26,845 
62.8S2 


■ 05,059 


66,077 


7o,43i 


96,17^ 


40,13O 


21,320 


■2,37' 


'4,474 


21,922 


5,923 
15,068 


5o,S 4 o 


30,462 


32,420 


47.214 


216,090 


191,41s 


100,892 


115,19s 


■74,933 


4", '57 


-0,43 i 


■5,oS7 


9.925 


10,508 


'5.422 


5,ou 


1,206,299 


342,292 


590,514 


6"5,7 S 5 


727,629 


478/70 


21,966 


19,229 


10,060 


11,897, 


2', 13' 


S.35 


34.555 


10,500 


18,117 


■6,4 ,S 


2 1,534 


11,021 


30,5'S 


■6,083 


17,104 


'3.4'4 


20,5,88 


9.930 


21,116 


20,910 


10,055 


1 1, 61 


■5,555 


5.56i 


51.031 


33,579 
22,849 


24,765 


26,2'6 


32.329 


18,7:2 


29259 


■4,507 


14,692 


22,134 


7,"25 


21,656 


■8,950 


9.779 


' 1 .877 


2 1 ,300 


356 


S47,'7o 


674,022 


405,975 
78,47- 


44', '95 


642,835 


204.33S 


■ 56.3»9 


86,07c 


77.9'8 


1 n.784 


44,605 


33, Sl ° 


3i,4'3 


■ 5,752 


18,058 


26,90s 


6,902 


20,207 


20,' So 


9270 
49.7S7 


io,937 


16,413 


3-794 


■04,857 


(>S,i,n.j 


55.070 


76, 7 S2 


2»,&7S 


27,268 


24.052 


■3,2S9 


■3,979 


20,701 


6,562 


43,27 s 


33.930 


21,099 


22,179 


39,6.54 


3.624 


63,600 


5 ',038 


29,4-8.3 


34,117 
46,97 s 


60,260 


3- '4o 


89,366 


62,386 


42,388 


62,744 


26,622 


21,420 


16,283 


12,271 


9. '49 


14.372 


7.04? 


32,43' 


19.565 


'7,832 


'4,599 


26,775 


5.656 


35o,5'8 


310,864 


179,520 


■7o,9,8 


245- 505 


105,01 3 


4',473 


20,030 


22,361 


19. 1 12 


2<V,„S 


■5,075 
7 448 


27,563 


24.117 


■2,589 


'4-974 


20,115 


2076S 


■2,854 


9.9 : 3 


10,81c 


■3.C95 


7.673 


20 550 


■2,250 


■0.673 


9.877 


■4,952 


5.598 


233,959 


■49 473 


132,61 S 


101.351 


■ 29-7'5 


104,244 


3 ',7 9 


28 23s 


■3 936 


■6,773 


27 7" 


' 994 


45,»5o 


35 r92 


23,170 


2268c 


29,993 


■5S.57 


2), 933 


H.0S5 


■ ',873 


■3.o6c 


19,252 


5,681 


■9.713 


■7.364 


9,80; 


9 93 s 


■5-459 


4.2S4 


33 34" 


26,703 


'5 767 


■7.573 


25,807 


7.5J3 


20.730 


1 2,652 


'0,563 


10,167 


17,646 


30 s ! 


5 '.792 


43.051 


24/'75 


27.»7 


38,774 
l6,cS4 


13,018 


21.213 


18,629 


■ 0,328 


io,SS5 


5-129 


26,0 |2 


■6, "-3 


■3,"28 


12,914 


22,050 


3902 


5 • '37 


S',584 


25 034 


25,ioi 


35,7-88 


■4.349 


2991c 


22 874 


14,921 


■4.989 


24 .9 


5,"9 


56-747 


28^804 


27. '54 


29 593 


39,809 


1693S 


33-9U 


ic,666 


■S,'48 


24581 


9.333 


'47.293 


109 199 


68.3.0 


78 98.3 


■ 33,05' 


14242 


30,737 


>9,2So 


■5.'2; 


15,6-0 


24,623 


0,114 


2 3 339 


10,-74 


■■45" 


II.8SS 


'7-0.39 


6,30 


42,478 


31841 


20 751 


21,727 


36 804 


5,67; 


58 291 


41 1 r 


28,927 


29 364 


42,667 


15,62 j 



POPULATION OF THE CITIES OF THE WORLD HAVING OVER 100,000 INHABITANTS. 



Aberdeen, Scotland 105,818 

Adrianople, Turkey 100,000 

Agra, India 125,0^0 

Ahmedabad, India 120000 

Alexandria, Egypt 180,000 

J Amoy, China 270,000 

Amsterdam, Holland 263,204 

Antwerp, Belgium 104,628 

Bahia, Brazil 180,000 

Baltimore, Md 332,313 

Batavia.Java 140,000 

Bangkok, Siam 300,0*0 

Barcelona, Spain. 202,165 

Baroda, India 110,000 

Beliast, Ireland 180,000 

Benares, India 600,000 

Berlin, Prussia 1,200,000 

Bhurtpoor, India 100,000 

Birmingham, England 4°°i757 

Bombay, India 898,218 

Bordeaux, France 215,000 

Boston, Mass 3 62 » s 39 

Bradford, England '83,032 

Breslau, Prussia 187,650 

Bristol, England 183,032 

Brooklyn, N.Y 566,663 

Brussels, Belgium 325,0 o 

Bucharest, Turl< ey 150,000 

Buenos Ayres, S.'A 150,000 

Buffalo, N.Y 155.134 

Cairo, Egypt 300,000 

Calcutta, India 600,' 00 

Canton, China Soo.ooo 

Cawnpore, India 100,000 

* A few Cilie3 in China and India are not given. 



Chang- Choo-Foo, China.. 1,000,000 

Chicago, III 5 3.*S5 

Cincinnati, Ohio 255,139 

Cologne, Prussia 1 50,000 

Cleveland, Ohi-> 160,146 

Constantinople, Turkey.. . i,ooo,coo 

Copenhagen, Denmark.... 2co, r oo 

Damascus, Turkey 180,000 

Delhi, India iSo,ooo 

Dhar, India 105,000 

Dresden, Germany 150,000 

Dublin, Ireland 33 "\5oo 

Detroit, Mich t 16,340 

Dundee, Scotland...,'. 125,000 

Edinburgh, Scotland 184,000 

Florence, Italy 150,0a > 

FooChooFoo, China 1,000,000 

Fvzabad, India 100,000 

Genoa, Italy i5->,ooo 

Ghent, Belgium 130,000 

Glasgow, Scotland........ 525,001 

Greenwich, England 135,000 

Hamburg, Germany 245,003 

HangTchcou, China 1,000,000 

Havana, Cuba... ..... 225,000 

I lue, or Ilucfo, Anam 132,000 

Hull, England 120,000 

Hyderabad, India 200,003 

Joodpoor Marwar, India.. 100,000 

Jersey City, N.J 120,722 

Leeds, England 309,126 

Liege, Belgium 120,0-0 

Lille, or Lisle, France 150,000 

Lima, Peru 100,000 



Lisbon, Portugal , 

Liverpool, England 

London, England 

Louisville, ICy 

Lucknow, India 

Lyons, France 

Madras, India 

Madrid, Spain 

M.imhester, England.... 
Manilla, Philippine Is... 

Marseilles, France 

Maranhao, Brazil 

Melbourne, Australia 

Mexico, Mexico 

Miako, Japan 

Milan, Italy 

Milwaukee, Wis 

Montreal, Canada , 

Moscow, Prussia 

Munich, Bavarii 

Nagpoor, India 

Nanking, China 

Nantes, France 

Naples, Italy 

Newark, N. J 

Ncwcastle-on-Tyne, Eng. 

New Orleans, La , 

New York, N.Y 

Nottingham, Eng , 

Odessa, Russia , 

Palermo, Italy , 

Paris, France 

Patna, India 

Pekin, China 



Tho^e given are from the latest published Information. 



240,000 

^52,42S 
3.SI4.571 

123,758 
325,000 
329 000 
415,000 
490,000 
34i)5° s 
155,000 
305,200 
100,000 
247,079 
212 000 
400,000 
200,000 
115,586 
115,000 
37S 000 
i75.5oo 
1 15,000 
500,000 
115,000 
467,5m 
136,508 
145,22s 

2l6,OGO 

1,206,209 
186,656 
120,0 o 
175,000 

3,225,000 
300,000 

1,850,000 



Pesth, Hungary.... 131, 

Philadelphia, Pa 847, 

Pittsburgh, Pa 156 

Portsmouth, England. . .. 120, 

Prague, Bohemia 150, 

Providence, R. 1 104, 

Riga, Russia 102, 

Rio Janeiro, Brazil 370, 

Rome, Italy 303, 

Rotterdam, Holland 140, 

Rouen, France ... no, 

Salford, Ene- 176, 

St. Louis, Mo 350, 

St. Petersburg, Russia.... 665, 

San Francisco, Cal 233, 

Santiago, Chili 100J 

Seville, Spain 160, 

Shang-hai, China 160, 

Sheffield, England 2S4, 

Smyrna, Asia Minor 150 

Stockholm, Sweden 169, 

Sydney, Australia 1S7 

Tiflis, Russia in Asia 104 

Tokio, Japan 594 

Toulouse, France 130 

Trieste, Austria 100, 

Tunis, Africa 150, 

Turin, Italy 200, 

Valencia, Spain 100, 

Venice, Italy 1 1 5»« 

Vienna, Austria 726, 

Warsaw, Poland .. 237, 

Washington, D. C 147. 

Yeddo, Japan 2,100. 



000 

0OO 

857 

,000 
000 
000 

^OOO 

,000 

233 

h ooo 
■959 
000 
,oco 

( 0OO 

,410 
,ooo 

429 

,381 

% 

,coo 
000 
,000 
000 
000 

105 

t;6o 

207, 

,ooo 



=s** 



<s •- 



IMMIGRATION INTO THE UNITED STATES, 1820-1884. 



735 



Prior to the year 1S20, no statistics of immigration were officially kept. By the act of Congress of March 2, 1819, Collectors of Customs were 



figures show the whole number of aliens arriving, but from 1S56 to 1SS2 inclusive, the number of immigrants only, i. e, t of foreign passengers settling 
in the United States. 

It has been estimated that the whole number of aliens coming to the United States from 17S9 to 1S20, was about 250,000. 



Yr. Total 
Immig'ts 



1820 
1S2: 
1S22 
1823 
1S24 
1S25 
1S26 
1827 
iSjS 
1S29 
■ S30 
1S31 
1S32 
18.31 
IS.34 
1S35 
1S35 



8,38S 

9,127 
6,911 

6,354 
7,912 
10,109 
10,837 
iS,S75 

27,3^2 

22,520 

23.3" 
22,633 
60,482 
5S.640 
6s,i"5 
45.3 4 
70,242 



Yr. Total |Yr. 
Immig'ts 



'S3' 
■V 
,-.,,,, 
1S40 
1841 
[84a 

1S43 
1844 

1845 
1846 

g47 

1848 

1S49 

1S50 

1S52 
■S53 



79.340 

3S,9'4 
6S,o69 
84,0*36 
So,2S9 
104,565 
52.196 
7S.OI5 
H4.37' 
■54.11° 
2j ( ,.X.S 

226,527 
297,024 

369,980 
379.466 
37'.6o3 
368.645 



■ Si 
■S5 
1856 

■S7 
1S5S 
■859 
i860 
1S61 
1S62 
,s,,. 
1864 
1865 



Total 
Immig'ts 



427.S33 
200,877 

■95.S57 
246,945 
119.501 
118,616 
■50,237 
89,724 
89,007 
174.524 
■93. '95 
247,453 
■67.75; 



Fiscal yr. end 

ingjune ^0. 

1S671 298,967 

1S68 282, 1S9 

I.S69I 352,76 8 



Yr. Total 
Immig'ts 



1S70 
■871 
S72 

■S73 
1S74 

'875 
1S76 
1877 

1S7S 
■ s 7<< 
1880 
1SS1 
18S2 
1SS3 
1S84 



387.203 
32 1,350 
404,806 
459,So.3 
3'3.339 
227,498 
169,980 
■4I.S57 

138,469 
177,82-, 

457.257 
669,431 

78S.992 
603,322 
5lS,592 



Tot. 12,719,095 



IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES, BY COUNTRIES, 
DURING 60 CALENDAR YEARS.— 1820-1879. 



Great Britain. 

England 894,444 

Ireland 3.065,761 

Scotland '59*547 

Wales 



Summary. 



Europe, 
Asia 



Great Britain, 
specified . , 



not 



Total from British 



Austria- Hungary.... 65,588 

Belgium 23,267 

Denmark 48,620 

France 313,7 16 

Germany 3,002,027 

Greece 3S5 

Italy 70,181 

N etherland 44,3 19, Africa 

Poland 14,831 British America 

i7,$93 Portugal 9,062 

Russia 38,316 

Spain 28,091 

560,453 Sweden and Norway 306,092 

Switzerland 83709 

— Turkey 619 



Isles 4,69S ( 09S Total from Europe.. 8,746,921 



All other American 
countries .... 

Pacific 

All other 



5,746,921 

2 2 S, 047 

1.631 

568,941 

97,007 
10,474 

255,77S 



Grand aggregate. .9,908,799 



NATIVITIES OF THE FOREIGN-BORN POPULATION, 1880. 

(From the Official returns of the Tenth Census, 18S0.) 



All foreign countries 

Born in 



. 6,679,94 } 



Africa (not specified) 
Asia (not specified). . 

Atlantic Islands 

Australia 

Austria 

Belgium 



2,204 

1.05+ 

7.512 

4,' 06 

38,663 

15.535 

Bohemia 85,361 

British America. 

Canada 610,017 

New Brunswick 41,78s 



Newfoundland . 

Nova Scotia. .. 

Prince Edward Island 

British America (not specified). . 



4,789 
51,160 
7.537 
1.793 



Total British America 717,084 

Central America 707 

China 104,54' 

Cuba 6,917 

Denmark 64, 19!) 

Europe(not specified) 3,314 

France '06,971 



German Empire. 

Baden 127,885 

Bavaria 171,699 

Brunswick 4'6 2 4 

Hamburg 8,854 

Hanover 102,594 

Hesse 72,400 

Lubeck 2' 4 

Mecklenburg 45.959 

Nassau 6, 53 

Oldenburg. 9.9-4 

Prussia (not specified) 634,3.50 

Saxony 48,708 

Weimar 685 

Wurtemburg 108,223 

Germany (not specified) 624,200 



Total German Empire. 
Gibraltar 



',966,742 

'67 

Great Britain. 

England 1162,676 

Ireland ',854,57' 

Scotland 170,136 

Wales S3, 302 

Great Britain (not specified) i.lS4 

Total Great Britain and Ireland 2,772,169 



Greece 776 

Greenland 129 

Holland 5 S .090 

Hungary ",526 

India 1,707 

Italy 44. 2 30 

Japan 401 

Luxembourg 12,836 

Malta 30S 

Mexico 6S,399 

Norway 'S',729 

Pacific Islands 806 

Poland 4S.557 

Portugal 8,138 

Russia 35.722 

Sandwich Islands ','47 

South America 4,5°o 

Spain 5.121 

Sweden '94.337 

Switzerland S3.62I 

Turkey 1.205 

West Indies 9.484 

At sea under foreign flags 4.o6s 



Europe 

America. .. 
Africa . . 

Asia 

All others. 



Total born abroad . 



5,744,006 

■ 807,157 

2,204 
. 107.703 

■ 18.S73 

.6,679,94? 



Native white.... 36.S43.291 

Native colored 6,632 ,549 

Total native 4M75.S40 

Foreign born 6,679,943 

Aggregate population 5°.'55>7S3 



CHINESE IMMIGRATION INTO THE UNITED STATES FOR EACH CALENDAR YEAR FROM 

1855 TO 1884 INCLUSIVE. 



Year. 


No. 


Year. 


No 


Year. 


No. 


Year. 


No. 


'855 
1S56 
1S57 
185S 
1S59 
1S60 
1S61 
1862 


3.£26 
4.733 
5,944 
5.128 
3.457 
5,467 
7.51S 


1S63 
1864 

1S65 
1S66 
1S67 
1S6S 
1S69 
'-7" 


7,214 

2,795 

2,942 
2,385 
1,863 

10,684 

■ 4,902 

■ 1.943 


■S71 
1S72 
1S73 
1S74 
■S75 
1876 
■ s 77 
iS 7 S 


6,039 
10,642 

■8,154 
16,651 

■9.033 
■9,879 
io,379 
S,4&8 


1S79 
1S80 
1SS1 

iSS; 
1S83 
1884 


9,189 

7,oii 

20,727 

35.6i4 

Jan. tojune, So 

Total 274 3S1 



Note. 
country. 



-The statement is made that nearly one-half of all the Chinese who have arrived in the United States have returned 



to their native 



*t 



736 



HISTORY OF THE SEVERAL STATES AND TERRITORIES. 



Showing Population of 1870 and 1880; When Admitted to the Union, Public Debt, Area, Where and By Whom First Settled, 
National Electoral Vote, Salaries, Term of Office of Governor and Members of Legislature, Number of Senators 
and Representatives comprising the Legislature, Miles of R. R. in operation 



l& 



r 



'i 7 go 
•1788 
•1788 
•1787 
*i 7 8 7 
♦1787 



States and 
Territories. 



*I 7 8q 
*I788 
*i 7 88 
1845 
1819 
1817 
1812 
1845 
1836 
1796 
1792 
1863 
1803 
1837 
1816 
1818 
1848 
1858 
1846 
1821 
1861 
1867 
1876 
1864 
1850 
1859 
Organ- 
ized. 
1863 
1861 
J85 3 
1864 
1850 
1850 
1853 
1 868 
1790-91 
1834 



Maine 

N. Hampshire 
Vermont .. 
Massachusetts 
Rhode Island 
Connecticut.. 

New York 

New Jersey.. 
Pennsylvania 

Delaware 

Maryland 

Virginia. 

N. Carolina.. 

S. Carolina 

Georgia . 

Florida ... 

Alabama v --_ 
Mississippi ... 

Louisiana 

Texas 

Arkansas 

Tennessee 

Kentucky 

West Virginia 

Ohio 

Michigan _ 

"ndi-ma 

Illinois ... 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota 

Iowa 

Missouri . 

Kansas. 

Nebraska 

Colorado 

Nevada 

California 

Oregon. 



Capitals. 



Augusta .... 

Concord..... 

Montpelier.. 
Boston....... 

Prov. & N'port 

Hartford 

Albany 

Trenton 

Harrisburg. .. 

Dover 

Annapolis.... 

Richmond 

Raleigh 

Columbia .... 

Atlanta — ... 
Tallahassee .. 
Montgomery . 
Jackson .... .. 

New Orleans. . 

Austin 

Little Rock .. 
Nashville .... 

Frankfort 

Wheeling .... 

Columbus 

Lansing 

ndianapolis 

Springfield 

Madison 

St. Paul 

Des Moines .. 
Jefferson City 

Topeka 

Lincoln 

Denver 

Carson City 

Sacramento 

Salem . 



Arizona 

Dakota 

Idaho 

Montana 

New Mexico . 
Utah 

Washington .. 

Wyoming 

Dis. Col.** .. 
Indian Ter** 
Alaska •* 



Prescott 

Yankton ....... 

Boise City 

Helena 

Santa Fe...... 

Salt Lake City. 

Olympia 

Cheyenne 



Tahlaquah.. 
Sitka 



■as 



29,895 
9,005 

9. '35 
8,040 
i,oS5 

4,845 
47,620 

7.455 

44,985 

1,960 

9,S6o 

40.125 

4 S,5So 

58,980 
54,240 
5i,540 
46.340 
45.420 
262,290 
53.045 
4>,75o 
40,000 

24.645 
40,760 
57,430 
35,9"0 
56,000 
54,45o 
79,205 
55, »75 
68,735 
81,700 
76, ,85 
'03,645 
109,740 
'55,980 
04,560 



112,920 
.47,700 
84,290 
■4S,3io 
122,460 
82,100 
66,8So 

97,575 

60 

69,830 

577,390 



64S.936 

346,991 

332.2S6 

1,783,085 

276,^31 

622,700 

5.082,871' 

31,116 

4.2S2.S.JI 

11146,608 

934.91? 
■,5' 2 ,565 
1,399,750 

995.577 
1,542, 1S0 

269.493 

1,262,505 
1,131,597 

939.946 
:.;9i.749 

802,525 
1,542,359 

1,648,(00 

618,457 

3,198,062 

",636,937 

1,978,301 

3,077.871 
',315.497 

7So,773 

1,624:615 

2,168,380 

996,096 

452,462 

"94,327 
62,266 
864,694 
174.76S 



40,440 

135.177 
32,610 

39,159 
"9,565 
•43.963 
75,116 
20.7S9 
177,624 



626,91s 
318,300 
330-5S 1 

1,457.351 
217,353 
537.454 

4.3S2.759 
906,096 

3,521,951 
125,015 
780,894 

1,225,163 

1,071,361 
705,606 

1,iS4,io9 
187,748 
996,992 
827,922 
726,915 
818,579 

484.471 
1,258,520 
1,321,011 

442,014 
2,665,260 
1,184,059 

.'80,637 
2,539,891 
1,054,670 

439.706 
1,194,020 
1,721.295 

364.399 

122,093 
39,864 
42,49' 

560,247 
90,923 

9,658 
14,181 
14,999 
2o,595 

23.95s 
9.11S 
131,700 

8,785 
661 






$4,6S2,74 1 

3,561,200 

4,000 

20,159,478 

1.832,463 

4,967,600 

7.536.732 

^13,675 

20,716,285 

SSo,75o 

7,627,668 

29,345,226 
5,706,616 
6,639, ' 7 l 
9.95 '.5 00 
1, 134,880 

9.o7i»76S 

379.485 

23,437.640 

5,566,92s 

4.039.737 
27.440,43' 

1,089,856 
See Note 



5<732.5«> 
See Note 

4,988,178 
No debt. 

2,252,057 

2,565,00010 

370,435 

16,259,000 

1,087,70011 

175.5^ 

212,814 

See Note 12 

3,306,614 

5 "»376 



8S, 3 8i 
64,677 



17,000 
22,675,459 



First Settled at 



Bristol 

Little Harbor .. 
Fort Dummer.. 
Plymouth ... .. 

Providence 

Windsor .. 

New York ..... 

Berg-en 

Philadelphia . .. 
Cape Henlopen, 

St. Mary 

Jamestown 

Chowan River . 
Ashley River. . 

Savannah 

St. Augustine . 

Mobile 

Natchez 

Iberville 

San Antonio .. 
Arkansas Post. 
Fort London . . 

Boonesboro 

Wheeling 

Marietta 

Detroit 

Vincennes... 

Kaskaskia . . 

Green Bay 

Red River 

Burlington 

St. Genevieve. . 



Genoa_ 

San Diego . 
Astoria 



Santa Fe 

Salt Lake City. 
Astoria 



French. 

English 

English 

English 

English 

English 

Dutch . 

Dutch . 

English 

Swedes. 

English 

English 

English 

English 

English 

Span'ds 

French 

French 

French 

Span'ds 

Frtnch. 

English 

English 

English 

English 

French. 

French. 

French. 

French. 

Amer .. 

English 

French. 

Amer .. 

Amer .. 

Amer .. 

Amer .. 

Span'ds 

Amer 



Span'ds 
Amer . 
Amer . 
Amer . 
Span'ds 
Amer .. 
Amer .. 
Amer .. 
English 



Governor | Legislature. 



1 625 
it 23 
1764 
1620 
636 
1635 
1614 
1620 
1682 
1027 
.634 
if 07 
1650 
1670 
*733 
1 5^5 
1711 
1716 
1699 
1692 
1685 
I 757 
'775 
1774 
1788 
if. 50 

1730 

1682 
1669 
1812 
1830 
1764 



1850 
1769 



159c 
1859 

1842 
1852 

537 
1S47 
181 1 
1867 



State Government. 



$2,000 
1,000 
1,000 
5,000 
i,i 00 
2,000 

10,000 
5,000 

10,000 
2,000 
4,5oo 
5,oco 
3,000 
3,5oo 
3,000 
3,5oo 
3,000 
4,000 
4,000 

4,.*K I 

3,000 
4,000 

5,000 
2,700 
4,000 
1,0 o 
5,000 
6,000 
5,000 
3,Soo 
3,000 
5,000 
3,000 
2,500 
3,000 
6,000 
6,000 
4,500 



3 ,600 
2,6oO 
2,6oO 
2,6oO 
2,6oO 
2,6oO 
2.600 
2,6oo 



4. H 



*T3 

•g.S 
3 



W O 

o a 



1,094 

897 

836 

2,250 

■53 

93i 

5,98i 

1,663 

6,748 

„ 2 '7 

§','47 
2,505 
1,615 
i,34S 
2,621 

775 
2,297 

459 
',586 
5.144 

670 
1.904 
2,893 

227 
7.S90 
4,o73 
5.966 
10,685 
5.303 
3 973 
2,269 

4.543 
3,507 
2013 
2,068 

443 

2,871 

761 



384 

53 

220 

10 

512 

976 

212 

63 

s'eMd 

275 



♦Original thirteen States, and date of ratification of the Constitution. ^Official. fThe Legislature meets annually. iThe Legislature meets 
biennially. §Includes the District of Columbia. **No Territorial Government. ***This does not include 383,712 Indians, estimated. 

1. Vermont has no State debt except $4,ooobonds due in 1S76, but never presented for payment. 2. Against this amount Rhode Island has 
$238,398.32. 3. This amount is Canal Debt, redeemable 1S83-1S93. 4. War Bonds, redeemable $100,000 each year. 6. Against this amount the 
State held, Jan., 1SS3, railroad securities to the amount of $1,168,799. The State is practically out of debt. 6. This includes $15,239,371 which 
Virginia has charged to the State of West Virginia as her proportion of the State debt of Virginia at the time of separation, 1863. This is dis- 
puted by West Virginia, and the matter remains unadjusted. 7. The amount returned as net State debt by the United States census report 
appears to be incorrect. By Funding Law passed 1S79 a compromise was effected with holders of bonds. From late statements (1SS2) the 
funded debt is $16,960,045; unfunded, $10,160,183. 8* No State debt except her proportion of old State debt of Virginia. See Virginia. 9. The 
State has a Sinking Fund of $i,2oS,S95, against which her debt is $905,150, leaving a cash balance in excess of debt of $303,745. 10. The State is 
also indebted to the School Fund of the State $2,849,000. This is held as a permanent investment. 11. Of this amount the Sinking and Perma- 
nent School Fund held, Nov. 26, 1SS2, $716,950, on which they receive interest only. 12. The State of Nevada has a debt of $75,396, against 
which the cash in the treasury is $312,372, an excess over debt of $236,976. 



V* 



737 



DISTANCES AND STANDARDS OF TIME OF THE PRINCIPAL CITIES OF THE WORLD. 



Air-Line Distances from Washington to various parts of the World. 



MILES. 

Alexandria, Egypt 5,275 

Amsterdam, Holland 3,555 

Athens, Greece 5'°°5 

Auckland, N. Z 8,290 

Algiers, Algeria 3*435 

Berlin, Prussia 3i 8 47 

Berne, Switzerland 3,730 

Brussels, Belgium 3.515 

Batavia, J iva 11,118 

Bombay, Hindostan - 8,548 

Buenos Ayres, A. C 5iOi ^ 

Bremen, Prussia 3i5°° 

Constantinople, Turkey - 4,880 

Copenhagen, Denmark 3*895 

Calcutta, Hindostan -- 9,348 

Canton, China . — - 9,000 

Cairo, Egypt 5,848 

Cape Town, Cape Colony 6,684 

Cape of Good Hope 7,380 

Carracas, Venezuela 1*805 

Charlotte Town, P. E.I 820 



MILES. 

Dublin, Ireland 3^76 

Delhi, Hindostan 8,368 

Edinburgh, Scotland 3* 2 75 

Fredericton, N. B 670 

Gibraltar, Spain .. 3*350 

Glasgow, Scotland 3i 2I 5 

Halifax, N. S 780 

Hamburg, Germany 3*573 

Havana, Cuba I * I 39 

Honolulu, S. I. -- 4,513 

Jerusalem, Palestine ...... 5,495 

Jamestown, St. Helena 7,150 

Lima, Peru 3»5'5 

Lisbon, Portugal 3,190 

Liverpool, England 3*228 

London, k " 3-3>5 

City of Mexica, Mexico 1,867 

Montevideo, Uraguay 5y° c 3 

Montreal, Canada 471 

Madrid, Spain ..-..- 3,485 

Moscow, Russia ...... 4,466 



MILES. 

Manilla, Phil. Islands 9,360 

Mecca, Arabia 6,598 

Muscat, " . 7,600 

Monrovia, Liberia . 31645 

Morocco, Morocco . 3,305 

Mourzouk, Fezzan 5,5 2 5 

Mozambique, Moz 7-348 

Ottawa, Canada .... 462 

Panama, New Granada 1,825 

Parana, A. C . 4,733 

Port au Prince, Hayti 1.425 

Paris, France ..._.. 3-485 

Pekin, China 8,783 

Quebec, Canada. 601 

Quito, Ecuador .... 2,531 

Rio Janeiro, Brazil 4,280 

Rome, Italy 4*3^5 

St. Petersburg, Russia 4,296 

Stockholm, Sweden 4°55 

Shanghai. China 8,600 

Singapore, Malay .... 11,300 



MILES. 

St. John's, N. F 1,340 

San Domingo, S. D 4,300 

San Juan, Nicaraugua 1,740 

San Salvador, C. A 1,650 

Santiago, Chili 4,970 

Spanish Town, Jamaica 1,446 

Sydney, C. B I. 975 

Sydney, Australia. 8,963 

St. Paul de Loanda 5.578 

Timbuctoo, Soudan ... 3,395 

Tripoli. Tripoli . 4,425 

Tunis. Tunis 4,240 

Toronto, Canada 343 

Venice, Italy 3,835 

Vienna, Austria 4,115 

Valparaiso, Chili 4,934 

Vera Cruz, Mexico 1,680 

Warsaw, Poland _ 4,010 

Yeddri, Japan 7-630 

Zanzibar, Zanzibar 7,078 



Distances by Water from New York to various parts of the World. 



MILES. 

Alexandria, Egypt 5,075 

Aspinwall 2.338 

Amsterdam, Holland . 3,510 

Azores .. 2.240 

Bili2e, Balize 1.790 

Batavia, Java 13,066 

Belfast, Ireland 2,895 

Bermudas, West Indies £60 

Bombay, India 1 1.574 

Bordeaux, France 3-3 to 

Botany Bay, Australia 13,294 

Bremen 3 575 

Bristol 3.010 

Brussels, Belgium 3,420 

Buenos Ayres, S. A 6,120 

Callao 3'5co 

Cape of Good Hope, Africa.. 6,838 
Cape Horn, S. A 7,000 



MILES. 

Chagres, New Granada 2.328 

Cherbourg 3,125 

Columbia River i5>9^5 

Constantinople. Turkey . 5,140 

Copenhagen, Denmark 3,640 

Calcutta, India ... . 12.500 

Canton, China 14,090 

Galway ......... 3,000 

Gibraltar, Spain . 3 300 

Glasgow, Scotland . 2.926 

Guayaquil Equador ... 2,800 

Halifax, Nova Scotia 555 

Havre, France . 3.325 

Hamburg Germany 3.775 

Havana, Cuba . 1,280 

Hong Kong . . 6.488 

Kingston, Jamaica i,°35 

Lima, Peru 11,310 



MILES. 

Lisbon, Portugal 3,*75 

London, England . 3-375 

Liverpool, " 3^84 

Madras, British India 11 850 

Malta 4<3 ? 5 

Manilla, Philipine Islands .. 10,750 

Melbourne, A stralia 11.165 

Monrovia, Liberia.. ... 3 850 

Mozambique, Moz 6,900 

Nagasaki 9,800 

Naples, Italy 4-33° 

Panama, New Granada 2,066 

Pekin, China 15.325 

Pernambuco, Brazil 4,780 

Quebec, Canada 1,400 

Rio Janeiro, Brazil 5,920 

St. John, New Foundland ... 800 
St. Petersburg, Russia 4,420 



MILKS. 

San Diego _ 4,500 

Sandwich Islands, S. I.. 7,*57 

San Francisco, Cal 18,850 

San Juan, Nicaraugua 2,270 

Shanghai, China 14,500 

Smyrna, Asia Minor. 5,000 

Southampton 3,156 

Stockholm, Sweden 4-°5o 

Tahiti, S. I. 7,865 

Trieste, Austrii 5-*3° 

Valparaiso, Chili . .... 4,800 

Vera Cruz, Mexico. 2,200 

Victoria, Australia.... . 12,825 

Vienna, Austria ..... 4,100 

Yokohama, Japan 7.520 



Distances from London, England, to various parts of the World. 



MILES. 

Amsterdam, »Iolland 290 

Baltimore, Md 3i7°o 

Barbadoes, W. I 3.780 

Batavia, Java 11,812 

Bermudas, W. 1 _. ;. 195 

Bordeaux, France 758 

Boston, M ass 3-, , *5 

Botany Bay, Australia 8,040 

Bombay, India 11,320 

Buenos Ayres, S. A 6,685 

Calcutta, India 12,160 

Canton, China. ......1^,650 

Cape Horn, S. A /, 50 

Cape of Good Hope, Africa.. 6,580 



MILES. 

Chagres, New Granada ._ 4.650 

Charleston, S. C ..... 4,315 

Columbia River 16,130 

Constantinople, Turkey 3260 

Copenhagen, Denmark 710 

Dublin, Ireland 590 

Gibraltar, Spain ',380 

Halifax, N. S. 2,7=;o 

Hamburg, Germany ... — 420 

Havana, Cuba.... . . 4.610 

Havre, France ... 275 

Kingston, Jamaica . ...... 4.560 

Lima, Peru .... 10,730 

Lisbon, Portugal .... 1,100 



Liverpool, England..... 650 

Madras, British India .. n.580 

Malta 4,212 

Manilla, Philipine Islands 12,425 

Monrovia, Africa 3-475 

Naples, Italy . 2,420 

New Orleans, La 5, 115 

New York, N.Y 3.375 

Panama, New Granada 4,700 

Pekin, China 15.100 

Pernambuco, Brazil .. 4,450 

Philadelphia, Pa 3* r 4° 

Quebec. Canada ... 3,010 

Rio Janeiro, Brazil 5,400 



MILES. 

Sandwich Islands, S. 1 15,100 

San Francisco, Cal 8,200 

St. Petersburg, Russia 1 -375 

Singapore, China J 2,475 

Smyrna. Asia Minor 3,120 

Stockholm, Sweden 1,120 

Tahiti, S. I 11,800 

Trieste, Austria 3,220 

Valparaiso, Chili.... 9,475 

Vera Cruz, Mexico 5»i4° 

Victoria, Austialia 12,575 

Washington, D. C 3. 775 



Standards of Time in the Principal Cities of the World, compared with 12:00 noon at Washington, D. C. 



Albany, N. Y., 12 13 p. m 
Amsterdam, Holl'd, 528 p. m 
Angra, India, 3 19 p. m 
Atchison, Kan., 1047 a. m 
Athens, Greece, 6 43 p. ra 
Atlanta, Ga. , 11 40 a. m 
Augusta, Ga., 11 40 a. m 
Augu'ta, Me., 12 29 p. m 
Baltimore, Md., 1202 p. m 
Bangor, Me., 12 33 p. m 
Bath. Me., 1229 p. m 
Berlin, Germany, 6 02 p. m 
Bombay, India, 1000 p. m 
Boston , Mass- , 12 24 p. m 
Brussels, Belgium, 5 25 p. m 
Buffalo, N. Y., 11 52 a. m 
Cape Town, Africa, 6 22 p. m 
Cairo, Eaypt. 7 13P. m. 
Calcutta, India, 11 01 p. m 
Cant n, China, 12 41 a. m 
Cambridge, Mass., 12 2g p. m 
Charleston, S. C, n 43 a. m 
Charlottet'n.P.E.I. 12 58 p. m 
Chicago, 111., 11 17 a. ra 



Cincinnati. , O., 11 30 a. m 
Cleveland. O., 11 41 a. m 
Constantinople, 7 04 p. m 
Columbia, S. C, n 44 a. m 
Columbus, O., n 36 a. m. 
Danville, Va., it 50 a. m 
Denver, Col., 10 08 a. m 
Des Moines, la., 10 53 a. m 
Detroit, Mich., 11 36a. m. 
Dubuque, la., 11 05 a. m 
Dublin. Ireland, 4 43 p. m 
Edinburg, Scotland, 4 55 p. m 
Frankfurt, Ky., n 29 a. m 
Galveston, Tex., 10 49 a. m 
Halifax, N. S., 12 54 p. m. 
Hamil'on, Ont., 11 49 a. m 
Hannibal, Mo., 11 07 a. m. 
Hartford, Ct., 12 17 p. m 
Houston, Tex., 1044 a.m. 
Indianapolis., Ind., 11 24 a.m 
Jacksonville, 111., 11 07 a. m 
Jefferson City, Mo., 10 59 a.m 
Kalama. Wash. T., 8 58 a m 
Kansas City, Mo., 10 49 a. m 



Key West, Fla., 11 41 a. m 
Knoxville, Tenn., 11 32 a. m 
Laramie, Wy. T., 10 12 a. m 
Leavenworth, Kan., 1049 a.m 
Lisbon, Portugal, 4 31 p. m 
Lincoln, Neb., 10 41 a. m 
Little Rock. Aik., 10 59 a. m 
London, England, 5 07 p. m 
Louisville. Ky. 11 26 a. ti 
Macon, Ga , 11 37 a. rr 
Melbourne, Aus., 2 48 a. m 
Memphis, Tenn., 11 08 a. m 
Meridian. Miss., 11 14 a.m 
Milwaukee, Wi«., n 16 a. m 
Minn-apolisMinn., 10 55 a.m 
Mobile, Ala., 11 16 a. m 
Montgomery, Ala.. 11 23 a.m 
Monoton, N. R , 12 48 p. m 
Montreal. Que., 12 14 p. m 
Moscow Russia, 7 38 p. m 
Nashville, Tenn., 11 21 a. m 
New Haven, Ct., 12 16 p. m 
New London, Ct., 12 20 p m 
New Orleans, La., 11 08 a. m 



New York, N. Y., 12 12 p. m 
Omaha, Neb., 10 44 a. m 
Ottawa, Ont., 12 05 p. m 
Paris, France, 5 17 p. m 
Paducah, Ky., 11 16 a. m 
Pensacola, Fla., 11 19 a. m 
Philadelphia, Pa., 12 07 p. m 
Pittsburgh, Pa , 11 48 a. m 
Port Hope, Ont., 1 1 54 a. m 
Port Huron. Mich.. 11 34 a.m 
Portland, Me., 12 27 p. m 
Portland, Oregon, 8 56 a. m 
Portsmouth, Va., 12 03 p. m 
Providence, R. I., 12 22 p. m 
Qu -bee. Que., 12 23 p. m 
Quincy, III , 11 o; a m 
Raleigh, N C, 11 50 a. m. 
Richmond, Va , 11 58 a. m 
Rio Janeiro, Brazil, 2 15 p. m 
Rome, Italy, 5 5S p. m 
Rome, Ga., 11 32 a. m 
St. John, N. B., 12 44 p. m 
St. John, N. F., 1 37 ). m. 
St. Joseph, Mo., 1050 a. m 



St. Louis, Mo., 11 07 a. m 
St. p aul, Minn., 1056 a. m 
Salt L. City, U. T. 940 a. m 
Santa Fe, N. Mex., 1004 a.m 
San Francisc, Cal., 8 58 a. m 
Sault St. Marie, M.,11 31 a.m 
Savannah, Ga., 11 44 a. m 
Selma, Ala., 11 20 a. m 
ShreveDort, La , 10 57 a. m 
Sioux City. , la., 10 42 a. m 
Terre Haute, Ind., 11 18 a. m 
Topeka, Kan., 10 45 a. m 
Toronto, Ont., 11 51 a. m. 
Trenton, N. J., 12 09 p. m 
Vicksburg, Mi*s., 11 05a. ra 
Vienna, Austr a, 6 14 p. m 
Vincennes, Ind . 11 17 a. m 
Virginia City, M. T.,9 40 a.m 
Wilmington, Del., 12 06 p. m 
Wilmington, N. C, 11 58 a.m 
Winona, Minn., 11 01 a. m 
Wheeling, W. Va., 11 45 a. m 
Yankton, D. T., 10 38 a. m 



73S 



PERPETUAL CALENDAR. 



For finding the day of the week on which any day of any month falls, (or the day of the 
month of any given day of the week) in any year before or after Christ, Old Style or New. 
Compiled by Joseph P. Bradley.— Copyright. 





Jan. 
Oct. 


April. 

July. 


Sept. 
Dec. 


June. 


Feb. 
Mar. 
Nov. 


Aug. 


May. 




Centuries.— Old Style 
or Julian. 


i 

8 
'» 

22 

29 


2 
9 
16 
23 
30 


3 
10 
'7 
24 
31 


4 
n 

iS 
25 


5 
12 

19 
26 


6 

13 

20 

27 


7 
14 
21 
2S 


Centuries.— New 

Style. 


b. i. 


A. D. 


A. D. 


7 


i 


8 


ij 


Sat. 


Sun. 


Mon. 


Tues. 


Wed. 


Thur. 


Fri. 




iS 22 


26 


6 


2 

3 


9 

IO 


16 

17 


Fri. 

Thur. 


Sat. 
Fri. 


Sun. 
Sat. 


Mon. 
Sun. 


Tues. 
Mon. 


Wed. 
Tues. 


Thur. 
Wed. 










5 




19 


2 3 


2 7 




4 
5 


ii 

12 


iS 
'9 


Wed. 
Tues. 


Thur. 
Wed. 


Fri. 

Thur. 


Sat. 
Fri. 


Sun. 
S»t. 


Mon. 
Sun. 


Tues. 
Mon. 










3 


16 


20 


24 


2S 


2 


6 


1.1 


20 


Mon. 


Tues. 


Wed. 


Thur. 


Fri. 


Sat. 


Sun. 


17 


21 


as 


29 


I 


7 




2! 


Sun. 


Mon. 


Tues. 


Wed. 


Thur. 


Fri. 


Sat. 






















I 


2 


3 


4 


4 


5 


6 


Explanation of the 






7 


8 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


Calendar. 






13 


13 


H 


■5 


16 


16 


17 


1. The days of the dif- 






iS 


■9 


20 


30 


21 


22 


2 .1 


ferent months as given 


Years of the 




24 


24 


25 


26 


27 


2S 


38 


above, fall, in any year, 


Century. 




29 


3° 


31 


3 2 


83 


33 


34 


on the week-day found 






3S 


36 


36 


37 


3S 


39 


40 


opposite the century {Old 


N. B. — Leap years 
being inserted twice, 




40 


41 


42 


43 


44 


44 


45 


or New Style) in which 




46 


47 


+S 


48 


49 


5° 


51 the year occurs, and over 


the first number is 




S' 


63 


53 


54 


55 


5* 


ee 


the year thereof. 


used when the given 




57 


ss 


59 


60 


60 


61 


62 


2. Find the year in 


date is in January, or 




03 


64 


64 


65 


66 


67 


68 


" Years of the century; " 


February ; the second, 




68 


69 


70 


71 


7 2 


72 


73 


follow up the lolumn to 


for the other months. 




So 


75 


76 


76 


11 


g 


79 


the day on the same hori- 






80 


Si 


S2 


84 


zontal line with the given 






°S 


86 


87 


ss 


88 


S9 


90 


centurv. Find this day 






9' 


92 


93 


93 


94 


95 


06 


under the given month. 




1 96 


97 





99 


100 


100 




The figures above it in 


























the same vertical line 



show the dates of that day during the given month, and the week-days in the same horizontal line 
to the right or left have their respective dates above them, thus forming the entire calendar for 
that month and year. 

Example i.-To find the day of the week for July 4th, 1SS1. Opposite Century 19, New Style, 
and over yearSi,is Saturday. Under July, Saturday falls in the vertical line under 2, and the 
second day to the right following, under 4, is Monday, July 4th. 

Example 2. — To find the day of the week on which Columbus discovered America, October 
12th, 1492, Old Style. Opposite Century 15, Old Style, and over 92 in black letter (it being leap 
year,) is Monday. Therefore, October' Sth was Monday; and the line of week days in which 
Monday falls under October (which is ihe sixth), with the days of the month above, constitute the 
entire calendar for October, 1492, Old Style, and the 12th, as seen, falls on Friday. 

Example 3.— To find the 1st Tuesday after the tst Monday in November (Election Day), 
1SS2. Find 82 in " Years of the Century;" follow up the column to the day on a line with the 
figure 19 of the "Centuries, New Style," this will be found to be Sunday. Under November, Sun- 
day is found in the vertical line under 5, of the calendar above, -Monday to the right of it under 6, 
and Tuesday under 7. So the Tuesday after the first Monday is the 7th. 



RATES OF MORTALITY. 

The Carlisle Tables, showing how many 
persons out of loooowili annually die, on the 
average, until all are deceased. Used by all Life 
Insurance Companies in their computations of 
risk, premiums, etc. 



Year 



Al liith 



'3 



■7 
iS 



23 
24 
25 
2rt 

27 
23 
29 
30 
3i 
32 
33 
34 
35 
36 

% 

39 

40 

4i 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 

47 
4S 
49 
5° 
Si 
S 2 



No, 
Alive 



I I 1,1. HI 
S,r,| 

7779 
7274 

f«MS 
6797 
6076 
"594 

6S36 
0493 

6460 
6431 
6400 
63' 8 
o335 
0300 
6261 
6219 
6176 
6131 
0090 
6047 
6005 
5*3 
5921 
5879 
SS36 
5793 
571 s 
5<«S 
5042 
SSSS 
55 2S 
5472 
5t'7 
5362 
5!°7 
5251 
5'94 
5 '3" 
5°7S 
5009 
4040 
4 S 9 
4798 
4727 
4*57 
45SS 
4521 
445S 
4397 
435S 
4270 



Deaths 



1539 
6S2 

5°S 
276 
201 
121 
82 
5S 
43 
33 
29 
3' 
32 
33 
35 
39 
42 
43 
43 
43 
43 
42 
42 
42 
42 
43 
4i 
45 
5° 
56 
57 
57 
56 
55 
55 
55 

■7 

58 
61 

66 
69 

7i 
7i 
7' 
70 

69 
67 
63 
61 

59 
62 
°5 



Year. 



53 

54 
55 
5° 

% 

59 
60 

rtl 
62 
6.1 
64 

"5 
66 
"7 
6S 
69 
70 
7' 
72 
73 
74 
75 
76 
77 
7S 
79 
So 
Si 
82 

S3 
S 4 
S5 
86 

! 
S9 
90 
91 
92 
93 
94 
95 
96 

% 
99 
100 
101 
102 
103 
104 



No. 
Alive 



4211 

4143 

4073 

4000 

3924 

3S|2 

3749 

3 ft 33 

3521 

3395 

3268 

3 '43 

30 1 S 

2894 

2771 

264S 

2525 

2401 

2277 

2 '43 

■997 

tS4l 

1675 

'5'5 

■359 

'213 

10S1 

953 

8?7 

725 

623 

529 

445 

367 

296 

232 

1S1 

142 

■OS 

75 

54 

40 

3° 

2 i 
IS 

14 

1 1 
9 

7 
5 
3 



Deaths. 

6S 
70 
73 
76 

S2 

93 
106 
122 
126 
127 
125 
125 
124 
■ 2 3 
'23 
123 
124 
124 
"34 
146 

'5« 

166 
100 
150 
146 
132 
12S 
116 
112 
102 

94 

S4 

75 

7' 

64 

5' 
39 
37 
3° 



TABLE OF EXPECTATION.* 



Showing the expectation, or mean duration of life, at every age, accort 


ing to the Carlisle and N 


orthampton Tables. 






Compara- 


Carlisle 


Northamp- 


Compara- 


Carlisle 


Northamp 

ton 
Experience. 


Compara- 


Carlisle 


Northamp- 
ton 
Experience. 


Compara- 


Carlisle 


Northamp 


tive Age. 


Experience. 


Experience. 


tive Age. 


Experience. 


tive Age. 


Experience. 


tive Age. 


Experience. 


Experience. 





3S.72 


25. iS 


21 


40 75 


32.90 


41 


26.97 


22.56 


61 


13-82 


12.75 


1 


44. 68 


32-74 


22 


40 04 


3259 


42 


26.34 


22.04 


62 


'3-3' 


12. 28 


2 


47-55 


37-79 


23 


39-3' 


3'-3S 


43 


2.5-7' 


21 54 


63 


12. Si 


11. 81 


3 


49. N2 


39-55 


24 


s* 


3I-36 


4\ 


25-09 


21 03 


64 


12.30 


1 1 -35 


4 


5076 


40. 5S 


25 


.30.85 


45 


24.46 

2J.S2 


20.52 


65 


11.79 


10.S8 


s 


5' -25 


40. S4 


26 


37-'4 


30.33 
29. S2 


46 


20. 02 


66 


11.27 


10.42 


6 


51-17 


41.07 


n 


36.41 


47 


23-"7 


'9-5' 


*l 


10.75 


9.96 


S 


50. So 


4'03 


2S 


35-69 


29.30 


48 


22.50 


19.00 


68 


10.23 


9-50 


5°-24 


40.79 


29 


35-O0 


28. 79 


49 


21. Si 


iS 49 


69 


9.70 


9-05 


9 


49-57 


40.36 


30 


34-34 
33-6S 


2S.27 


5° 


31. II 


17.99 


70 


9.1S 


S.60 


10 


4S.S2 


39.78 


3' 


27.76 


5> 


20.39 


'7-50 


7' 


8.65 


8.17 


11 


48.04 


39- '4 


32 


33-03 


27.24 


52 


19. 6S 


17.02 


72 


8.16 


7 74 


12 


47-27 


38. 49 


33 


32.36 


26.72 


53 


£3 


'6.54 


73 


7.72 


7-33 


'3 


46.51 


37-»3 


34 


31 .63 


26.20 


54 


16.06 


74 


7-33 


6.92 


14 


45-75 


37- '7 


35 


31.00 


25- 6S 


55 


%t 


'5-58 


75 


7.01 


6-54 
6.1S 


15 


45.00 


36.51 


30 


30-32 


25.10 


5° 


15.10 


76 


6.69 


16 


44-27 


35-85 


2 


29.64 


24.64 


57. 


16.21 


14-63 


77 


6.40 


5-8.3 


Is 


43-57 


35 20 


2S.96 


24. 12 


58 


15 55 


■3-63 


78 


6.12 


5-4S 


42. S9 


34 58 


39 


2S.2S 


23 60 


59 


14.92 


79 


S-So 


5" 


'9 


42.17 


33-99 


40 


27.61 


23.0S 


CO 


'4-34 


13.21 


So 


5-5' 


4-75 


20 


41.46 


33-43 





















♦ The Carlisle Tables given above have been adopted as the approved standards for ascertaining the present value of life estates, also as a 
basis for the verdict of a jury in suits to recover for injuries resulting in loss of life or limb, see the following named cases: Greer v. Mayor, etc., 1 
Abb. Pr. N. S. 206; Donaldson v. R. R. Co., iS Iowa, 2S0; McDonald v. Chicago & Notth Western R. R. Co., 26 Iowa, 124; Walters v. The C. R I. 
& P. R. R. Co., ^l Iowa, 71 ; and Simmonson v. The C. R. I. & P. R. R. Co., 49 Iowa, S7. 

The Northampton Tables have been admitted in the following named cases: Sauter v. New York Central R. R. Co., 66 N. Y., 50 ; Georgia 
R. R. Co., 7: Oaks, 52 Geoigia, 410. 

The Court may take judicial notice that the tables produced are approved standards: McIIenry v. Tokum, 27 111 , 160; Donaldson v. R. R. Co., 
iS Iowa, 2SC. 



METRIC AND STANDARD SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



739 




m 



JM./ 

m ™fi M S SHW04BD SYSTEmIf WEIGHTS MM « «RK 

MtflTH TABLES OF EQU5VALENTS * 



Hfl&S* 



Jim 




JHE Metric System is the whole 
assemblage of measures derived 
from a fundamental standard called 
Meter." 

The metric system of weights and 
measures originated in France about 
1790. In 1799 an international com- 
mission assembled at Paris on the 
invitation of the government to set- 
tle, from the results of the great Meridian 
Survey, the exact length of the "definitive 
meter." Representatives were present from 
France, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Swit- 
zerland, Spain, Savoy and the Roman Re- 
publics. A committee from the Assembly 
of Sciences had spent several years of labo- 
rious determinations, upon which were to 
be the standard units of the new metro- 
logical system. As the result of the inves- 
tigations of this international commission, a 
ten millionth part of the earth's quadrant 
was chosen, and called a meter. 

To determine the unit of weight a cube of pure water at 
its greatest density, each edge of which is one hundredth of 
a meter, was taken and called a gramme or grajn. The mul- 
tiples and subdivisions were made to correspond to the 
decimal scale, hence its great simplicity. 

Probably no influence had contributed, previous to the 
adoption of this system, more largely to embarrass trade 
among the different nations of the world, than the endless 
diversity of instrumentalities employed for the purpose of 
determining the quantities of exchangeable commodities. It 
is to this long- felt necessity for one common system of 
weights and measures throughout the world, that this sys- 
tem, after a lapse of but three-quarters of a century, has 
been adopted by nearly two-thirds of the inhabitants of the 
civilized and Christian world. In 1866 an act to authorize 
the metric system in the United States was passed by Con- 
gress. The utility of this system will commend itself even 
at a glance, and hence the importance of every person be- 
coming acquainted with it. 

All metric measures are uniformly multiplied and divided 
by ten, which cause? the system to be also called decimal 
system of weights and measures. 

The metric system comprises only five standard units, or 
six, including the units of moneys. The names, uses, and 
values of these units are : 



The Meter, which is the unit of length and the basis of 
all the other metric measures. 

The Are, which is the unit of land measure, and is the 
square of ten meters. 

The Liter, which is the unit of measure of capacity 
(both liquid and dry), and is the cube of a tenth part of a 
meter. 

The Stere, which is the unit of solid or cubic measure, 
and equal to one cubic meter. 

The Gram, which is the unit of measures of weights 
represented as previously stated by the weight in vacuum of 
one-hundredth part of the meter. 

The Franc, which is the unit of metric monev, repre- 
sented by a silver coin weighing five grains, and of which 
nine-tenths are fine metal. 

Each unit has its decimal multiples and sub-multiples, 
i.e., weights and measures ten times larger or ten times 
smaller than the principal unit. These multiples and sub- 
multiples are indicated by seven prefixes placed before the 
several fundamental units. The following are the prefixes: 

The multiples are taken from the Greek, the sub-multi- 
ples from the Latin. 



MULTIPLES. 

1. Deka, which means Ten. 

2. Hccto, " " Hundred. 

3. Kilo, " " Thousand. 
(. Myria* " " Ten'Thous'd. 



SUB-MULTIPLES. 
Deci, which means Tenth. 
Cenli, " " Hundredth. 

Milli, " " Thousandth. 



Thus with the meter we have 



The Meter, • - 

" Deckameter, or 
*' Hectometer, " 
" Kilometer, " 



100 
1000 



The Meter 
" Decimeter, 
" Centimeter, 
" Millimeter, 



0.1 

0.0 1 

O.COI 



Note — A similar series may be obtained with any other unit, such as 
the Gram, one Kilogram, one thousand grains; the Liter, one Hecto. 
liter, one hundred liters. The unit of money the Franc, admits no 
multiplying prefixes. Its divisions are termed Decime, Centime, Mill- 
ime, instead of Decifranc, Centilranc, Millifranc, although Decime and 
Millime are seldom used. 

The formation of the tables can be seen at a glance by 
the following: 

relative 

value. length. surface. capacity. solidity. weight. 

10,000 Kyriameter*. 

1,000 Milometer. Kilare.* Kiloliter. Kilostere.* Kilogram. 

100 Hectometer. Hectare. Hectoliter.Hectostere.*Hectogram. 

10 Decameter. Decare.* Dekaliter. Decastere. Decagram. 

UNIT. METER. ARE. LITER. STERRE. GRAM. 

.1 Decimeter. Deciare. Deciliter. Decistere. Decigram. 

.01 Centimeter. Centiare. Centiliter. Centistere.* Centigram. 

.001 Millimeter. Milliare.* Milliliter. Millistere.* Milligram. 

* Are not in use. 



740 



METRIC AND STANDARD SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



NAMES. 


PRONUNCIATION. 


ABR. 


Millimeter 


Mill'-e-mee'-ter 


mm. 


Centimeter 


Sent'-e-mee'-ter 


cm. 


Decimeter 


Des -e-mee'-ter 


dm. 


Meier 


Mee'-ter 


m. 


Decameter 


Dek'-a-mee'-ter 


dkm. 


Hectometer 


Hec'-to-mee'-ter 


hm. 


Kilometer 


Kill -o-mee'-ter 


km 


Mvriame er 


Mir'-e-a-mee'-ter 

Mill ' -e-iire 


mym. 


Milliare 


ma. 


Centiare 


Sent '-e-are 


at. 


Deciare 


Des ' -e-are 


da. 


/Ire* 


Are 


a. 


Decare 


Dek'-are 


dka. 


I Iectare 


Hec'-tare 


ha. 


Kilare 


Kill ' -are 


ka. 


Mvriare 


Mir '-e-are 
Mill'-e-steer 


mya. 


Millislere 


ms. 


Centistere 


Sent'-e-steer 


cs. 


Decistere 


Des'-e-steer 


ds. 


Slere 


Steer 


s. 


Decastere 


Dek'-a-steer 


dks. 


Hectostere 


Hec'-to-steer 


lis. 


Kilostere 


Kill'-o-steer 


is. 


Mvriastei t 


Mir'-e-a-steer 
Mill' e-li'-ter 


n vs. 


Milliliter 


mi. 


Centiliter 


Sent' -e-li'-ter 


cl. 


Deciliter 


Des '-e-li'-ter 


dl. 


Liter 


Li'-ter 


1. 


Decaliter 


Dek'-a-li'-ter 


dkl. 


Hectoliter 


Hec'-to-li'-ter 


hi. 


Kiloliter 


Kill'-o-li'-ter 


kl. 


Mvrialiter 


Mir'-e-a-li'-ter 
Mill-e-gram 


myl. 


Milligram 


mg. 


Centigram 


Sent'-e-gram 


c g- 


Decigram 


Des'-e-gram 


dg. 


Gram 


Gram 


g- 


Decagram 


Dek'-a-gram 


dkg. 


Hectogram 


Hec'-to-gram 


'•g- 


Kilogram 


Kill' -o gram 


*g 


Mvriagram 


Mir'-ea-gram 


myg. 


Quintal 


Quin'-tal 


q- 


Tonneau 


Tun '-no 


T. 



* The a in item and myria, and the o in hecto and kilo are dropped 
when prefixed to A re. 

Tables of Standard English Measures and Weights, and the 
Metric System. 

LONG MEASURE. 



3 tines or 3 barleycorns make 1 

inch. 
3 feet make i yard. 


55£ yards make 1 rod or pole. 
40 rods make 1 furlong. 
S furlongs 1 mile. 


Cloth i 


EASURE.* 


2 sixteenths = 1 eighth. 
2 eighths = 1 quarter. 


2 quarters = 1 half. 
4 quarters =• 1 yard. 


Other ^ 


Ieasures. 


3 inches make 1 palm. 

4 *' " i hand. 
6 *' "1 span. 


1 knot or geographical mile is *- 

of a degree. 
3 knots make 1 marine league. 

" / 

69^ statute miles > 1 degTee. 
991- 12 miles \ 
j- part of an inch, a hair's breadth. 
A ships cable is a chain usually 

about 120 fathoms or 720 feet 

long. 


21.S " " 1 Bible cubit 
2J4 feet make 1 military pace. 
3 *' " 1 common pace. 
3.2S " '■ 1 meter. 
6 " " 1 fathom. 
SSo fathoms make 1 mile. 



* The old system of measuring cloth by nails and ells is not now used 
m this country. 

One minim equals one drop. 



fur. 
— 8 — 



Scale ok Comparison. 

rod. yd. 

320 = 1760 = 



— 40 - 



220 



ft. 

660 ~ 
3 ~ 



63360 
7020 

36 



Table of Equivalents as between Metric and Standard Meas- 
ures. 



1 in. = 25^ m. m. (nearly). 
1 ft. =305 " " «« 
1 yd. = 914 " " 
1 rd. = 5,029 " ** 



1 mi. = 1609.35 m * 
1 cm. = .3937 = $£ in. (nearly). 
1 m. = 39.37 in. =- 1.093 yd- 
1 km. = .62137 nii.= 19S rds. 13 ft* 
10 in. 



1 sq. in. 
1 sq. ft. 
1 sq. yd. 
1 acre 



1 cu. in 

1 cu. ft 

1 cu. vd. 
1 cord 
1 fluid oz. 
i gal. 
1 bus. 



6.5 sq. cm. 
9.3 sq. dm. 
.§35 sq. m. 
40.47 a. 



16.3S7 cu. centm. 
( 2S.34 liters. 
j .02S3 steres. 
.76(131 steres. 
3.6281 steres. 
.02958 liters. 
3.7S6 liters. 
35.24 liters. 



Square Measure. 

1 sq. cm. 
1 sq. m. 

1 are. 

1 ha. 

Cubic Solid Measure. 

1 liter 

1 hecto- 
liter 

1 kiloli- 
ter 

1 cu. me- 
ter 

1 stere 



<=• .155 sq. in. 
t 1550 sq- in- 
I 10.76 sq. ft. 

= 1 19.0 sq. yd. 

«=- 2-f7* acres. 



H 



1.0567 qt. liq. meas. 
-9rS qt. dry meas. 
\ 2.S37 bu. dry meas. 
"} 26.417 gal. liq. meas. 

135.3 16 cu. ft. 
i-3oSca. vd. 
264.17 gal hq. 
meas. 
•■2759 coi.i- 



1 oz. troy 
I lb. troy 
1 lb. apoth. 
1 oz. avoir. 
1 lb. avoir. 



= 31. 1 grams. 

= 38-35 " 
= 45V6 " 

Angular Measure- 



Weight. 

! ton avoir. 

1 gram. 

1 kilogram 
1 tonneau 



1 r. a. = 



100 grades. 

i* grades. 

1.S5 minutes (Ven.). 

3.0S seconds ( 'cen.), 

Dkv Measure. 



1 cir. 
1 grade 

1 ' c~n. 
i" cen. 



= 907.2 kilos. 

( 15.432 gr. troy. 
"™ I -5643 dr. avoir. 
.= 2.2046 Jb. avoir 
= 2204.6 lb. avoir. 



400 grades. 

9deg. 

5-4*. 



- 3-34' 



2 pints (pt.) 
8 quarts 
4 pecks 
36 bu 



36 bushels 



cald. 



1 quart, 
1 peck, 
1 bushel, 
1 chaldron, 

Scale of Comparison. 

bu. pks. 

36 = 144 ~ 



cald- 



qts. 
1152 

S 



pts 

1 



I •=• 



Note. — The standard bushel is the Winchester, which contains 
2150.42 cubic inches,or 77.627 lbs. avoirdupois of distilled water 
maximum density. 

Its dimensions are iSj^ inches diameter inside, 19^ inches outside, in 1 
S inches deep. 

Liquid ok Winb Measurf. 



4 gills make 1 pint, 
2 pints " 1 quart, 
4 quarts " 1 gallon, 



pt. 

gal. 



63 gallons 

Surveyors* Measure. 

25 links make 1 rod. 

4 rods " 1 chain. 
Soch. " 1 mile. 



Surveyors' Squ\re Measure. 

625 sq. links make 1 sq. rod, 

16 sq. rods " 1 sq. chain, 

10 sq. ch. " 1 acre, 

640 A. " 1 sq. mile, 

36 sq. miles (six mile sq.) make 1 township, 



Uons make 1 barrel, bbl. 
1 ,l 1 hogshead, hh. 



sq rd. 

sq. ch. 

A. 

sq. mi. 

Tp. 



Square Measure. 



144 sq. in. make 1 square foot. 
9 sq. ft. " 1 square yard. 
3oJa sq. yds. " 1 square rod. 



40 sq. rds. make 1 rood, or qr. acre. 
4 R. " 1 acre. 

640 A. " 1 sq. mile or sec- 

tion. 



S\<r 



METRIC AND STANDARD SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



741 



Scale of Comparison. 



R. 

- 4 




rds. 
160 — 


sq. vds. 
4S40 = 


sq. ft. 


1 


B 


40 — 


1210 = 


10S90 = 






1 = 


3<*i = 


272K - 
9 - 



sq. in. 

6273040 

156S160 

39204 

1296 

■44 



Cubic or Solid Measure. 



172S cu. in. 
27 cu. ft. 

40 cu. ft. of round timber or ( 
50 cu. ft. of hewn timber J 
Scu. ft. 
16 cd. ft. or I 
12S cu. ft. f 

24K cu. ft 



make 1 cubic foot. 
" 1 cubic yard. 

" 1 ton or load. 

" 1 cord foot. 

" 1 cord of wood. 

of 



! perch 
stone, 
masonry. 



or 



24 grains (gr.) 
20 pwt. 
12 oz. 
3J .grains 



lb. 
1 



Weights. 

Troy Weights. 

make 1 pennyweight, 
" 1 ounce, 
" 1 pound, 
" 1 carat (diamond wt.), 

Scale of Comparison. 

oz. dwt. 

= 240 : 



pwt. 
oz. 
lb. 



12 

1 



20 



ik. 



20 grains (gr.) 
3 scruples 
8 drams 

12 ounces 



Apothecaries' Weight. 

make 1 scruple, 

" 1 dram, 

" i ounce, 

11 1 pound, 

Scale of Comparison. 



gr- 
5760 
480 
H 
3* 



sc. or 3 
dr. or 3 
oz. or J 
lb. or ft. 



ft. 
1 



:q6 lbs. 

200 " 

2S0 " 

32 " 

4 5 " 
56 " 
i 4 « 

46 " 
44 
60 " 



oz. 

12 
1 



dr. 

= 96 = 

= 8 = 

1 = 



sc. 

2S8 

24 

3 



gr- 

57 6 ° 

480 

60 



1 = 



Table of Miscellaneous Weight. 

make 1 barrel of flour. 

" 1 " beef, pork or fish. 

" 1 " salt at N. Y. Salt Works. 

" 1 bushel of oats. 

" 1 " barley. 

" I " corn, rye or flax seed. 

" 1 " blue-grass-seed. 

" 1 " castor- beans. 

" 1 " hemp-seed. 

„ „ t wheat, beans, clover- 

} seed, peas or potatoes. 

" 1 " timcthy-seed. 

" I " onions. 

" 1 " apples or peaches dried. 

" I " salt. 



14 lbs. to the stone, 
140 lbs. — a pack load 



45 " " 1 ' 

57 " " 1 ' 

28 " " 1 « 

50 " " 1 ' 

A sack of wool is 22 stone, that is 
308 lbs. 

A fuck of wool is 1 7 stone 2 lbs = 
for a horse. 

A truss of hay is, new, 60 lbs.; old, 50 lbs.; straw, 40 lbs. 
A load of hay is 36 trusses. A bale of hay is 300 lbs. 

Aftrkin of butter was formerly 56 lbs., but is now generallv 
put up in 50 or 100 lb. firkins. 

A bale of cotton is 400 lbs., but it is put up in different 
States varying from 2S0 to 720 lbs. Sea Island cotton is 
put up in 6acks of 300 lbs. 



Avoirdupois Weight. 



16 drams (dr.) 
16 oz. 
25 lb. 
4qr. 
20 cwt. 
100 lb. 



1 ounce, 

1 pound, 

1 quarter, 

1 hundredweight, 

1 ton, 

1 cental, 



oz. 
lb. 
qr. 
cwt 
T. 



T. 
1 



cwt. 
20 = 
I = 



Scale of Comparison. 
lb. oz. 



qr. 
80 



2000 
100 

25 



dr. 
51200c 
25600 
6400 

16 



4 = 100 — 4000 

1 = 25 = 400 

6 = 16 

1 

United States money is a decimal cuirency. 
Table. 

10 mills (m.) 1 cent, ct. 

10 cents 1 dime, d. 100 mills. 

10 dimes i dollar, $ 1000 " ioo cents. 

10 dollars i eagle, E. ioooo " iooo " ioo dimes. 

1 eagle (gold) weighs 25S troy grains. 

1 dollar (silver) " 4I--5 " 

1 cent (copper) " 168 " 
23.2 grains o{ pure gold = $i.oo. 
Note. — The gold coins are the double-eagle, eagle, Jiatf- 
eagle, quarter-eagle, three-dollar piece and dollar. 

Table of Comparison of the Measures of Capacity. 

1 gallon or 4 qt. wine measure contains 231 cubic inches. 
y 2 pk. or 4 qt. dry measure " 26S£ " 

1 gallon or 4 qt. beer measure " 282 " 

1 bushel dry measure " 2150^ " 

In England the following weights and measures are 
sometimes used: 



WEIGHT. 

pounds = 1 stone, butchers' 



clove. 

stone common 



meat. 
7 pounds -- 
2 cloves 

articles. 
2 stone = 1 tod of wool. 
6% tods = 1 wey " 

2 weys = 1 sack " 
12 sacks = 1 last " 

240 pounds = 1 pack " 



CLOTH MEASURE. 



2 J4 inches 
4 nails 

4 quarter. 

3 quarter 

5 rt - 



= 1 nail. 
= 1 quarter. 

1 yard. 

1 Flemish ell. 

1 English ell. 

i French ell. 

1 Scotch ell. 



DRV MEASfRE. 



2 quarts 

2 bushels 

2 strikes 

2 cooms 

5 quarters 

3 bushels 
36 bushels 



=-- 1 pottle. 
=- 1 strike. 
= 1 coom. 
= 1 quarter. 
= 1 load. 
■= 1 sack. 
= 1 chaldron. 



WINE MEASURE. 

1^ U. S. gal. = 1 runlet. 
25 Eng. gal- or I 
42 U. S. Gal. 
2 tierces = 1 puncheon. 
52^Eng. gal. or I 
S3 U. S. gal. 

hogsheads = 1 pipe, 
ipes — 1 tun. 

gal. = 1 firkin of beer. 
4 firkins = i barrel " 



S = i tierce. 

- 1 puncheon. 
■ 1 
>= 1 hogshead. 



2 pipe 
7J-2 Eng 



Table of Comparison of Weights, &c. 



1 L r .S. pound Trov=57oogrs. Troy 
1 Eng.poundTroy=v7'Jo " " 
1 pound Apoth. =-57 >o " " 
1 U. S. pound Av„=7ooo " " 
1 Eng. pound Av. =7000 " " 
144 pounds Av. = 175 lb. Troy. 
iFrenchgram =15.433 grs. " 
1 U. S. yard =30 inches. 



1 English yard=36 inches. 
1 French meter=39.36S-(-inches. 
1 U. £>. bushel =2i5o.42-f-cu. in. 
1 Eng. " =22iS.io-}- " 
i U. S. gallon =231 " 

1 Eng. " •' =277.26+ 
1 French liter =61.5334- " 
1 French are =1 19.664 sq. yds. 



French, English and United States Money 
Reduced into United States, English and French monev. 



^rancs. 




D 


Pounds Sterlin 


g-. Shillings. 


Pence. 


1 


= 


0.1930 


= 


■ 


= 0.7936 


= 9- 5-*3 


5 0, 


= 


0.964S 


= 


0. 19S40 


= 3.96S 


= 




= 


1 . 


= 


0.2056 


= 4-" 


= 49- 


25.913 


= 


5-^ 


= 


1.02S0 


= 20.56 


- -47 


_*; 2t> 


= 


4.S63 


=. 


1. 


= 20 . 00 


= 240. 


26.00 


= 


24-315 


= 


5- 


= 100.00 


= 1200. 



